UIL Social Studies 2023-2024: Related Terms

Adi Granth

(AKA the "First Book" in Punjabi) This sacred scripture of Sikhism is a collection of nearly 6,000 hymns of the Sikh gurus and various early and medieval saints of different religions and castes. It was first compiled by the 5th Sikh Guru, Arjun, at Amritsar, India, in 1604. It is the central object of worship in all gurdwaras (Sikh temples) and is accorded the reverence paid a living Guru. It is ritually opened in the morning and wrapped up and put away for the night.

Emergency Order in India (1975)

A 21-month period from 1975 to 1977 when Prime Minsiter Indira Gandhi had a state of emergency declared across India. Officially issued by President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed under Article 352 of the Consitution because of prevailing "internal disturbance." It gave Prime Minister Gandhi the authority to rule by decree, cancelling elections and suspending civil liberties. During this period, most of Gandhi's political opponents were imprisoned and the press was censored. Several other human rights violations were reported from the time including: a mass campaign for vasectomy. Other outrages included: 1. Detention of people by police without charge of or notification of families. 2. Abuse and torture of detainees and political prisoners. 3. Use of public and private media for government propaganda. 4. Forced sterilization. 5. Destruction of the slum and low-income housing in Old Delhi. 6. Large-scale and illegal enactment of new laws.

Hindu Kush

A 500-mile-long mountain range in Central and South Asia to the west of the Himalayas. It stretches from central and eastern Afghanistan into northwestern Pakistan and far southeastern Tajikistan. The mountain range region was a historically significant center of Buddhism. And while the vast majority of the region has been majority-Muslim for several centuries. It has also been the passageway for invasions of the Indian subcontinent and continues to be important to contemporary warfare in Afghanistan after the 9/11 terrorist attacks.

Indo-Gangetic Plain

A 700,000 square kilometer region encompassing northern regions of the Indian subcontinent, including most of northern and eastern India, most of eastern Pakistan, and virtually all of Bangladesh and southern Nepal. It is named after the Indus and Ganges Rivers. It is bound on the north by the Himalayan mountain range, which feeds its numerous rivers and the source of the fertile soil. Cities such as Delhi, Dhaka, Kolkata, Lahore, Islamabad, and Karachi sit within the region.

Bhagavad Gita

A 700-verse Hindu scripture, which is a part of the epic Mahabharata. It's set in a narrative framework of dialogue between Prince Arjuna and his charioteer guide Krishna, an avatar of lord Vishnu. It covers a broad range of spiritual topics, touching upon moral and ethical dilemmas. It presents a synthesis of various Hindu ideas about dharma, theistic bhakti, and the yogic ideal of moksha. It is one of the most revered Hindu texts and has a unique pan-Hindu influence.

Cellular Jail

A British colonial prison located on the remote Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It was used by the British Raj for the purpose of exiling criminals and political prisoners. During India's independence movement in the 20th century, it housed activists such as Diwan Singh, Yogendra Shukla, Batukeshwar Dutt, Sohan Singh, Veer Savarkar, Hare Krishna Konar, Shiv Verma, Fazl-e-Haq Khairabadi, and Sudhanshu Dasgupta. It would be closed due to the onset of World War II in 1939 and Japan's invasion of the island in 1942.

East India Company

A British joint-stock company founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies and later with East Asia. The company seized control of large parts of the Indian subcontinent and colonized parts of Southeast Asia and Hong Kong. At its peak, the company was the largest corporation in the world. It had its own armed forces totalling about 260,000 soldiers, twice the size of the regular British army. It grew to account for half of the world's trade during the mid-1700s and early 1800s, particularly in goods such as cotton, silk, indigo dye, sugar, salt, spices, saltpetre, tea, and opium. The company's reign over India lasted effectively from 1757 (Battle of Plassey) to 1858 (Sepoy/Indian Rebellion).

Golden Temple

A Sikh house of worship located in the city of Amritsar, Punjab, India. It one of the most important spiritual site in all of Sikhism. It is an open house of worship for all people of all faiths. The man-made pool on the site was built by the 4th Sikh Guru, Guru Ram Das in 1577. In 1604, 5th Guru, Guru Arjan Dev, placed a copy of the Adi Granth (the holy scripture of Sikhism) inside. It was repeatedly rebuilt after it was destroyed several times by the Muslim Mughal Empire and invading armies from Afghanistan. Maharaja Ranjit Singh, after founding the Sikh Empire, rebuilt it in marble and copper in 1809, which was overlaid with gold leaf in 1830, thus its current name.

cricket

A bat-and-ball game played between two teams of 11 players on a field at the center of which is a 22-yard pitch with a wicket at each eand, each comprising two bails balanced on three stumps. Developed in the mid-16th century in England, it became a globally popular support due to its spread via the British Empire. It is the most popular sport in India and Pakistan with professional players earning celebrity status. In addition, there is a complex right down the street for the sport in Prairie View, Texas and a terrific episode of "Bluey" featuring the game.

Gorkhaland Movement

A campaign to create a separate state of northwest India in the region of West Bengal for the Nepali-speaking Indians. It would border Bhutan, Nepal, and Bangladesh. The proposed new state would have an area bigger than 7,500 square kilometers and would be bigger than the Indian states of Goa and Sikkim. A movement that has risen and fallen throughout the 20th century, it has recently resulted in violent protests and assassinations.

Kargil Conflict

A conflict fought between India and Pakistan from May to July 1999 in a district of Jammu and Kashmir and elsewhere along the Line of Control. It was triggered by the infiltration of Pakistani troops into strategic positions on the Indian side of the Line of Control. Due to international condemnation, Pakistani forces withdrew to their side of the Line of Control. It is the most recent example of high-altitude warfare in mountainous terrain. It also marks one of the only two instances of conventional warfare between nuclear-armed states.

Battle of Plassey (1757)

A decisive victory of the British East India Company over the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies on June 23, 1757, under the leadership of Robert Clive. The victory was made possible by the betrayal of Mir Jara, who was Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah's commander-in-chief. The battle helped the British East India Company take control of Bengal. It is judged to be one of the pivotal battles in the control of the Indian subcontinent by the colonial powers. This increased revenue and increase the company's military might and helped push other colonial powers such as the Dutch and French out of South Asia.

Bhola Cyclone (1970)

A devastating tropical cyclone that struck East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh) and India's West Bengal on Nov. 12, 1970. It remains the deadliest tropical cyclone ever recorded and one of the world's deadliest humanitarian disasters. At least 300,000-500,000 people died due to storm surge and flooding around the low-lying islands of the Ganges Delta. This natural disaster, and Pakistan's delayed handling of relief operations, led to the rise of the Awami League, the Bangladesh Liberation War, and the 1971 Bangladesh genocide and eventually created the independent nation of Bangladesh.

dzongs

A distinctive type of fortified monastery architecture found mainly in Bhutan and Tibet. It is massive in style with towering exterior walls surrounding a complex of courtyards, temples, administrative offices, and monks' housing. One rare example outside of the Himalayan region is on the campus of UT El Paso.

Bengal Famine of 1943

A famine during World War II where an estimated 800,000 to 3.8 million people died from starvation, malaria, and othr diseases aggravated by malnutrition, population displacement, unsanitary conditions, and lack of health care. Even though there were weather-related causes, the main cause was British colonial negligence due to the demands of World War II. Fearing Japanese invasion, British authorities stockpiled food to feed defending troops, and they exported considerable quantities to British forces in the Middle East. The British also confiscated boats, carts, adn elephants. In response to these colonial policies, anxiety about shortages led to hoarding, speculation, and consequent price inflation that put even a basic subsistence diet beyond the means of many of India's workers.

caste

A fixed social group into which an individual is born within a particular system of social stratification. The five groups (varnas) in India are Brahmins (scholars and Hindu priests), Kshatriyas (rulers and warriors), Vaishyas (farmers, merchants, and artisans), Shudras (workmen/service providers), and the Untouchables.

divide and rule

A governmental tactic used by the British Raj to prevent the emergence of the Indian independence movement. British authorities would intentionally bribe and stir up conflict between Hindu and Muslim communities throughout the subcontinent to keep the population divided and distracted from resisting British rule.

khadi

A hand-spun and woven natural fiber cloth promoted by Mahatma Gandhi as swadeshi (self-sufficiency) for the freedom struggle of the Indian subcontinent. The cloth is made from cotton, but it may also include silk or wool, which are all spun into yarn on a charkha. It is a versatile fabric that remains cool in summer and warm in winter.

Balochistan

A historical region split between three countries: Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.

Bharata

A legendary/mythic king featured in Hindu literature. According to popular tradition, his name is the traditional name of the Indian subcontinent.

jute

A long, rough, shiny bast fiber that can be spun into coarse, strong threads. It is one of the most affordable natural fibers and second only to cotton in overall global production. The bulk of the trade in this fiber is centered in South Asia, with India and Bangaldesh as the primary global producers. It is mostly used for durable and sustainable packaging and burlap sacks. It has had a resurgence as of late due to government's banning single-use plastic bags due to their impact on the environment.

Kandy

A major city in Sri Lanka that was the traditional capital of the ancient king's of the island. It is home to the Temple of the Tooth Relic, one of the most sacred places of worship in the Buddhist world. Historically, the local Buddhist rulers resisted Portuguese, Dutch, and British colonial expansion and occupation.

Adwaita

A male Aldabra giant tortoise that lived in the Alipore Zoological Gardens of Kolkata, India. At the time of his death in 2006, he was believed to be amongst the longest-living animals inteh world. Was one of four tortoises that lived at Robert Clive's estate at Barrackpore, outside of Calcutta. Clive recieved them following his victory at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, which secured India for Britian in the long run. He lived an estimated 255 years.

Amritsar Massacre (1919)

A massacre of a large peaceful crowd at Jallianwala Bagh, in Punjab, British India that had gathered to protest the Rowlatt Act (which extended WWI-era martial law policies) and arrest of pro-independence activists Saifuddin Kitchlu and Satyapal. The British Indian Army, led by Brigadier General R.E.H. Dyer, killed an estimated 379 to 1,500 people. The massacre caused a re-evaluation by the British Army to use minimal force whenever possible. The level of casual violence and lack of accountability, stunned the entire nation. Some historians consider the episode a decisve step towards the end of British rule in India.

Indian National Army

A military force that fought under the command of the Japanese Empire and was founded on September 1, 1942, during World War II. Its aim was to secure Indian independence from British rule. It was first formed under Mohan Singh by Indian POWs captured by Japan in the Malaysian and Singapore campaigns. It was then handed off to Subhas Chandra Bose and was revived in 1943. It became known as a puppet army of the Japanese empire. Under Bose's leadership, thousands of civilian volunteers from the Indian diaspora and fought against the British in Burma. Though initially celebrated by the Indian National Congress after World War II and independence, they were later denied freedom fighter status by the government.

Himalayas

A mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. It includes the highest peak: Mount Everest. It crosses five countries: Nepal, China, Pakistan, Bhutan, and India. The sovereignty of the range in the Kashmir region is disputed among India, Pakistan, and China. Some of the world's major rivers (the Indus, Ganges, and Tsangpo-Brahmaputra) rise in these mountains, and their combined drainage basin is home to some 600 million people.

Annapurna

A mountain situated in Nepal that is the 10th-highest mountain in the world (26,545 ft) and is well-known for the difficulty and danger involved in its ascent.

Concert for Bangladesh

A pair of benefit concerts organized by former Beatles guitarist George Harrison and Indian sitar player Ravi Shankar on August 1, 1971, in Madison Square Garden in New York City to raise international awareness of, and fund relief for, refugees from East Pakistan following genocidal conflict during the Bangladesh Liberation War. It's considered the first-ever benefit concert of such a magnitude and size. The concerts raised $250,000 in ticket sales and $12 million in record and DVD sales and set a precedent for other large music-based charity events like Live Aid.

Commonwealth of Nations

A political association of 56 member states, the vast majority of which are former territories of the British Empire. Established in 1949 after the London Declaration, which established member states as "free and equal." The current head of the association is King Charles III. Member states have no legal obligations to one another but are connected through their use of the English language and historical ties. In addition, they compete in a quadrennial Commonwealth Games. The last one took place in 2022 in Birmingham, England.

India National Congress

A political party in India with widespread roots. Founded in 1885, it was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa. From the late 19th century, and especially after Mahatma Gandhi leading it after 1920, it became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement. It led India to independence from the United Kingdom and significantly influenced other anti-colonial nationalist movements in the British Empire. It is one of the two major political parties in India, along with its main rival the Bharatiya Janata Party. It lies in the center to center-left on the political spectrum. It dominated Indian politics. In the 17 general elections since independence, it has won an outright majority on 7 occasions and has led the ruling coalition 3 times, heading the central government for more than 54 years. There have been 6 prime ministers in the party - Jawaharlal Nehru (1947-1964) - Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964-1966) - Indira Gandhi (1966-1977; 1980-1984) - Rajiv Gandhi (1984-1989) - P.V. Narasimha Rao (1991-1996) - Manmohan Sing (2004-2014)

Holi

A popular and significant Hindu festival celebrated as the Festival of Colors, Love, and Spring. It celebrates the eternal and divine love of the god Radha and Krishna. Additionally, the day also signifies the triumph of good over evil, as it commemorates the victory of Vishnu over Hiranyakashipu. It originated and is predominately celebrated in the Indian subcontinent but has also spread to other regions of Asia and parts of the Western world through the Indian diaspora.

Eastern Ghats

A range of mountains along India's eastern coast. They are eroded and cut through by four major rivers (the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri).

Jammu and Kashmir

A region administered by India as a unon territory and consists of the southern portion of the larger Kashmir region, which as been a subject of a dispute between India and Pakistan since 1947 and between India and China since 1959. The Line of Control separates it from the Pakistani-administered territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan.

Jaffna Peninsula

A region in the Northern Province of Sri Lanka. It is home to the capital city of the province of the same name.

Delhi

A simultaneous city and union territory of India containing the nation's capital. It has an estimated total population of 28 million, making it the largest metopolitan area in India and the second-largest in the world behind Tokyo, Japan. Formerly, it was the capital of two major empires including the Mughal Empire. In 1911, it became the capital of the British Raj and then the Republic of India in 1950. During the Partition, it switched from being a Muslim Mughal to Hindu/Sikh Punjabi population.

Gujarat

A state along the western coast of India. Its coastline is the longest in teh country. It is the 5th-largest Indian state by area and the 9th-most populous. The state encompasses 23 sites of the ancient Indus Valley civilization. The most important sites are Lothal (the world's first dry dock), Dholavira, and Gola Dhoro. Its coastal cities of of Bharuch and Khambhat served as ports and trading centers in the Maurya and Gupta empires. It is one of four Indian states to prohibit the sale of alcohol. Its Gir Forest National Park is home to the only wild population of Asiatic lion.

Bihar

A state in eastern India. It is the third-largest state by population. It is split by the Ganges River, which flows from west to east. It has the highest proportion of young people of any Indian state. In ancient and classical India, the area was considered the center of political and cultural power and as a haven for learning. It was home to the Maurya Empire (India's first empire). In addition, it was the where Buddhism was founded.

Assam

A state in northeastern India, south of the eastern Himalayas. It is bordered by Bhutan to the north and Bangaldesh to the south. It is known for its local tea and silk. It was the first site for oil drilling in Asia. It is home to the one-horned rhinoceros, wild horses, water buffalo, pygmy hog, tiger, and Asian elephant.

dharma

A term understood as referring to "order and custom" that sustain life, "virtue," or "religious and moral duties." It is a key concept with multiple meanings in the Indian religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, among others. Hinduism = behaviors that are considered to be in accord with the natural order. Including duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues, and the "right way of living." Buddhism = "cosmic law and order," as expressed by the teachings of the Buddha. Jainism = body of doctrine concerning the purification and moral transformation of humans. Sikhism = The path of righteousness, proper religius practices, and performing one's own moral duties.

enclave (second order, third order)

A territory that is entirely surrounded by the territory of one other state or entity. This is very common especially in the shared border of eastern India with Bangladesh. It compounds with extra layers like a Russian nesting doll with land.

Ganges River

A trans-boundary river of Asia which flows through India and Bangladesh. The 1,569-mile-long river rises in the wetern Himalayas, it flows south and east through the plains of North India and dumps into the Bay of Bengal. It is a lifeline to millions of people who live on its basin and depend on it for their daily needs. It is the most sacred river to Hindus and is worshipped as a goddess. In modern history, it has been plagued by severe pollution and overuse. The levels of fecal matter from humans in the river near Varanasi are more than 100 times the allowed limit.

Brahmaputra River

A trans-boundary river which flows through Tibet, India, and Bangladesh before emptying into the Bay of Bengal. It is an important river for irrigation and transportation in the region. It is prone to catastrophic flooding in the spring when the Himalayan snow melts. The lower reaches of the river are sacred to Hindus. While most rivers on the Indian subcontinent have female names, this river has a rare male name: "son of Brahma" in Sanskrit.

Indus River

A transboundary river of Asia that is 1,940-miles-long that rises in mountain springs in Western Tibet, flows northwest through the disputed region of Kashmir, and flows southwest through Pakistan before emptying into the Arabian sea near Karachi. The river has been important to many cultures of the region. 3rd millennium B.C.E. saw the rise of the Indus Valley Civilization.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

A union territory of India consisting of 571 islands, of which 37 are inhabited, at the junction of the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. They are home to the Sentinelese people, an uncontracted tribe that are considered to be the only people currently known to not have reached further than a Paleolithic level of technology.

Adam's Bridge

Also known as "Rama's Bridge," this is a chain of natural limestone shoals, between Pamban Island off the southeastern coast of India and Mannar Island off the northwestern coast of Sri Lanka. Geological evidence suggests that this bridge is a former land connection between India and Sri Lanka. It got its name from the myth that a Biblical character fell to earth on Sri Lank and migrated to India after getting kicked out of the Garden of Eden.

Dalits

Also known as "the Untouchables," this term is the self-given name to the group that is on the lowest stratum of India's caste system. They were excluded from the four-fold varna system of Hinduism and were seen as forming a fifth varna. The concept most believe was developed circa 400 C.E., due to the spread of Buddhism and its competition with Hinduism.

Bharatiya Janata Party

Also known as Indian People's Party, it is a political party in India and one of the two major Indian political parties alongisde the Indian National Congress. Since 2014, it has been the ruling political party in India under incumbent Prime Minister Narendra Modi. It is aligned with right-wing politics, and its policies adhere to a Hindu nationalist ideology. Controversially, the party while in power criminalized the practice of Muslim triple talaq divorce, revoked Article 370 special status to Jammu and Kashmir, and has experienced democratic backsliding under this party's rule.

Indian Rebellion of 1857

Also known as the Sepoy Mutiny, it was a major uprising in India against the rule of the British East India Company. It started on May 10, 1857, in the form of military mutinies of sepoys (Indian soldiers under the direction of the British East India Company) in the garrison town of Meerut, northeast of Delhi. It then spread among othe sepoy regiments across India. It was fed by resentments born of invasive British social reforms, land taxes, special treatment toward rich landowners and princes, and the fear that new bullet cartridges had been wrapped in paper greased with cow and pig fat (disrupting the ethics of Hindus and Muslims). It led to the dissolution of the British East India Company and led to the reorganization of the army, financial system, and government administration in India under the Government of India Act of 1858. Kicks of the British Raj period.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

Also named the First Kashmir War, it was fought between India and Pakistan over the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir from 1947-1948. It was the first of four conflicts between the two newly independent states. The inconclusive result of this conflict with Pakistan and India splitting the region, led to more conflicts for sole control of the state. It resulted in a stalemate at the Line of Control, where the two military's still guard the border to this day.

Islam

An Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran and the teachings of the prophet Muhammad. Followers number approximately 2 billion globally and is the world's 2nd-largest religioun after Christianity. Followers believe that this religion is the complete and universal version of a primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets such as Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, among others. The Quran is the verbatim word of God and the unaltered, final revelation that was given to Muhammad by the Angel Gabriel in 610 C.E. The Five Pillars - considered obligatory acts of worship - include: 1. The Islamic oath and creed (shahada) 2. Daily prayers (salah) 3. Almsgiving (zakat) 4. fasting (sawm) during the month of Ramadan 5. A pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca. The three holiest sites in the religion are the Grand Mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the Prophet's Mosque in Medina, Saudi Arabia, and the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem, Israel. There are two major denomiations: Sunni (85-90%) and Shia (10-15%).

Buddhism

An Indian religion based on the teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama. It originated in northern India and gradually spread throughout much of Asia via the Silk Road. It is the world's fourth-largest religion with over 520 million followers. The religion emphasizes the aim of attaining liberation from attachment to existence. Its founder urged believers to follow the Noble Eightfold Path, the cultivation of the mind through observance of meditation and ethics. Ideally, if one follows it completely, the religion can bestow nirvana (freedom from suffering).

Jainism

An Indian religion that traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of 24 tirthankars (supreme preachers). The faith is considered to be an eternal duty with the tirhankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmos. The three main pillars of the faith are ahimsa (non-violence), anekantavada (non-absolutism), and aparigraha (ascetism). It teaches that the path to enlightenment is through non-violence and reducing harm to living things (including plants and animals) as much as possible. Like Hindus and Buddhists, they believe in reincarnation. This cycle of birth, death, and rebirth is determined by one's karma. The religion as between 4 and 5 million followers who reside mostly in India.

Hinduism

An Indian religion/religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's 3rd-largest, with over 1.2 - 1.35 billion followers (15-16% of the global population). It has been called the world's oldest religion still practiced. Prominent themes include the four Purusarthas (the proper goals or aims of human life): dharma (ethics/duties), artha (prosperity/work), kama (desires/passions), and moksha (liberation/freedom from the passions and the cycle of death and rebirth); as well as karma (action, intent and consequences), and samsara (cycle of death and rebirth). Important texts include the Vedas, the Upanishads, the Puranas, the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Agamas. It is the most widely professed faith in India, Nepal, Mauritius, and Bali, Indonesia.

Arunachal Pradesh

An Indian state in the northeast that became a state of India in 1987. It shares international borders with Bhutan in the west, Myanmar in the east, and a disputed 1,129 kilometer border with China's Tibet Autonomous Region in the north at the McMahon Line. With only 17 people per square kilometer, it is the least densely populated state of India.

Hindustani

An Indo-Aryan language spoken in Deccan, Northern India, and Pakistan. It is also called Hindi-Urdu. The concept of this unifying language was endorsed by Mahatma Gandhi. The common vernacular of this dual language was used to expressed national unity durng Indian's independence movement. It is the 3rd-most spoken language in the world after English and Mandarin.

Government of India Act (1935)

An act passed by British Parliament that originally received royal assent in August 1935. It had massive effects on the British Raj's administration of the subcontinent. - More autonomy given to the provinces of India. - The creation of a "Federation of India" to be made up of both British India and the "princely states." - Introduction of direct elections and expansion of the electorate by 30 million people. - Provincial assemblies could now include elected Indian representatives. - Establishment of a Federal court. Ultimately it displeased Indians who wanted a role in writing the act and more control taken from British provincial governors, and Brits who thought it was too radical.

Black July

An anti-Tamil pogrom that occurred in Sri Lanka in July 1983. It was premeditated and triggered by the death of 13 Sri Lanka Army soldiers by a Tamil militant group. Estimates of the death toll range from 400 to 3,000, with over 150,000 people becoming homeless. It is generally seen as the start of the Sri Lankan Civil War (1983-2009) between Tamil militants and the government. It is now a period of rememberance every July Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora around the world. One-third of all Sri Lankan Tamils now live outside of Sri Lanka.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

An armed conflict between Pakistan and India that lasted 17 weeks. It began when Pakistan commenced Operation Gibraltar, to take over Jammu and Kashmir away from India. It caused thousands of casualties on both sides and witnessed the largest engagement of armored vehicles and the largest tank battle since World War II. It was brought to an end by a United Nations Security Council Resolution 211 by the intervention of the Soviet Union and the United States. As a result of a military embargo to both nations by the US and UK, it led to India and Pakistan openly developing closer relations with the Soviet Union and China. There is a deep distrust of the US and UK ever since.

K2

At 28,251 feet above sea level, this is the 2nd-highest mountain on Earth, after Mount Everest. It lies partially in the Pakistan-administered Kashmir and partially in the China-administered Xinjiang. It is the deadliest summit in the world. Approximately 1 person dies on the mountain for every 4 who reach the top. The summit was first recorded to be climbed by Italian climbers Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni in 1954. As of Feb. 2021, 377 people have completed the ascent. 91 have died trying.

Day of Direct Action (1946)

August 16, 1946: the day the All-India Muslim League decided to enact a separate Muslim homeland after the British made their exit from India after World War II. This decision led to a day of nationwide communal riots with large-scale violence between Muslims and Hindus in Calcutta. It also marked the beginning of The Week of the Long Knives. There is still extensive controversy over the two main communities respective responsibility for starting the bloodshed. More than 4,000 people died and over 100,000 residents of Calcutta were left homeless within 72 hours. This marked the beginning of the eventual Partition of India the next year.

Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami (2004)

Commonly called the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, this disaster hit 9.1-9.3 on the Richter scale. The undersea earthquake caused by the Burma and Indian Plates colliding, it resulted in a 100-feet-high tsunami and devastated communities along the surrounding coasts of the Indian Ocean, killing an estimated 227,898 people in 14 countries. Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand received the most damage.

Adivasis

Diverse assortment of tribal groups across the Indian subcontinent. The government of India does not official recognize tribes as indigenous people. They comprise 8.6% of India's population. Though claimed to be one of the original inhabitants, many present-day communities didn't form until after the decline of the Indus Valley civilization around 1,900 B.C.E.

Awami League

From its founding in 1949, this political party was the expression of Bengali nationalism in the territory then known as East Pakistan. It was formed in opposition to the ruling-party Muslim League in Pakistan. It led the forces of Bengali nationalism, and under the leadership of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, it led the struggle for independence for Bangladesh an is the current ruling party of the nation since 2009.

jati

In Indian philosophy, this term is used to refer to any group of things that have generic characteristics in common. Sociologically, it has come to be used universally to indicate a caste group among Hindus. It is often referred to as a sub-measurement of varnas within India's caste system. There are more than 3,000 of these in India. People will try to marry their sons and daughters to members of their same "class."

Bangalore

India's third-most populous city with more than 11 million inhabitants. The city dates back to around 890, as found in a stone inscription found at the Nageshwara Temple.

India Declaration of Emergency (1975)

Issued by President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed under Article 352 of the Constitution, this order bestowed upon Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to rule by decree, cancel elections, and suspended civil liberties. It resulted in a two year period that resulted in the imprisonment of political opponents and censored the press. It was caused by massive resistance against Gandhi's election, which had massive accusations of voter fraud and corruption to get elected as Prime Minister for her second term in 1971.

Gawkadal Massacre

January 21, 1990: the Indian paramilitary troops of the Central Reserve Police Force opened fire on a group of Kashmiri pro-independence protesters on a bridge in Jammu and Kashmir in what has been described by some authors as "the worst massacre in Kashmiri history." Between 50 and 100 people were killed, some from being shot and other from drowning. The massacre happened two days after India appointed Jagmohan Malhotra as governor of the region. No known action was ever taken against police officials responsible for the massacre.

Karakoram Highway

Known by its initials KKH and nicknamed the China-Pakistan Friendship Highway, this road is an 810-mile-long national highway that extends from Hasan Abdal in the Punjab province of Pakistan to the Khunjerab Pass where it corsses into China. The highway is a popular tourist attraction and is one of the highest elevated paved roads in the world. Due to its high elevation and the difficult conditions under which it was constructed, it is often referred to as the "8th Wonder of the World."

Colombo/1996 Central Bank bombing

One of the deadliest attacks carried out by the Tamil Tigers during the Sri Lankan Civil War. Taking place on January 31, 1996, a truck containing 440 pounds of explosives crashed through the main gate of the Central Bank of Sri Lanka. The blast killed 91 people and injured 1,400 others.

charkha

One of the oldest known configurations of the fabric spinning wheel. It became a tool and a symbol of the Indian independence movement after Mahatma Gandhi and other activists urged Indians to become self-sufficient and make their own cotton yarn and clothes to boycott British goods. It became such a potent symbol that it was placed on early versions of India's flag.

Jamuna River

One of the three main rivers of Bangladesh. It is the lower stream of the Brahmaputra River, which originates in Tibet before flowing into India and then southwest into Bangladesh. This river flows south and joins the Padma River before meeting the Meghna River as it flows into the Bay of Bengal.

Gurkha

Soldiers native to the Indian subonctinent, chiefly residing within Nepal and some parts of northeast India. They are recruited for the Nepali Army, Indian Army, British Army, Gurkha Contingent Singapore, and Gurkha Reserve Unit Brunei. After the Sepoy Rebellion/Indian Rebellion of 1857 and until the start of World War I, they saw active duty as the British East India Company and the British Raj because of prejudice of Hindus being allowed in the military.

Diwali

The Hindu festival of lights. Lasting between five or six days, it symoblizes the spiritual "victory of light over darkness, good over evil, and knowledge over ignorance." During the celebration, people illuminate their homes, temples, and workspaces with diyas (oil lamps), candles, and lanterns. It is also marked with fireworks and the decoration of floors with rangoli designs. It is an annual homecoming and bonding period not only for families over giant meals, but also for communities and local associations. Primarily a Hindu festival, variations of this holiday are celebrated by Jains, Sikhs, and some Buddhists.

ahimsa

The ancient Indian principle of nonviolence, which applies to actions towards all living beings. It is a key virtue in Jainism, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism. It's inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy; therefore, to hurt another being is to hurt oneself.

Kathmandu

The capital and most populous city of Nepal with 2.9 million people in the greater metro area. It is one of the oldest continuously inhabited places in the world, founded in the 2nd century C.E. It was the former royal capital of the Kingdom of Nepal and hosts palaces, mansions, and gardens built by the Nepali aristocracy.

Islamabad

The capital city of Pakistan. Built as a planned city in the 1960s, it replaced Rawalpindi as the nation's capital. Greek architect Contantinos Apostolou Doxiadis develped its master plan, dividing it into 8 zones.

Chennai (Madras)

The capital city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost Indian state. It is the sixth-most populated city in India. It is the oldest municipal corporation of India, and the second-oldest in the world after London, UK. It was the site of one of the first settlements of the British East India Company, which built Fort St. George in 1639.

Deccan Plateau

The central geographic feature of the Indian subcontinent located between the Eastern and Western Ghats mountain ranges and south of the Narmada River. It produced some of the major dynasties in ancient Indian history such as: the Pallavas, Satavahana, Vakataka, Chalukya, and Rashtrakuta dynasties.

House of Wangchuck

The family dynasty that have held the hereditary position of Druk Gyalpo ("Dragon King") of Bhutan since 1907. The first two monarchs established relations with the British Empire and India, and its third, fourth, and current monarch have put Bhutan toward democratization, decentralization, and development.

Champaran Satyagraha (1917)

The first non-violent protest movement led by Mahatma Gandhi in British India focusing around a farmer's uprising over being forced to grow indigo by the colonial government for little pay. It marked a resurgence in interest in India's independence movement. The local British officials in Bihar would concede to Gandhi and the farmer's demands due to the entire rural region joining his movement.

Indian Civil Service

The higher civil service of the British Empire in India during the British Raj period (1858-1947). Its members ruled over more than 300 million people and were ultimately responsible for overseeing all government activity in the 250 districts that comprised British India and was headed by the Secretary of State for India. The examination for admission was taken by many aspiring young Indians looking to enter the middle class. The exam was first held only in London which led to widespread Indian diaspora, including Gandhi spending time in London as a young man.

Gangkhar Puensum

The highest mountin in Bhutan and the highest unclimbed mountain the world, with an elevation of 24,836 feet. Its name means "White Peak of the Three Spiritual Brothers." It lies on the border between Bhutan and Tibet.

Karachi

The largest city in Pakistan with a population over 20 million. It is situated at the southern tip of the country along the Arabian Sea coast. It is the former capital of Pakistan and serves now as the country's financial and industrial center. It is Pakistan's most cosmopolitan city, linguistically, ethnically, and religiously diverse. Known as the "City of Lights" in the 1960s and 1970s, it was beset by ethnic, sectarian, and poltiical conflict in the 1980s with the arrival of weapons from the Soviet Union invasion of neighboring Afghanistan.

British Raj

The name of the government of India from 1858 to 1947 when it was directly controlled by the British government and stopped being managed by the British East India Company. This form of government took over after the Indian Rebellion/Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 and the signing of the Government of India Act of 1858. Due to the sheer size and diversity of the subcontinent more than 560 principalities were allowed to keep their traditional princely rulers as long as they swore allegiance to Britain.

Bollywood

The nickname for the film industry based in Mumbai and engaged in production of movies in Hindi. The most popular genre in Hindi cinema since the 1970s has been the masala film, which mixes varied genres such as action, comdey, romance, drama, melodrama, and musicals.

Bay of Bengal

The northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. Geographically, it is positioned between the Indian subcontinent and the Indochinese peninsula. It is the largest water region designated as a bay in the world. Cox's Bazar (the longest sea beach in the world), the Sundarbans (the largest mangrove forest in the world and habitat of the Bengal tiger) are located along the bay.

Driglam Namzha

The official code of etiquette and dress code of Bhutan. Started by the 17th-century pronouncements of Ngawang Namgyal, the first Zhabdrung Rinpoche, a Tibetan lama and militar leader who sought to unify Bhutan. It governs how citizens should dress in public as well as how they should behave in formal settings. It also regulates a number of cultural assets such as art and architecture. Under this mandatory dress code, citizens wear a heavy knee-length robe tied with a belt (men) and long-sleeved blouses made of silk, polyester, or cotton, over which they fold and clasp a large rectangular cloth (women).

civil disobedience

The peaceful, active, professed refusal of a citizen to obey certain laws, demands, orders or commands of a government. Popularized in the United States by Henry David Thoreau's active resistance against the Mexican-American War, it has inspired various leaders such as Susan B. Anthony, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther King, Jr.

Goa/1961 Annexation

The process in which the Republic of India forced annexed the then Portuguese territories. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru had hoped that the popular movement in the territories and the pressure of world public opinion would force the Portuguese authorities to grant it independence but since it did not have any effect, he decided to take it by force. It ended 451 years of rule by the Portuguese over its remaining exclaves in India. In India, it was seen as a liveration of a historically Indian territory, while Portugal viewed it as an aggression against its national soil and citizens.

Chittagong

The second-largest city in Bangladesh. It hosts the busiest seaport on the Bay of Bengal. One of the world's oldest ports with a functional natural harbor, it appeared on ancient Greek and Roman maps. Nicknamed the "Queen of the East," it has served as a royal mint for various Muslim monarchs, a trading post for the Portuguese, and a major hub for trade and warfare by the British. In addition, in 1971, it was the site of the Bangladeshi declaration of independence during the Bangladesh Liberation War.

Constitution of India (1950)

The supreme law of India. It lays down the framework that demarcates fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government instiutions and sets out the rights and duties of citizens. It is the longest-written national constitution in the world. It replaced the Government of India Act of 1935 as the nation's fundamental governing document. It declared India a socialist, secular, and democratic republic. It created a presidency, prime ministry, bicameral legislature, and supreme court. The original document is preserved in a nitrogen-filled case in New Delhi.

Five Ks

Thees are the five items that Guru Gobind Sing, in 1699, commanded all Sikhs to wear at all times. More than just symbols, they are articles of faith that collectively form the external identity and commitment to the Sikh way of life. They are: - kesh (unshorn hair and beard) - kangha (a wooden comb) - kara (a bracelet, usually made of iron or steel) - kachera (an undergarment) - kirpan (a small curved sword or knife made of iron or steel).

JVP insurrections of 1971 and 1987

These two armed uprisings against the government of Sri Lanka was led by the local communist party: Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna. The first uprising was against Sri Lanka's socialist government and lasted just over a year and was unsuccessful due to foreign intervention by the Soviet Union and India to defend the sitting socialist Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike. China and North Korea assisted the insurrectionists. The second armed revolt 16 years later would last over 2 and a half years, and unlike the first, was dominated by internicene guerrilla urban warfare and government subversion, sabotage, assassinations, raids, and attacks on military and civilian targets.

Hyderabad/Operation Polo

This "police action" in September 1948 went by an operative code word where teh newly independent Dominion of India invaded the Muslim, Nizam-ruled princely state, annexing it into India. This moment led to massive violence on communal lines, at times perpetrated by the Indian Army. 30,000-40,000 people died in total.

Dahala Khagrabari

This area was an Indian enclave located on the Bangladesh-India border. It was a piece of India within a piece of Bangladesh within a piece of India within Bangladesh, making it the only "third-order enclave" in the world. It was finally ceded to Bangladesh in 2015. This tract of land the size of a soccer field exemplifies the porousness and complexity of the Bangladesh-India border with 106 Indian exclaves inside Bangladesh and 92 Bangladeshi exclaves inside India.

Dhaka

This city is the capital and largest city of Bangladesh. It is the 9th-most densely populated city in the world. It is a megacity, with a population of over 22.4 million in the greater metro area. It is the most important cultural, economic, and scientific hub of eastern South Asia, as well as a major Muslim-majority city.

Demolition of Babri Masjid

This incident took place on December 6, 1992, in Ayodhya, India, when a crowd of 150,000 protesting Hindus (most members of the Vishva Hindu Parishad and Bharatiya Janata Party) destroyed and tore down a 16th-century mosque constructed by the Mughal general Mir Baqi. The Hindu crowd contested that the mosque had been built over an older Hindu structure dedicated to the birthplace of Rama (a major Hindu deity). The demolition resulted in several months of intercommunal rioting between India's Hindu and Muslim communities, causing the deaths of at least 2,000 people.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971/Formation of Bangladesh

This multi-tiered military conflict lasted just short of two weeks and witnessed Pakistan lose a two-front war with conflict in Jammu and Kashmir against India and in East Pakistan against India and Bangladeshi nationalists. The result of this quick conflict resulted in the independence of Bangladesh as its own state separate from Pakistan. The East Pakistani Army's surrender was the second-largest joint surrender ever after Germany's surrender in World War II. Pakistani military and Islamist militias killed between 300,000 and 3 million civilians in Bangladesh which led to massive exodus into India of 8 to 10 million refugees.

Chauri Chaura Incident

This tragedy on February 4, 1922, in northern India witnessed local police firing on a large group of Indian protesters participating in Gandhi's Non-cooperation movement. In retaliation, surviving demonstrators attacked and set fire to a police station, which killed all of its occupants, resulting in three civilians and 22 policement dying. As a result, Gandhi halted the Non-cooperation Movement nationwide 8 days later. Overall, 225 people were arrested with 19 demonstrators executed and 14 people sentenced to life in prison.

Dharasana Salt Works Protest

This was a protest against the British salt tax in colonial India in May 1930. Following his monumental Salt March, Mahatma Gandhi chose a non-violent raid of a salt factory in Dharasana. Even though Gandhi and other Indian National Congress leaders had been arrested by the British Raj, the protest still continued in their absence. Hundreds of peaceful protesters ("satyagrahis") were beaten by soldiers under British command. The ensuing media publicity attracted worldwide attention to the Indian independence movement and brought British rule into question.