Chapter 24 The Age of Nationalism

What was the Fundamental Laws?

A constitution that gave the tsar powers, the Duma was indirectly elected by male suffrage, and a appointive upper house could debate and pass laws, but the tsar had absolute veto. The tsar appointed ministers. Not only was the middle-class upset, but the tsar's ministers were hard to cooperate with, so the Duma was dismissed. This new electoral laws allowed vote by the propertied classes. As a result, his minister tried to break collective ownership of land and encourage enterprising peasants.

What were some reasons workers were less inclined to follow radical programs?

1. As workers gained franchise, they focused on elections. and workers gained benefits. 2. Workers were not immune to education and indoctrination of military service. 3. Workers were not a unified social group. 4. Workers' standard of living rose gradually but substantially. For example, in Britain, workers could buy twice as much with their wages. Life in urban areas improved. Workers demanded gains but were less likely to take to barricades in pursuit of them.

What were the peace terms in the Franco-Prussian War? What were the effects of the war?

1. France had to pay 5 billion francs 2. Cede the province of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany Effects: It released nationalism and conservatism with support of the working class within Germany with Bismarck's genius, the Prussian army, and king and people in a state. Prussia became the most powerful state within Europe

Explain the reichstag.

The popularly elected lower house of government of the new German Empire after 1871. Bismarck tried to maintain this and relied on the National Liberals.

What was the October Manifesto?

Due to a big strike in October 1905, it granted civil rights and promised a parliament or Duma with real legislative power.

Name the changes that Tsar Alexander II brought to Russia.

1. Freeing the serfs, but the Tsar left peasants with highly priced land causing each family in a peasant village to pay for the land. Peasants also left due to lack of agriculture. 2. Zemstvo, a local government. Members were elected by a three-class system of towns, peasant villages, and noble landowners. It remained subordinate to the bureaucracy and nobility. 3. Legal system which established independent courts and equality before the law. Education and policies were also liberalized. 4. The government gave subsidies to private railway companies. It allowed for exportation of grain and money for further economic development. 5. Seizing of new territory inspiring nationalism. 6. Spread of Marxian thought and the transformation of the Russian revolution. This ended with the assassination of Alexander II, and the coming of Alexander III.

Why did Louis Napoleon Bonaparte get elected?

1. He had a great name transformed to a demigod 2. The people of France wanted a tough ruler to provide protection due to Marxist ideas of socialism 3. He had a program for France 4. He believed that the government should represent the people and that it should try to help them economically 5. His plan for a strong ruler that would be linked to each citizen by direct democracy

What were some of the reforms that Bismarck pushed through the Reichstag?

1. He urged the Reichstag to take action and enact state-supported social measures creating state socialism. 2. Social security laws to help wage earners. It protected workers from uncertainties of the urban world. 3. National sickness and accident insurance; old pensions and retirement benefits

What were some of the threats to the Ottoman Empire?

1. It was falling behind in every aspect technologically 2. The danger of European countries to divide it's territories 3. Ottomans were forced to grant Serbia local autonomy 4. The Greeks won their independence 5. French armies began their conquest on Algeria 6. The Ottoman Empire was losing territory 7. The rise of Muhammad Ali, the governor in Egypt in which his French-force occupied Syria and Iraq ready to kill sultan Mahmud II.

How did France form national unity and achieve stability?

1. Monarchists in the republican National Assembly could not agree on who should be king. The Bourbons didn't want to rule again. Adolphe Thier was also destroying the Commune and showed that the Third Republic was moderate and conservative. 2. Skill and determination of the moderate republican leaders. León Gambetta was one of them. The upper and lower houses were republicans. 3. Moderate republicans tried to preserve their creation by winning the hearts and minds of the next generation. Trade unions were legalized. Laws were established for education for everyone. France expanded tax-supported schools. Elementary education became secular republican education.

What were the three approaches to unifying Italy?

1. The radical program of Giuseppe Mazzini who wanted a centralized democratic republic based upon male suffrage and the will of the people 2. Vincenzo Gioberti who called for a federation of existing states under the presidency of a progressive pope 3. The program of those who looked for leadership to the autocratic kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont

What were some of the disadvantages of the Tanzimat?

1. The reforms failed to spread nationalism among Christians in the Balkans. 2. The efforts weren't enough for imperialism which secured a strangehold on the Ottoman economy. 3. Equality before the law and religious communities actually increased religious disputes. 4. It split Muslims into secularists and religious conservatives. Conservatives detested the religious reforms supporting Sultan Abdülhamid who abandoned liberalism.

What was People's Budget?

A bill proposed after the Liberal Party came to power in England designed to increase spending on social welfare services, but was initially vetoed in the House of Lords. The Lords gave in when the king threatened to create new peers to pass the bill. As a result, social welfare in Britain was created.

What did the Liberals of the House of Lords propose?

A compromise home-rule bill that betrayed promises made to nationalists. The original home-rule bill was passed.

What was Bloody Sunday?

A massacre of peaceful protesters at the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg in which troops opened fire. It triggered tsar overturn into a conservative constitutional monarchy. As a result of this, many revolts swept the nation.

What was the Tanzimat?

A set of regulations and orders to the Ottoman Empire. The high point came when Sultan Abdul Mejid's Imperial Rescript of 1857 which called for equality before the law, a modernized administration and military, and religious freedom for Muslims, Christians, and Jews. Free importation of foreign goods and merchants were allowed to operate throughout the empire.

Explain the Dreyfus affair.

Alfred Dreyfus was accused of treason. His family enlisted Émile Zola. It split France. One side was the army which had evidence against Dreyfus. Another side was the civil libertarians mostly radical republicans. It revived republican feeling against the church. As a result, the government severed all ties between the state and Catholic Church. Salaries of priests were paid by local communities. Catholic schools were put on their own.

Explain revisionism. Who was Eduard Bernstein?

An effort by moderate socialists to update Marxian doctrines to reflect the realities of the time. Bernstein argued in Evolutionary Socialism that Marx's predictions were wrong. He said socialists should reform their doctrines and tactics, combine with forces to gain legislation, unions, and further economic development for workers. These views were viewed as heresy by Germany and the Second International.

Explain Otto von Bismarck's early influence in the Prussian government.

As a high ranking official, he declared that the government without the consent of parliament. He made the government collect taxes, reorganized the army, while voters sent liberals to parliament. Bismarck also wanted complete Prussian control, but he had to expel Austria from German affairs. As a result, he neutralized Russia and France, allowing him to win.

What was the conflict between Austria and Prussia in the mid-nineteenth century?

Austria had not been included in the German customs union or Zollverein, which stimulated trade and increased the revenue of states. Instead Austria, had a strong economy. Prussia had lead the Zollverein and had a wealthy liberal middle class that wanted a parliament with ultimate power and the army responsible for elected representatives. But, William I tried to raise taxes and increase army size, which was denied. As a result, Bismarck was called upon.

What did the different socialist parties talk of?

Austria-Hungary - More radical Germany - talked revolution and practiced revisionism France - revolutions and tried to practice it England - gradual reform Spain and Italy - weak This shows that socialism was nationalized explaining why leader and workers supported their governments during war.

Explain Otto von Bismarck's policies in the North German Confederation.

Bismarck's new constitution gave each state a local government, but the king of Prussia, became president and Bismarck became chancellor. In addition, William I and Bismarck controlled the army and foreign affairs. With a lower class elected by male suffrage, Bismarck opened doors to participation for the people. The power rested in Prussia and its king and army. He also asked parliament to pass an indemnity bill to approve all government's spending. The middle class accepted.

How did socialists expand in Germany?

Democratic Socialists took up most of the Reichstag. It heightened fears of social upheaval. They became less radical. It allowed for more greater military spending and imperialist expansion.

What did Victor Emmanuel do as monarch of Sardinia?

Emmanuel kept the constitution of his father with civil liberties and parliamentary government, with vote based on income. It seemed to be the state that could take on Austria in Northern Italy.

What did Bismarck do to limit socialism?

Fearing it will lead to revolution, Bismarck tried to pass a law that controlled socialist meetings and publications and outlawed the Social Democratic Party.

Explain the Crimean War.

From 1853 to 1856, the dispute over who should protect Christian shrines in the Ottoman Empire brought crisis. The weakness of Russia was it's inability to transport through rivers to give supplies to armies. The Russians lost by a coalition of France, Great Britain, Sardinia, and the Ottomans, showing Russia's lack of industry. It also increased peasant revolts.

Explain Giuseppe Garibaldi's role in Italian unification.

Garibaldi, supported by Cavour, planed to free the Two Sicily's. His Red Shirts were able to win, gain volunteers, and take Palermo. Headed toward Rome, Cavour sent forces to the Papal states realizing invasion of Rome would cause war with France. As a result, he called for a plebiscite resulting in the people South to join Sardinia. Under Emanuel as monarch, Italy was unified with classes divided and cultural differences.

Where did socialist partied grow?

Germany - The German Social Democratic Party Russia and Switzerland - Russian Social Democratic Party French Section of the Workers International Belgium Austria-Hungary

What were some less positive changes in voting and government structure in the early-nineteenth century?

Governments could manipulate national feeling to create a sense of unity and to divert attention away from class conflicts. Leaders found that workers who voted socialists would cause crisis or cheer. Governments used militaristic policies to manage domestic conflicts. Leaders also tried to create enemies like the Jews.

What were some of the beliefs of Bismarck?

He believed that the old order he defended should make peace on its own terms. He realized that nationalism wasn't hostile to the conservative government but the middle class could ask for national unity.

Who was William Gladstone?

He introduced bills to give Ireland self-government. It failed to pass but they eventually received home-rule in 1913.

Who was Jean Jaurès?

He repudiated revisionist doctrines in order to establish a unified socialist party in France.

Who was Karl Lueger?

His Christian socialists won electoral victories causing Theodor Herzl to turn to the creation of a Jewish state also known as Zionism. Lueger appealed to the lower middle class and Hitler with his anti-Semitic beliefs.

Explain the conflict over Manchuria.

In 1903, Russia wanted a sphere of influence in Manchuria and was watching Japan. The Japanese launched a surprise attack, refusing to abide to Russia's imperialistic protests. Japan won.

Who was Pius IX?

In his 1864 Syllabus of Errors, he denounced rationalism, socialism, separation of church and state, and religious liberty. The papacy was against national unification and modern trends.

Explain Sergi Witte's influence to the industrialization of Russia.

Inspired by Friedrich List, Witte believed that the harsh reality of industrial backwardness was threatening Russia's power and greatness. The government built state-owned railroads, a protective tariff, and put the country on gold standard to strengthen finances. His greatest innovation was to use Westerners to catch up with the west by encouraging them to build factories. As a result, the steel and coal industry assimilated too.

Who was Welshman David Lloyd George?

Inspired by him, the Liberal Party raised taxes on the rich. The income payed for national health insurance, unemployment benefits, old-age pensions, etc.

What were the two peoples Ireland was composed of?

Irish Catholic, who wanted home rule Irish Protestants of Ulsterites didn't want home rule. The Protestants refused to merge themselves with the Catholics and created an army.

What did the new constitution of the German Empire do for the Jews?

It emancipated them by allowing marriage, a job, residence, property ownership, exclusion from government employment and discrimination. As a result, Jews moved to business and the arts, journalism, medicine, law, etc It improved the economic situation in Europe.

What did the growth of labor unions do?

It reinforced the trend of modernization. Britain gave workers the right to unions. New unions concentrated on winning better wages and hours through collective bargaining and compromise. German unions were harassed until anti socialist laws were repealed. When they were repealed membership went to 3 million. These unions focused on wages, hours, working conditions rather than dissemination of socialist doctrine. Eventually, employers gave unions better benefits through hardcore collective bargaining.

What did Irish developments show?

It showed national feeling. It was proof that the government could not elicit greater royalty unless they could capture and control that element of current national feeling. In the same way, Sweden was powerless to stop the growth of the Norwegian movement which led to Norway breaking away.

What was Austria forced to do as a result of a defeat by Prussia? What was different about the two empires?

It was forced to establish a dual-monarchy in which it was joined by a shared monarch and common ministries for finance, defense, and foreign affairs. This is known as Austria-Hungary. In Austria, Germans were 1/3 of the population. Since the parliament was divided, ministries could not obtain a majority and ruled by decree. Conservatives and socialists to defuse nationals antagonisms was unsuccessful. Their language and education was at a local level. In Hungary, the Magyar nobility restored the constitution of 1848 and used it to dominate Magyar peasantry and minority populations. Only the wealthy had the right to vote. Educatio was resented. Many dreamed to break or be independent from Austria. As illustrated nationalism destroyed this empire.

What was Britain's image in the late nineteenth century?

It was seen as peaceful with a 2 party parliament guided the country from classical liberalism. After given the vote to the middle class, leaders tried to encourage further franchise. The Second Reform Bill by Benjamin Disraeli gave more people the vote. It wasn't until after 1884 did everyone gain the vote. The government was also going towards democracy. The House of Lords ruled against labor unions and vetoed many bills passed by Commons.

Explain the Franco-Prussian War.

Knowing that the Southern states would unite with the Northern German Confederation, Bismarck declared war on France who allied with the Rhine. German forces defeated France in 1870 and captured Louis Napoleon. But, France continued to fight with their newer republic. After surrendering, southern Germany united with norther Germany and placed William I emperor of Germany with Prussia as the ultimate power.

How was Italy reorganized in 1815?

Lombardy and Venetia were taken by Austria Sardinia and Piedmont were under the Tuscany monarch Central Italy were the Papal States Naples and Sicily were ruled by the Bourbons

How did Marz play a role in finding the First International of socialists?

Marx urged that the proletarians of all nations to unite. The International Working Men's Association was used to spread scientific doctrines of socialist revolution. He also embraced the radical patriotism of the Paris Commune and its conflict with the French National Assembly causing supporters to be frightened. The First International collapsed. But, the Second International formed in 1889. Every three years it would meet to interpret Marx. May Day was an annual labor strike.

How did voting change in the early-nineteenth century?

Mass populations were allowed to vote because of universal male suffrage. As a result, people were more loyal to their governments and ordinary men could now influence the government. In 1914, Norway gave the vote to most women. Other women, such as Emmeline Pankhurst were militant. After WWI, there efforts gained interest. The multiparty system meant parliamentary majorities were built on coalitions of different parties.

Explain modernization.

Modernization is the changes that enable a country to compete effectively with the leading countries at a given time. This fits with the Crimean War.

Describe Napoleon III's government.

Napoleon III encouraged investment banks and railroad construction. He also called for rebuilding Paris. As a result, wages increased with inflation and unemployment declined. He allowed urban workers the right to form unions and strike. The Assembly was restricted and he picked his ministers with elections every six years. Mayors were used for local issues and notable people were elected to the regime.

Explain the conflict between Louis Napoleon and the National Assembly.

Napoleon had to share power with the National Assembly. Under the Assembly, he allowed the church to increase it's role in education and took away voting rights from the poor. Napoleon wanted to the Assembly to vote funds to pay his debts and also wanted another term. But, the Assembly refused, so Napoleon dismissed it with and eventually named himself emperor, Napoleon III, restoring male suffrage with most of the vote.

How did Napoleon III's system gradually disintegrate?

Napoleon wanted to reorganize Europe with a sense of nationalism and gain territory. Italy revolutions and Prussian power led to criticism from the middle-class, who wanted a less authoritarian rule. As a result, he gave the Assembly and opposition candidates more power and freedom. Later, his new constitution which combined a parliament and emperor as chief of state.

Who were the Young Turks?

Patriots who seized power in the revolution of 1908 and forced the sultan to implement reforms. They failed, but they helped with the modern Turkey after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

How were Russian Jews treated?

Russian Jews were denounced as foreign exploiters who corrupted national traditions. The police allowed peasants to destroy Jewish property. As a result, Jews looked to emancipation and zionism in Palestine.

Explain the Austro-Prussian War of 1866?

The Prussian army defeated Austria after seven weeks at the Battle of Sadowa in Bohemia. Bismarck offered Austria no reparations and no loss of territory. But, Austria had to withdraw from Germany. In the end, Prussia was able to dominate the North German Confederation.

Explain the governments of the Russians and Ottoman Turks.

The Russians and Turks were opposed to representative government and national self-determination, and they concentrated on absolutist rule. Russia was an agrarian society with very little industry.

Explain the complaints of each class in Russia.

The professional class wanted a representative government. Urban factory workers were, like usual, organized in radical illegal labor movements. Peasants gained little and were suffering, though nationalism emerged among them. The wanted self-rule.

What brought back anti-Semitism in Europe mostly Germany?

The stock market crash of 1873. This anti-Semitism was against liberalism and was rather moderate. It opposed Jewish achievement and financial control. It claimed that the Jewish race posed a threat to the people. Conservatives, nationalists, and general people felt threatened by competition from Jews.

Explain Kulturkampf.

The struggle for civilization was the attack on the Catholic Church resulting from Pope Pius IX's declaration of papal infallibility. This asked German Catholics to put loyalty to their church rather than their nation. Most Catholics voted for the Center Party so it had limited success. As a result, Bismarck put high tariffs on grain winning the support of the Catholic Church. It led to the belief that new tariffs led to international wars.

What was the conflict of Schleswig-Holstein?

The two provinces belonged to Denmark but were members of the German Confederation. As a result, Prussia joined Austria against the Danish king.

What did William II try to do?

William II opposed Bismarck's attempt to renew the Social Democratic Party. He forced Bismarck to resign. As a result, foreign policy changed in Germany, but the government passed new laws to aid workers and legalize socialism.

Explain Count Camillo Benso di Cavour's role in Italy, more specifically, Sardinia.

With limited goals, he wanted to unite the northern states and central Italy. He consolidated Sardinia with his infrastructure, civil liberties, and opposition to clerical privilege. He worked with Napoleon III against Austria, and in July 1858, he succeeded in getting Austria to fight. But, worried about criticism from French Catholics for supporting the pope's enemy, Napoleon abandoned the effort and gave Sardinia only Lombardy. Later, he gained France's support in ceding Savoy and Nice to France and Central Italy united with Sardinia under Emmanuel.