Chapter 4: Consciousness

Hallucinogenic

a substance that causes hallucinations

Barbiturate

an addictive depressant used to relieve anxiety or induce sleep

Hypnosis

an altered state of consciousness in which people are highly suggestible and behave as though they are in a trance

Electromyograph (EMG)

an instrument that measures muscle tension

Phencyclidine (PCP)

another hallucinogen whose name is an acronym for its chemical structure

Hydrocarbons

chemical compounds consisting of hydrogen and carbon

Opioids

chemicals that act on opiate receptors but are not derived from the opium poppy

Alpha waves

rapid low-amplitude brain waves that have been linked to feelings of relaxation

Amphetamines

stimulants derived from alpha-methyl-betaphenyl-ethylamine, a colorless liquid consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen

Delta waves

strong, slow brain waves usually emitted during stage 4 sleep

Transcendental meditation (TM)

the simplified form of meditation brought to the United States by the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and used as a method for coping with stress

Biofeedback training (BFT)

the systematic feeding back to an organism information about a bodily function so that the organism can gain control of that function

Activation-synthesis model

the view that dreams reflect activation of cognitive activity by the reticular formation and synthesis of this activity into a pattern

Sleep terrors

frightening, dreamlike experiences that occur during the deepest stage of NREM sleep; nightmares, in contrast, occur during REM sleep

Unconscious

in psychodynamic theory, descriptive of ideas and feelings that are not available to awareness;(also, without consciousness)

Preconscious

in psychodynamic theory, descriptive of material that is not in awareness but can be brought into awareness by focusing one's attention

Repression

in psychodynamic theory, the automatic (unconscious) ejection of anxiety-evoking ideas, impulses, or images from awareness

Explain the natures and uses of hypnosis, meditation, and biofeedback in altering consciousness.

Hypnosis—an altered state of consciousness in which people are highly suggestible and behave as though they are in a trance—is derived from the Greek word for sleep. Hypnotism can be used as an anesthetic in dentistry, childbirth, and medical procedures. Some psychologists use hypnosis to help clients reduce anxiety, overcome fears, or lessen the perception of chronic pain. One common form of meditation, transcendental meditation (TM), was brought to the United States by the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in 1959. People practice TM by concentrating on mantras—words or sounds that are claimed to help the person achieve an altered state of consciousness. Mindfulness meditation (MM), as opposed to TM, makes no pretense of achieving spiritual goals. Instead, MM provides clients with mantra-like techniques they can use to focus on the present moment rather than ruminate about problems. Biofeedback is a system that provides, or "feeds back," information about a bodily function to an organism. Through biofeedback training, people have learned to gain voluntary control over a number of functions that are normally automatic, such as heart rate and blood pressure.

Define substance use disorders, identify categories of psychoactive drugs, and explain their allures and dangers.

Substance abuse and dependence usually begin with experimental use in adolescence. People experiment with drugs for various reasons, including curiosity, conformity to peer pressure, parental use, rebelliousness, escape from boredom or pressure, and excitement or pleasure. Use of a substance may be reinforced by peers or by the drug's positive effects on mood and its reduction of anxiety, fear, and stress. Many people use drugs as a form of self-medication for anxiety and depression, even low self-esteem. For people who are physiologically dependent, avoidance of withdrawal symptoms is also reinforcing. Psychoactive drugs include depressants (alcohol, opiates, and barbiturates), stimulants (amphetamines, cocaine, and nicotine), and hallucinogens (LSD, marijuana, PHP, and mescaline).

Abstinence syndrome

a characteristic cluster of withdrawal symptoms that results from sudden decease in an addictive drug's level of usage

Consciousness

a concept with many meanings, including sensory awareness of the world outside, direct inner awareness of one's thoughts and feelings, personal unity, and the waking state

Circadian rhythm

a cycle that is connected with the 24-hour period of the earth's rotation

Stimulant

a drug that increases activity of the nervous system

Depressant

a drug that lowers the rate of activity of the nervous system

Mindfulness meditation (MM)

a form of meditation that provides clients with techniques they can use to focus on the present moment rather than ruminate about problems

Opiates

a group of narcotics derived from the opium poppy that provide a euphoric rush and depress the nervous system

Mescaline

a hallucinogen derived from the mescal (peyote) cactus

Substance use disorder

a problem characterized by loss of control over usage, social impairment, risky use, and tolerance and withdrawal symptoms

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, which have been linked to dreaming

Role theory

a theory that explains hypnotic events in terms of the person's ability to act as though he or she were hypnotized

Nonconscious

descriptive of bodily processes, such as growing hair, of which we cannot become conscious; we may "recognize" that our hair is growing, but we cannot directly experience the biological process

Flashbacks

distorted perceptions or hallucinations that occur days or weeks after LSD usage but mimic the LSD experience

Psychoactive substances

drugs that have psychological effects such as stimulation or distortion of perceptions

Narcotics

drugs used to relieve pain and induce sleep; the term is usually reserved for opiates

Tolerance

habituation to a drug, with the result that increasingly higher doses of the drug are needed to achieve similar effects

Direct inner awareness

knowledge of one's own thoughts, feelings, and memories without the use of sensory organs

LSD

lysergic acid diethylamide; a hallucinogen

Theta waves

slow brain waves produced during the hypnagogic state

Secondhand smoke

smoke from the tobacco products and exhalations of other people; also referred to as passive smoking

Sleep apnea

temporary absence or cessation of breathing while sleeping

Suppression

the deliberate, or conscious, placing of certain ideas, impulses, or images out of awareness

Marijuana

the dried vegetable matter of the Cannabis sativa plant

Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep

the first four stages of sleep

Selective attention

the focus of one's consciousness on a particular stimulus

Response set theory

the view that response expectancies play a key role in the production of the experiences suggested by the hypnotist

Narcolepsy

a "sleep attack" in which a person falls asleep suddenly and irresistibly

Define consciousness.

The concept of consciousness has various meanings. One meaning is sensory awareness of the environment. Another aspect of consciousness is selective attention. Selective attention means focusing one's consciousness on a particular stimulus. We are conscious of—or have direct inner awareness of—thoughts, images, emotions, and memories. Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, differentiated between the thoughts and feelings of which we are conscious, or aware, and those that are preconscious and unconscious. Preconscious material is not currently in awareness but is readily available. Still other mental events are unconscious, or unavailable, to awareness under most circumstances. Some bodily processes, such as the firings of neurons, are nonconscious. They cannot be experienced through sensory awareness or direct inner awareness. In the sense that the self forms intentions and guides its own behavior, consciousness is self. The word conscious also refers to the waking state as opposed, for example, to sleep.

Explain the nature of sleep and various sleep disorders.

When we sleep, we slip from consciousness to unconsciousness. When we are conscious, our brains emit waves characterized by certain frequencies (numbers of waves per second) and amplitudes (heights—an index of strength). Brain waves are rough indicators of the activity of neurons. The strength or energy of brain waves is expressed in volts (an electrical unit). When we sleep, our brains emit waves that differ from those emitted when we are conscious. Sleep disorders seriously interfere with daily functioning and include insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea. The less-common sleep disorders—sleep terrors, bedwetting, and sleepwalking—occur during deep (stage 3 or 4) sleep.