CHEM 1311H Ultimate Final Exam Review

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What was Marie Curie's Ph.D. thesis titled?

"A Prelude to a Nobel Prize"

What do the signs (+) and (-) for q mean in relation to ΔE = q + w?

(+): The system gains heat (-): The system loses heat

What do the signs (+) and (-) for w mean in relation to ΔE = q + w?

(+): work is done on the system (-): work is done by the system

Energy of First Orbit in the Bohr Model

-E

What does a bond order of 0 represent? 1? 2? 3?

0 = unstable bond 1 = single bond 2 = double bond 3 = triple bond

Absolute zero

0 K = -273 °C

R values for the Ideal Gas Equation

0.08206 L∙atm/mol∙K 8.314 J/mol∙K

Conversion Cal → cal → kcal

1 Cal = 1000 cal = 1kcal

Heat capacity H₂O

1 J

SI units for Pressure

1 N = 1 kg∙m/s² 1 Pa = 1 N/m²

Conversion atm → mmHg → torr → Pa → kPa

1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 1.01325x10⁵ Pa = 101.325 kPa

Conversion cal → J

1 cal = 4.184 J

Conversion fl oz → mL

1 fl oz = 30 mL

Conversion gal → L

1 gal = 3.785 L

Conversion in → cm

1 in = 2.54 cm

Conversion kg → lb

1 kg = 2.2 lb

Conversion lb → g

1 lb = 453.59 g

Conversion m → ft

1 m =3.3 ft

Conversion mile → km

1 mile = 1.6 km

Conversion yard → m

1 yard = 0.9 m

How to determine the empirical formula when given mass percents

1) Assume 100 g 2) Mass % = grams of each element 3) Use molar mass to determine the number of moles of the elements 4) Calculate the mole ratio (divide all by the smallest mole value) 5) Write the empirical formula

To determine the molecular structure

1) Draw the Lewis structure 2) Count the total number of electron domains around the central atom 3) Arrange the electron pairs in 1 of the geometries to minimize electron repulsions *Count multiple bonds as 1 bonding domain

Exceptions to the octet rule

1) Molecules with an odd number of electrons 2) Less than octet (mainly group 1,2,3) 3) More than octet (mainly period 3)

How to draw Lewis Structures

1) Sum the valence e⁻s for the molecule/ion 2) Sketch the 'skeletal structure' (symmetrical) 3) 'Make' a bond from the central atom to perimeter atoms 4) Complete the octet of perimeter atoms 5) Form multiple bonds around the central atom if necessary

What are the main problems with using H₂ as a fuel source?

1) We don't have any 2) How do we store/distribute it? 3)How do we use it?

What is the process for the Born-Haber Cycle?

1)Change each element from solid state to gaseous state 2) Ionize each element using oxidation/reduction half reactions 3) Cancel the products and reactants until the reaction equation is correct 5) Determine ΔH₅° 6) LE = -ΔH₅°

Oxidation Numbers/Oxidation states

1. For an atom in its elemental form, the oxidation number is always zero. Thus, each H atom in the H₂ molecule has an oxidation number of 0. 2. For any monoatomic ion, the oxidation number equals the ionic charge. Thus, K⁺ has an oxidation number of +1. 3. Nonmetals usually have negative oxidation numbers, but they can sometimes be positive: a. The oxidation number of oxygen is usually -2 in both ionic and molecular compounds. The major exception is in compounds called peroxides, which contain the O₂²⁻ ion, giving each oxygen an oxidation number of -1. b. The oxidation number of hydrogen is usually +1 when bonded to nonmetals and -1 when bonded to metals (for example, metal hydrides such as NaH). c. The oxidation number of fluorine is -1 in all compounds. The other halogens have an oxidation number of -1 in most binary compounds. When combined with oxygen, as in oxyanions, however, they have positive oxidation states. 4. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a neutral compound is zero. The sum of the oxidation numbers in polyatomic ions equals the charge of the ion.

When and what for did Marie Curie win her two Nobel prizes?

1903 Nobel Prize in Physics for radioactivity 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovering Po & Ra

Fritz Haber Nobel Prize

1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for synthesize ammonia from N₂ & H₂

Albert Einstein Nobel Prize

1921: Photoelectric effect

Max Born Nobel Prize

1954 Nobel Prize in Physics for wave function for particles

Neil Bartlett

1st compound with a noble gas in 1962: the ionization energy of Xe is low enough to form a compound XeF₂, XeF₄, XeF₆

When 2 atomic orbitals overlap, how many MOs form? What are they called?

2: bonding & antibonding OR constructive & destructive

Oxide: M₂O + H₂O → ?

2MOH

Peroxide: M₂O₂ + 2H₂O → ?

2MOH + H₂O₂

Superoxide: 2MO₂ + 2H₂O → ?

2MOH + H₂O₂ + O₂

C (Speed of Light)

3.00 * 10⁸ m/s

Specific Heat H₂O

4.184 J

What are the fuel types and their use percentages?

40% Petroleum 23.0% Natural gas 22.5% Coal 8.2% Nuclear 6.3% Renewable

Composition of Earth's crust

49.5% O₂ 25.7% Si 7.5% Al 4.7% Fe 3.4% Ca 9.2% other

Mole

6.022 x 10²³

Composition of human body

65% O₂ 18% C 10% H₂ 7% other

Percent yield

=actual yield/theoretical yield * 100%

Displacement Reactions

A + BX → AX + B Reaction between a metal and either an acid or a metal salt commonly follow this form

What is used to measure atmospheric pressure?

A barometer

Resonance structure defintion

A compound that has multiple correct Lewis structures

"Exact Number"

A defined quantity (ie. Conversion Factors)

Solution

A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

What is a node? What is Ψ² at a node?

A region in space where the probability of finding an electron is 0 Ψ₂ = 0

Lewis Structure definition

A representation of the valence electrons in an atom, ion, or compound (only relevant for main group compounds)

Aqueous solution

A solution in which water is the dissolving medium

What is a stock solution?

A solution with a known concentration

Amphoteric definition

A substance capable of acting as either an acid or a base It acts as a base when reacting with a more acidic substance, and act as an acid when reacting with a more basic substance

Amphiprotic definition

A substance that can donate or accept a proton (H⁺)

Nonelectrolyte

A substance that does not form ions in solution (ie. sucrose) Molecular compounds

Explosive definition

A substance whose rapid decomposition creates hot, expanding gases

What is the Bayer Process?

A way to purify bauxite and produce pure Al₂O₃

Darts land on the bullseye

Accuracy

Non-metal oxide + water → ?

Acid

What is the relationship between bond strength and acid strength?

Acid strength increases as bond strength decreases

In what part of the EM spectrum do translations occur?

Across the spectrum

Ac

Actinium

Molecular Formula

Actual number of atoms in a compound Whole number multiple = molecular weight/empirical formula weight

Group 1 Name

Alkali metals

Group 2 Name

Alkaline earth metals

Second postulate of Dalton's Atomic Theory

All atoms of a given element are identical, but the atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements

Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment

Alpha particles directed at a gold foil Most went straight through but some were deflected at high angles

Al

Aluminum

Solubility Rules Alkali metals

Always soluble

Solubility Rules CH₃COO⁻

Always soluble

Solubility Rules ClO₃⁻ and ClO₄⁻

Always soluble

Solubility Rules HCO₃⁻

Always soluble

Solubility Rules NH₄⁺

Always soluble

Solubility Rules NO₃⁻

Always soluble

Solubility Rules Br⁻

Always soluble except Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg₂²⁺

Solubility Rules Cl⁻

Always soluble except Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg₂²⁺

Solubility Rules I⁻

Always soluble except Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg₂²⁺

Solubility Rules F⁻

Always soluble except Ca²⁺, Sr²⁺, Ba²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Mg²⁺

Solubility Rules SO₄²⁻

Always soluble except Pb²⁺, Ba²⁺, Sr²⁺, and Ca²⁺

Who discovered the mole?

Amedeo Avogadro

Am

Americium

Thomson's Plum Pudding Model

An atom consists of a uniform positive sphere of matter in which the mass is evenly distributed and in which the electrons are embedded like seeds in a watermelon > wrong because scattering of particles at large angles

Bohr's Second Postulate

An electron in a permitted orbit is in an "allowed" energy state. An electron in an allowed energy state does not radiate energy and, therefore, does not spiral into the nucleus

Calorimeter

An instrument that measures heat flow

Pauli Exclusion Principle

An orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons and they must have opposite spins

James Chadwick

Analyzed the results of particle scattering on thin Be films Recognized massive neutral particles

Sb

Antimony

How do you use the activity series?

Any metal can be oxidized by the cations of metals below it on the series

Ar

Argon

Where is the electron density in a pi bond?

Around/over the elements (p orbitals)

When are each of the acid/base theories preferred?

Arrhenius or Bronsted-Lowry preferred in H₂O Lewis in non-aqueous solvent and with main group and transition metal complexes

As

Arsenic

At

Astatine

Gay-Lussac's Law

At a given temperature and pressure, the volume of gases which react are ratios of small numbers

Third postulate of Dalton's Atomic Theory

Atoms of one element cannot be changed into atoms of a different element by chemical reactions; atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions

Octet "Rule" definition

Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until they are surrounded by 8 valence electrons

Paramagnetism

Attracted to a magnetic field due to unpaired electrons

Chemical bond

Attractive force holding two or more atoms together in a molecule or ion

What factors were most important in the success of Charles Martin Hall in his research project?

Availability of sufficient electricity for the reduction of Al2O3 Cryolite as a solvent for Al2O3

Milikan's Oil Drop Experiment

Balance oil drop between the anode and cathode if the voltage is correct Determined the charge on the electron to be 1.60*10⁻¹⁴ C Determined electrons to have essentially no mass

Ba

Barium

Bk

Berkelium

Be

Beryllium

Radioactive particles

Beta (-) Gamma (0) Alpha (2+)

Where is the electron density in a sigma bond?

Between the elements

Bi

Bismuth

Group 18 trends: Boiling point Density

Boiling point increases down a group Density increases down a group

Order the following compounds by bond strength and by acid strength: HF, HCl, HBr, HI

Bond Strength: HF>>HCl>HBr>HI Acid Strength: HF<<HCl<HBr<HI

Order the following compounds by bond strength and by acid strength: H₂O, H₂S, H₂Se, H₂Te

Bond Strength: H₂O>>H₂S>H₂Se>H₂Te Acid Strength: H₂O<<H₂S<H₂Se<H₂Te

Bond order formula

Bond order = 1/2 (Bonding e⁻ - Antibonding e⁻)

Electronegativity differences are an indicator of what?

Bond polarity

B

Boron

Hypobromite

BrO⁻

Bromite

BrO₂⁻

Bromate

BrO₃⁻

Perbromate

BrO₄⁻

Br

Bromine

Methane

CH₄

Cyanide

CN⁻

Carbonate

CO₃²⁻

Cd

Cadmium

Ca

Calcium

Cf

Californium

C

Carbon

Ce

Cerium

Cs

Cesium

Group 16 Name

Chalcogens

Standard enthalpy of formation, ΔH⁰_f

Change in enthalpy that forms 1 mole of compound from elements in standard states

What does lattice energy depend on and how do they affect lattice energy?

Charge of ions: As charge increases, LE increases Distance: As distance between ions increases, LE decreases

Cl

Chlorine

Cr

Chromium

Hypochlorite

ClO⁻

Chlorite

ClO₂⁻

Chlorate

ClO₃⁻

Perchlorate

ClO₄⁻

Co

Cobalt

Does an endothermic reaction feel hot or cold?

Cold

Strong electrolytes

Completely dissociate in H₂O All ionic compounds Strong acids

Fourth postulate of Dalton's Atomic Theory

Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine; a given compound always has the same relative number and kind of atoms. Small whole number ratio; constant composition.

When are roman numerals used in nomenclature?

Compounds with Sn, Pb, and transition metals

Radiation composed of an array of different wavelengths

Continuous

Cu

Copper

Chromite

CrO₃²⁻

Chromate

CrO₄²⁻

Evangelista Torricelli

Created the barometer

Francis Aston

Created the mass spectrometer

Flame test colors for: Lithium Sodium Potassium Rubidium Cesium

Crimson Yellow Lilac Red-violet Blue

Dichromate

Cr₂O₇²⁻

Cm

Curium

Decane

C₁₀H₂₂

Acetate

C₂H₃O₂⁻ (CH₃COO⁻)

Ethane

C₂H₆

Oxalate

C₂O₄²⁻

Propane

C₃H₈

Butane

C₄H₁₀

Pentane

C₅H₁₂

Hexane

C₆H₁₄

Heptane

C₇H₁₆

Octane

C₈H₁₈

Nonane

C₉H₂₀

Where did Percy Julian get his B.S? M.D.? Ph.D.? Where was he a professor?

DePauw Harvard Vienna Howard

What unit is used for a dipole moment?

Debeyes

What is the benefit of using H₂ as a fuel source on the environment?

Decrease CO₂ (pollution) emissions

As the average number of screening electrons increases, Z_eff ___

Decreases

As the distance from the nucleus increases, Z_eff ___

Decreases

Electronegativity trend

Decreases down a group Increases left to right

Ionization energy trend

Decreases from top to bottom within a group Increases from left to right within a period (Arrow from Cs to F)

Density

Density = mass/volume

Extensive properties

Depends on the amount of the sample (ie. mass, length, and volume)

State Function definition

Depends on the initial and final states of the system, not on how the path the system took to get there

How to determine the limiting reactant (short cut)

Determine the number of moles of each reactant Divide by the reactant coefficient The smaller number is the LR

Allotrope defintion

Different structural modifications of an element

Allotropes of Oxygen

Dioxygen (O₂) = Linear = Standard State Ozone (O₃) = Bent

Paul-Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran

Discovered Gallia (Gallium)

Henri Becquerel

Discovered that uranium mineral pitch blende spontaneously emitted high energy particles Discovered radioactivity

Ernest Rutherford

Discovered the 3 types of radiation

Nuclear charge depends on

Distance from the nucleus Number of core electrons

Who were the two chemists that came up with the periodic table? Did they work together or independently?

Dmitri Mendeleev & Lothar Meyer Independently

Intensive properties

Do not depend on the amount of sample being examined (ie. Density)

Dy

Dysprosium

Average Kinetic Energy formula

E = 1/2 mμ² Where E = average KE m = mass μ = root mean square speed

Formula for quantum

E = hv where h is Planck's constant and v = frequency

Energy of the furthest orbit (as it approaches infinity)

E is 0

First postulate of Dalton's Atomic Theory

Each Element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms

Es

Einsteinium

Michael Faraday

Electrolysis is proportional to the current passed through compounds

Molecular Orbital Theory (MO Theory)

Electrons in molecules reside in molecular orbitals

Isotope defintion

Elements that have multiple mass numbers due to differing number of neutrons

ΔH>0 reaction type

Endothermic (q_p is +)

Bohr's Third Postulate

Energy is emitted or absorbed by the electron only as the electron changes from one allowed energy state to another. This energy is emitted or absorbed as a photon that has energy, E=hv

Kinetic Energy definition & Formula

Energy of Motion KE = 1/2 mv²

Avogadro's Law

Equal volume of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules (ie. 22.4 L of any gas at STP contains 6.02x10²³ gas molecules) The volume of a gas at constant temperature and pressure is directly proportional to the number of moles of the gas (V α n) So... V = constant x n

Er

Erbium

Eu

Europium

Conjugate base

Every acid has a conjugate base, formed by removing a proton from the acid

Conjugate acid

Every base has a conjugate acid, formed by adding a proton to the base

Surroundings definiton

Everything except for the system

ΔH<0 reaction type

Exothermic (q_p is -)

What does Kinetic Molecular Theory explain?

Explains the behavior of gases in motion

What does molarity express? What is the formula for molarity?

Expresses concentration M = moles of solute/L of solution

Is enthalpy an extensive or intensive property? Why?

Extensive, because the magnitude of ΔH is proportional to the amount of reactant consumed in the process

Formal charge formula

FC = Group #(1-8) - [# of bonds + # of unshared electrons] or as I like to say... FC = Group # - sticks and dots

Fm

Fermium

Hund's Rule

Fill each orbital with 1 electron before filling with the second electrons of opposite spin

Percy Julian

First to produce physostigmine Produced progesterone and testosterone Prepared cortisone One of the first African-Americans to receive a doctorate in chemistry Researcher for Glidden

F

Fluorine

How do you determine the relative acid strength for ternary acids?

For acids have the same central atom, the higher oxidation state of the central atom is [usually] the strongest acid

Intermolecular Force

Force between molecules

Intramolecular Force

Force within molecules

Formal charge definition

Formal charges are assigned by completely ignoring electronegativity and assigning the electrons in bonds equally between the bonded atoms

What are metathesis reactions driven by?

Formation of a precipitates, weak or non-electrolytes, and insoluble gases

What is H₂ made from in the US?

Fossil fuels

Fr

Francium

Gd

Gadolinium

Ga

Gallium

What is the order of the electromagnetic spectrum?

Gamma, X-ray, UV, Visible spectrum (violet to red), Infrared, Microwave, Radio

In terms of strength, rank the 3 types of radiation.

Gamma>Beta>Alpha

Condensation

Gas to Liquid

Deposition

Gas to Solid

Ge

Germanium

Au

Gold

Molar mass/Molecular weight

Grams in 1 mole of a substance

Allotropes of Carbon

Graphite = Standard state = can become Diamond with pressure, heat, and time Diamond Fullerene (C₆₀)

Strong Arrhenius Bases

Group 1 (Li, K, Na, Rb, Cs) and 2 (Ca, Ba, Sr) with OH⁻, H⁻, O²⁻, or NH₂⁻

First explosive

Gun powder

Enthalpy (H) Formula

H = E + PV

Bicarbonate

HCO₃⁻

Strong Acids

HCl, HBr, HI, HNO₃, H₂SO₄, HClO₃, HClO₄ BrINO SO CLO CLO + Cl

Order the following compounds by acid strength: HClO, HClO₂, HClO₃, HClO₄

HClO<HClO₂<HClO₃<HClO₄ +1 +3 +5 +7 (Oxidation states)

Common Weak Acids

HF, HCN, CH₃COOH, HNO₂, H₂CO₃, H₂SO₃, H₃PO₄, (COOH)₂

Diatomic molecules

HOFBrINCl

Hf

Hafnium

Group 17 Name

Halogens

What group has the most negative electron affinity?

Halogens

What is odd about Gilbert Lewis' death?

He died alone in his lab (possibly suicide?)

Specific heat capacity

Heat capacity of 1 gram of a substance

Molar heat capacity

Heat capacity of 1 mole of substance

Who came up with the Uncertainty Principle, when, and what did it state?

Heisenberg 1927 "The more precisely the position is determined, the less precisely the momentum is known in this instant, and vice versa"

He

Helium

Solvation

Helps stabilize the ions in solution and prevents cations and anions from recombining

Gamma end of EM spectrum: ___ energy ___ frequency ___ wavelength

High energy High frequency Short wavelength

Characteristics of Gases

Highly compressible Occupy the full volume of the container Form homogeneous mixtures with other gases

Ho

Holmium

Does an exothermic reaction feel hot or cold?

Hot

H

Hydrogen

Hypoiodite

IO⁻

Iodite

IO₂⁻

Iodate

IO₃⁻

Periodate

IO₄⁻

What country is most likely to become the first country that runs on H₂?

Iceland due to magma near the surface that provides lots of heat/steam for generation of electricity

Enthalpies of Formation (aka Heat of formation)

If 1 mole of compound is formed from its constituent elements, the enthalpy change is ΔH_f

Hess's Law of Heat Summation

If a reaction is carried out in a number of steps, ΔH for the overall reaction is the sum of ΔH for each individual step

Dalton's Law of Multiple Proportions

If two elements A and B combine to form more than one compound, the masses of B that can combine with a given mass of A are in the ratio of small whole numbers

What are the differences between Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry acids/bases?

In Bronsted-Lowry theory, reactions do not have to occur in aqueous solution and bases are not required to be hydroxides

What is the law of constant composition? Which of Dalton's postulates is the basis for the law?

In a given compound, the relative numbers and kinds of atoms are constant Fourth postulate

How is the activity series arranged?

In decreasing ease of oxidation (the higher up on the list, the more reactive the metal)

Does reactivity increase or decrease down a group?

Increases

Nuclear Charge trend

Increases SLIGHTLY from top to bottom Increases from left to right within a row

Atomic Radii trend

Increases from top to bottom within a group Decreases from left to right within a row (Arrow from F to Cs)

In

Indium

Water Gas Shift Reaction (WGSR)

Industrial way to produce H₂

In what part of the EM spectrum do vibrations occur?

Infrared portion

Solubility Rules CO₃²⁻

Insoluble except NH₄⁺ and alkali metals

Solubility Rules CrO₄²⁻

Insoluble except NH₄⁺ and alkali metals

Solubility Rules C₂O₄²⁻

Insoluble except NH₄⁺ and alkali metals

Solubility Rules PO₄³⁻

Insoluble except NH₄⁺ and alkali metals

Solubility Rules SO₃²⁻

Insoluble except NH₄⁺ and alkali metals

Solubility Rules O²⁻

Insoluble except NH₄⁺, alkali metals, Ca²⁺, Ba²⁺, and Sr²⁺

Solubility Rules S²⁻

Insoluble except NH₄⁺, alkali metals, Ca²⁺, Ba²⁺, and Sr²⁺

Solubility Rules OH⁻

Insoluble except NH₄⁺, alkali metalso, Ca²⁺, Ba²⁺, and Sr²⁺

The smaller the distance between gas molecules, the more likely ___ will develop

Intermolecular forces

I

Iodine

Which has a higher melting point: covalent or ionic compounds?

Ionic

Solubility in non-polar solvents: covalent and ionic compounds

Ionic = insoluble Covalent = soluble

Solubility in polar solvents: covalent and ionic compounds

Ionic = soluble Covalent = insoluble

Which type of compound can conduct electricity and why?

Ionic compounds generally conduct electricity due to mobile ions

Ir

Iridium

Fe

Iron

The Arrhenius theory of acids/bases is very limited, what is its restriction?

It is restricted to aqueous solutions

Who discovered the electron? The proton? The neutron?

JJ Thomson Ernest Rutherford James Chadwick

Unit for energy

Joule (J) = 1 kg∙m²/s²

Conversion K → °C

K = °C+273.15

Kr

Krypton

La

Lanthanum

Are anions larger or smaller than their parent ion?

Larger

Is lattice energy typically positive or negative? Why?

Lattice energy is ALWAYS positive because it takes energy to break the bonds

Lr

Lawrencium

Pb

Lead

What element comes first in nomenclature?

Least electronegative

Mole Fraction formula

Let n_i be the # of moles of grams i exerting a partial P_i, then P_i = X_i * P_tot where X_i is the mole fraction (n_i/n_t)

What is the mnemonic device to remember the activity series?

Li & K (lick) Ba & Ca (a back-a) Na (but you're like nah cause it's gross) Mg & Al (A magical) Mn (Man) Zn (goes to sleep) Cr (you're like, Crap!) Fe (so you feed him) Co (cookies) Ni (at night) Sn (In the sun-time,) Pb (you feed him peanut butter) H₂ (haha) Cu (see you later) Ag (alligator) Hg (hugs) Pt (he falls into a pit) Au (so you're like awww)

What did the photoelectric effect demonstrate?

Light has particle behavior

Photoelectric Effect

Light traveled in energy packets: Photons (E = hv)

Does a lighter gas or heavier gas have a higher rms speed, if they are at the same temperature?

Lighter

Diffusion is faster for...

Lighter gases

What shape is the graph V vs. T?

Linear When the T is in °C → intersect = -273

What is a failure of the Lewis theory?

Liquid O₂ is paramagnetic even though there are no unpaired electrons

Vapors definition

Liquid particles going to gas phase

Evaporation

Liquid to Gas

Freezing

Liquid to Solid

Li

Lithium

Radio wave end of EM spectrum: ___ energy ___ frequency ___ wavelength

Low energy Low frequency Long wavelength

What greek symbol is used for polarity?

Lowercase delta (δ)

Lu

Lutetium

What theory is related to bond order?

MO Theory

Mg

Magnesium

In a mass spectrometer, what does the extent of deflection depend on?

Magnitude of the accelerating voltage Magnetic field strength Masses of particles Charges of particles

Mn

Manganese

How to determine how many neutrons an atom has

Mass Number - Protons

How many electrons are in each MO?

Max 2 electron

Alkali Metals and Alkaline earth metals trends: Melting Point Density

Melting point decreases down the group Density increases down the group

Group 17 trends: Melting point Density Acidity

Melting point increases down a group Density increases down a group HX are strong acids except for HF

Group 16 trends: Melting point Density Metallic character

Melting point increases down a group Density increases down a group Metallic character increases down a group

Md

Mendelevium

Hg

Mercury

Ionic compound

Metal + nonmetal

Metal oxide + water → ?

Metal Hydroxide

What did Stan use to store H₂?

Metal hydrides using metal alloys

What is difference between Amphetamine and Methamphetamine?

Methamphetamine has a methyl group (CH₃) in place for one of the Hydrogens

In what part of the EM spectrum do rotations occur?

Microwave portion

Permanganate

MnO₄⁻

When are prefixes used in nomenclature?

Molecular compounds

Mo

Molybdenum

What are the prefixes used in nomenclature?

Mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca

Radiation composed of 1 wavelength

Monochromatic

The higher the ionization energy, the ___ to remove an electron

More difficult

What element ends in -ide in nomenclature?

Most electronegative

Rutherford's Atomic Theory

Most of the mass of the atom, and all of its positive charge, reside in a very small, extremely dense region called the nucleus

What is the most electronegative element and what is the least electronegative element?

Most: F (4.0) Least: Cs (0.7)

Dilution formula

M₁V₁ = M₂V₂

Ammonium

NH₄⁺

Nitrite

NO₂⁻

Nitrate

NO₃⁻

JJ Thomson

Named cathode rays "electrons" Discovered electrons

On what element should a negative formal charge reside?

Negative charges should reside on more electronegative elements

Cathode Rays

Negative to positive flow in the Cathode Ray Tube

Nd

Neodymium

Ne

Neon

Np

Neptunium

Ni

Nickel

Nb

Niobium

N

Nitrogen

What are the two explosives we learned about?

Nitroglycerine Trinitrotoluene (TNT)

Can lattice energy be experimentally determined?

No

Are Lewis acids/bases also Bronsted-Lowry acids/bases? What about Arrhenius acids/bases?

No! No!

Are Bronsted-Lowry Acids/Bases also Arrhenius acids/bases? What about Lewis acids/bases?

No! Yes!

Can we measure absolute internal energy? Why or Why not?

No! Because there are too many factors to take into account

Does the strength of an acid or base depend on reactivity?

No! Strength and reactivity are not related

Can bond order be measured?

No, but it can be calculated

At high pressure, does 1 mole of a real gas follow this formula: PV/RT =1?

No, it varies from 1 significantly

No

Nobelium

Group 18 Name

Noble gases

A dipole moment = 0 indicates what type of molecule?

Non-polar

What is the electronegativity difference of a non-polar compound? Polar? Ionic?

Non-polar = around 0 Polar = around 2 Ionic = around 3

Type of electrolyte: Not ionic; Not water soluble OR not a strong/weak acid/base

Nonelectrolyte

Molecular/Covalent compound

Nonmetal + nonmetal

Eugene Goldstein

Noted streams of + charged particles mixed in with cathode rays, but travelling in the opposite direction Canal rays=protons Not credited with the discovery of protons

Atomic Number

Number of protons

Hydroxide

OH⁻

Thermochemistry defintion

Observe, measure, and predict thermodynamics

Neutralization

Occurs when a solution of an acid and base are mixed

When making ions, what electron is removed?

One from the highest energy level (ie. Remove from 4s before 3d)

Decomposition Reactions

One substance undergoes a reaction to produce two or more other substances C → A + B

Bohr's First Postulate

Only orbits of certain radii, corresponding to certain specific energies, are permitted for the electron in a hydrogen atom

Os

Osmium

Solutes

Other substances in the solution Dissolved in the solvent

OIL RIG

Oxidation is loss Reduction is gain

O

Oxygen

How can fish breathe if O₂ is non-polar?

O₂ has an instantaneous dipole moment which allows it to dissolve in water

Peroxide

O₂²⁻

Phosphite

PO₃³⁻

Phosphate

PO₄³⁻

Ideal Gas Equation

PV = nRT

(Manometer) If P_gas < P_atm, then

P_gas + P_h₂ = P_atm

(Manometer) If P_gas > P_atm, then

P_gas = P_atm + P_h₂

Collecting gas over water formula

P_tot = P_gas + P_water

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures

P_tot = P₁ + P₂ + P₃ ... Each gas obeys the ideal gas equation so... P_tot = (n₁ + n₂ + n₃...) RT/V = n_tot (RT/V) The total P (at constant T & V) is the total number of moles present

Who else made the same discovery as Charles Martin Hall?

Pall Heroult

Pd

Palladium

Humphrey Davy

Passed electricity through compounds & some compounds decomposed into elements Electrolytic cells

What is the difference between phenylephrine and methamphetamine?

Phenylephrine has two hydroxide groups and lacks a methyl group Therefore, meth cannot be made

P

Phosphorus

Pt

Platinum

Pu

Plutonium

Group 15 Name

Pnictogens

A dipole moment > 0 indicates what type of molecule?

Polar

Solubility of polar and non-polar molecules in non-polar solvents

Polar: Insoluble Non-polar: Soluble

Solubility of polar and non-polar molecules in polar solvents

Polar: Soluble Non-polar: Insoluble

Po

Polonium

Is bond enthalpy positive or negative? Why?

Positive because energy is always required to break a bond

K

Potassium

Chemical energy defintion

Potential energy stored in atoms due to their arrangements in molecules or ions

Pr

Praseodymium

Darts land in the same place

Precision

Weak electrolytes

Produce a small concentration of ions when they dissolve (partially ionize) Exist in equilibrium with non-ionized sample Weak acids and bases

What was the name of Charles Martin Hall's professor that challenged the students to free Al from its ore?

Professor Frank Jewett

Pm

Promethium

Relationship between Effusion and rms speed Relationship between Diffusion and rms speed

Proportional Significantly slower that rms speed because it is slowed by gas molecules colliding with each other

Pa

Protactinium

Bronsted-Lowry Theory: Bases

Proton (H⁺) acceptor

Bronsted-Lowry Theory: Acids

Proton (H⁺) donor

What is the difference between pseudoephedrine and methamphetamine?

Pseudoephedrine has an hydroxide (OH) group added To make meth, all one has to do is "nip off" the OH

Louis de Broglie

Published theory: Wave properties of the electron The same kind of wave behavior as EM radiation

Allotropes of Phosphorus

P₄ = white = Standard state Hittoff's Phosphorus = red Black Phosphorus

What did Max Planck discover?

Quanta: Energy can be absorbed/released from atoms in certain amounts

Ra

Radium

Rn

Radon

Combustion Reactions

Rapid reactions that produce a flame Usually: Hydrocarbon + O₂ → H₂O + CO₂

Diamagnetism

Repelled by a magnetic field due to no unpaired electrons

Re

Rhenium

Rh

Rhodium

Rb

Rubidium

Ru

Ruthenium

Rf

Rutherfordium

Thiocyanate

SCN⁻

Sulfite

SO₃²⁻

Sulfate

SO₄²⁻

Metal + nonmetal → ?

Salt

What does a neutralization reaction form?

Salt (metal + halogen → cation comes from a base and anion comes from an acid) and water

Sm

Samarium

Isoelectronic defintion

Same # of electrons (ie. O²⁻, F⁻, Na⁺, Mg²⁺, Al³⁺ all have 10 electrons)

The First Law of Thermodynamics

Same as the Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy is constant so any energy transferred from a system must transfer to surroundings (& vice versa)

Isomer definition

Same formula, different shapes

When reversing reactions, what happens to ΔH?

Same magnitude, opposite sign

Sc

Scandium

Se

Selenium

Covalent bond

Sharing of electrons between atoms

What are the common impurities of Bauxite?

SiO₂ & Fe₂O₃

Si

Silicon

Ag

Silver

In terms of σ and π describe the three types of bonds

Single: σ Double: σ & π Triple: σ & 2π

Are cations larger or smaller than their parent ion?

Smaller

Na

Sodium

Sublimation

Solid to Gas

Melting

Solid to Liquid

Formula for wave speed

Speed = vλ = c

Type of electrolyte: Water soluble and ionic

Strong electrolyte

Type of electrolyte: Water soluble, not ionic, but strong acid/base

Strong electrolyte

Sr

Strontium

Arrhenius Theory: Bases

Substances that form OH⁻ ions in aqueous solution

Arrhenius Theory: Acids

Substances that ionize to form H⁺ ions in aqueous solution

Electrolyte

Substances whose aqueous solutions contain ions (ie. Sodium Chloride)

S

Sulfur

Metathesis Reaction

Swapping ions in solution AX + BY → AY + BX

Thiosulfate

S₂O₃²⁻

Allotropes of Sulfur

S₆, S₇, S₈, Catena (S_infinity chain) S₈ = Standard State

STP

T = 0 °C or 273 K P = 1 atm 22.4 L of gas (1 mole)

Charles' Law

THe volume of a fixed quantity of a gas, at constant pressure, is proportional to the temperature (V α T) So,,, V= constant x T OR V/T = constant

What is the main exception to electron configurations?

Taking an electron from the s orbital to make the d orbital either 5 or 10

Ta

Tantalum

Tc

Technetium

Te

Tellurium

Tb

Terbium

Tl

Thallium

Electronegativity defintion

The ability of atoms to attract electrons

What groups are most easily oxidized?

The alkali metals and alkaline earth metals

Heat capacity

The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of an object by 1°

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atoms

Mean Free Path

The average distance of a gas molecule between collisions At sea level it is approximately 6 x 10⁻⁶

Energy definition

The capacity to perform work OR transfer heat

What do mass spectrometers measure?

The charge to mass ratio of charged particles Isotopic abundance

Graham's Law of Effusion

The effusion rate of a gas is inversely proportional to the √ of its molar mass r₁/r₂ = √(M₂/M₁) Where r = the rate of effusion and M = molar mass

Electron affinity

The energy change when a gaseous atom gains an electron

Fuel value defintion

The energy released when 1 gram of a substance undergoes combustion

Lattice energy definition

The energy required to completely transform 1 mole of an ionic solid into its gaseous ions

Potential Energy definition

The energy that a system possesses by virtue of its position or composition

Work definition

The energy used to cause an object to move against a force

Heat definition

The energy used to cause the temperature of an object to increase

Bond enthalpy

The enthalpy change, ΔH, for the breaking of a bond in 1 mole of a gaseous substance

Pressure definition

The force acting on an object per unit area (P = F/A)

When looking at a Lewis structure, how do we determine the hybridization of the molecule?

The hybridization of the central atom will add up to the number of electron domains

Effusion

The leakage/escape of gas molecules from a container through tiny holes

Calorimetry definiton

The measurement of heat flow

Bauxite

The most useful ore of Al Al₂O₃∙(H₂O)_x

KMT states that P results from?

The number of collisions per unit time on the walls of the container

System definition

The part of the universe we are interested in

Percent composition

The percentage by mass contributed by each element in the substance =(# of atoms of element)(atomic weight of element)/(molecular weight of substance) * 100%

Equivalence Point defintion

The point at which stoichiometrically equivalent quantities are brought together

What does a manometer measure?

The pressure of gases not open to the atmosphere

Radial electron density definition

The probability of finding an electron at a given distance

Limiting reactant

The reactant that is completely consumed in a reaction

Root mean square speed, μ

The speed of a gas molecule having average kinetic energy

Radioactivity definition

The spontaneous emission of energy as electromagnetic waves/high energy subatomic particles

Diffusion

The spreading/motion of a gas through space or through a second gaseous substance (like a 6th grader with Axe)

Bond order definition

The stability of a bond is related to its bond order

Thermodynamics defition

The study of energy changes that accompany physical and chemical processes

Solvent

The substance present in the greatest quantity

The number of hybrid orbitals is equal to...

The sum of the superscripts in the hybridization

What does a positive ΔE signify?

The system has gained energy from its surroundings (net gain)

What does a negative ΔE signify?

The system has lost energy to its surroundings (net loss)

What is the Law of Conservation of Mass? Which of Dalton's postulates is the basis for the law?

The total mass of materials present after a chemical reaction is the same as the total mass present before the reaction Third postulate

Boyle's Law

The volume of a fixed quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure (P α 1/V) So... V= constant x 1/P OR PV = constant

If: Elements in standard states → 1 mole of compound in standard state

Then ΔH° = ΔH°_f

Th

Thorium

Tm

Thulium

Sn

Tin

Ti

Titanium

What are formal charges used for?

To distinguish between Lewis structures. The most likely structure is usually where the charges are closest to 0

Internal energy defintion

Total energy of a system

Ionic bond

Transfer of electrons

W

Tungsten

Combination Reactions

Two or more substances react to form one product A + B → C

In what part of the EM spectrum do electronic transitions occur?

UV portion

U

Uranium

How can we calculate lattice energy?

Using the Born-Haber Cycle, which uses Hess's Law of Heat Summation

Biogasification

Using the photosynthesis of algae to make H₂

Combined gas laws proportion

V α nT/P P₁V₁/n₁T₁ = P₂V₂/n₂T₂

What theory is hybridization related to?

Valence Bond Theory

VSEPR Theory stands for...

Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory

V

Vanadium

Visible spectrum approximate wavelengths

Violet (400nm) → Red (750nm)

As pressure is increased, what happens to the volume of a gas?

Volume decreases as pressure increases

Titration

Volume of standard solution → Moles of solute in standard solution → Use coefficient from balanced equation → Moles of solute in unknown solution → Concentration of unknown solution

Percy Julian Overview

Watch Drunk History! (It's funny)

What is the autoionization of water?

Water can react with itself since its both an acid or base in Bronsted-Lowry theory H₂O + H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ + OH⁻

Erwin Rudolf Alexander Schrodinger

Wave Function Ψ^2 gives the probability of locating the e⁻ e⁻ density

Type of electrolyte: Water soluble, not ionic, but weak acid/base

Weak electrolyte

Precipitation Reactions

When 2 solutions are mixed and a solid is formed

Standard enthalpy change, ΔH°

When all reactants and products are in standard states

Endothermic reation

When the system absorbs heat (heat flows into the system from its surroundings)

Exothermic reaction

When the system loses heat (heat flows out of the system into the surroundings)

Continuous light through a prism

White light

Xe

Xenon

Is internal energy a state function? Pressure? Volume? Enthalpy?

YES

Can bond order be non-integer?

Yes

Are Arrhenius acids/bases also Bronsted-Lowry acids/bases? What about Lewis acids/bases?

Yes! Yes!

Does ΔH depend on the states of the reactants and products? (Solid vs. Liquid vs. Gas)

Yes, for example, H₂O(g) → H₂O(l) ΔH = -88 kJ

Yb

Ytterbium

Y

Yttrium

Effective Nuclear Charge formula

Z_eff = Atomic number - # of core electrons

Effective Nuclear Charge Defintion

Z_eff = The charge experienced by an electron in a many electron atom Electrons are attracted to the nucleus, but repelled by the electrons that screen the nucleus

Zn

Zinc

Zr

Zirconium

Antoine Lavosier

[The First] Law of Conservation of Matter: No detectable change in the quantity of matter in a chemical reaction

Most non metal oxides are acidic or basic?

acidic

Is ionization energy positive or negative?

always positive

Indicator defintion

an organic dye that changes color in the presence of H⁺ ions

Benzene is an ___ compound due to the π cloud/delocalization

aromatic

Valence Bond Theory states that bonds form when...

atomic orbitals overlap

When alkali metals react with O₂, different compounds form due to differences in

atomic size Li₂O (oxide) Na₂O₂ (peroxide) KO₂ (superoxide)

Most metal oxides are acidic or basic?

basic

At higher pressure, the gas molecules are ___ As molecules are closer, the V of the container ___ As volume decreases, the ___ space the molecules occupy Therefore, at a higher pressure, the ___ deviation from ideal behavior

closer decreases more greater

Lewis Theory is the most ___ of the theories

comprehensive

Gas density equation

d = PM/RT where M is molar mass

Orbitals of the same energy are ___

degenerate

d orbital name Number of orbitals Shape

diffuse 5: d_xy, d_yz, d_xz, d_x^2-y^2, d_z^2 4 have four lobes & 1 has 2 lobes and a collar

Charles Martin Hall

discovered the way to mass produce Al through cryolite (application of freezing point depression) Created the Aluminum Company of America (ALCOA)

Lewis Theory: Acids

electron pair acceptor

Lewis Theory: Bases

electron pair donor

As temperature increases, the gas molecules move ___ and ___ apart/together

faster further

f orbital name

fundamental

Reduction

gain of electrons by a substance becomes more negatively charged

Planck's constant

h = 6.626 x 10⁻³⁴ J∙s

The faster the movement, the ___ likelihood of effusion

higher

The magnitude of pressure in a system is given by?

how often and hard molecules strike the walls of the container

What shape is the graph of V vs. P? V vs. 1/P

hyperbola Linear going through the origin

As Z_eff increases, ionization energy ___

increases

Angular Momentum Quantum #

l (n-1) s=0 p=1 d=2 f=3 Shape of the orbital in space

Fingerprint of an element

line spectrum

Oxidation

loss of electrons by a substance becomes more positively charged

Magnetic Quantum Number #

m_l -l to +l Gives 3D orientation of orbital in space

Spin Magnetic Quantum #

m_s +- 1/2 Magnetic field

Chemical systems tend toward a state of ___ disorder

maximum (order to disorder)

Chemical systems tend toward a state of ___ potential energy

minimum (high PE to low PE)

VSEPR theory states that...

molecules tend toward minimum repulsion

IE₂ is ___ than IE₁

much greater

Principal Quantum #

n

The greater the attraction between an atom and an added electron, the more ____ the atom's electron affinity

negative

Strong acid → ___ conjugate base

negligible

Strong base → ___ conjugate acid

negligible

Electron affinity and ionization energy are ___

opposites

p: orbital name Number of orbitals Shape As n increases, p-orbitals get ___ How many nodes are there in a p orbital?

primary 3: p_x, p_y, p_z Dumbbell 1 at the nucleus

Calorimetry formula

q = MCΔT

Constant Pressure Calorimetry formula

q_solution = MCΔT = -q_rxn

s: orbital name shape As n increases, s-orbitals get ___ As n increases, the # of nodes ___ How many nodes are there in an s orbital?

simple spherical larger increases n-1 nodes

Empirical formula

smallest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound

Enthalpies of Reactions (heat of reaction) definition

the enthalpy change in a reaction (ΔH_rxn)

Mass Number

total number of nucleons (Protons+Neutrons)

To predict molecular shape, we assume...

valence electrons repel each other

If pressure is constant, in pressure volume work (PV work), what is its formula?

w = -PΔV

Weak acid → ___ conjugate base (& vice versa)

weak

The stronger the acid, the _____ its conjugate base

weaker

The stronger the base, the _____ its conjugate acid

weaker

Valence Bond Theory explains...

why bonds form

Conversion °C → °F

°C = 5/9 (°F-32)

Conversion °F → °C

°F = 9/5 (°C) +32

What is the formula for an electron absorbing/emitting energy in quanta? What does this energy change signify?

ΔE = E_f - E_i = hv Electrons move between orbits

What are the formulas for change in Internal Energy?

ΔE = E_final - E_initial ΔE = q + w where q=absorbed heat & w=work done

Enthalpy change formula

ΔH = H_products - H_reactacts

Hess's Law and enthalpies of a reaction

ΔH = SUM(nΔH°_f products) - SUM(mΔH°_f reactants)

If P is constant in the Enthalpy Formula, what does the formula become?

ΔH = ΔE +PΔV = (q_p + w) - w = q_p

ΔH_rxn in terms of bonds

ΔH_rxn = SUM(bond enthalpy of bonds broken) - SUM(bond enthalpy of bonds formed)

What is the formula for the Born-Haber Cycle?

ΔH°_overall = ΔH₁° + ΔH₂° +ΔH₃° + ΔH₄° + ΔH₅°

The Uncertainty Principle Formula

Δx ∙ Δmv >= h/(4pi)

Louis de Broglie's Formula

λ=h/(mv) where h = Planck's constant and mv = momentum λ = wave property mv = particle property

Formula for dipole moment

μ = Qr where μ is dipole moment Q is magnitude of charges r is bond distance

Effusion Equation

μ = √(3RT/M)

Limitations of the Bohr Model

∙Cannot describe spectra of other atoms (only H) ∙Describing e⁻ as merely particle circling the nucleus ∙Bohr model does not work with the wave properties

Significance of the Bohr Model

∙Electrons exist in certain discrete energy levels (basis for quantum numbers) ∙Energy is involved for an electron to move energy levels

What are the assumptions of KMT?

∙Large # of molecules in constant random motion ∙V of individual molecules is negligible ∙Intermolecular forces are negligible ∙Enegy can be transferred between molecules but total KE is constant at a constant T ∙Average KE of molecules is proportional to T


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