CHEM 1311H Ultimate Final Exam Review
What was Marie Curie's Ph.D. thesis titled?
"A Prelude to a Nobel Prize"
What do the signs (+) and (-) for q mean in relation to ΔE = q + w?
(+): The system gains heat (-): The system loses heat
What do the signs (+) and (-) for w mean in relation to ΔE = q + w?
(+): work is done on the system (-): work is done by the system
Energy of First Orbit in the Bohr Model
-E
What does a bond order of 0 represent? 1? 2? 3?
0 = unstable bond 1 = single bond 2 = double bond 3 = triple bond
Absolute zero
0 K = -273 °C
R values for the Ideal Gas Equation
0.08206 L∙atm/mol∙K 8.314 J/mol∙K
Conversion Cal → cal → kcal
1 Cal = 1000 cal = 1kcal
Heat capacity H₂O
1 J
SI units for Pressure
1 N = 1 kg∙m/s² 1 Pa = 1 N/m²
Conversion atm → mmHg → torr → Pa → kPa
1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr = 1.01325x10⁵ Pa = 101.325 kPa
Conversion cal → J
1 cal = 4.184 J
Conversion fl oz → mL
1 fl oz = 30 mL
Conversion gal → L
1 gal = 3.785 L
Conversion in → cm
1 in = 2.54 cm
Conversion kg → lb
1 kg = 2.2 lb
Conversion lb → g
1 lb = 453.59 g
Conversion m → ft
1 m =3.3 ft
Conversion mile → km
1 mile = 1.6 km
Conversion yard → m
1 yard = 0.9 m
How to determine the empirical formula when given mass percents
1) Assume 100 g 2) Mass % = grams of each element 3) Use molar mass to determine the number of moles of the elements 4) Calculate the mole ratio (divide all by the smallest mole value) 5) Write the empirical formula
To determine the molecular structure
1) Draw the Lewis structure 2) Count the total number of electron domains around the central atom 3) Arrange the electron pairs in 1 of the geometries to minimize electron repulsions *Count multiple bonds as 1 bonding domain
Exceptions to the octet rule
1) Molecules with an odd number of electrons 2) Less than octet (mainly group 1,2,3) 3) More than octet (mainly period 3)
How to draw Lewis Structures
1) Sum the valence e⁻s for the molecule/ion 2) Sketch the 'skeletal structure' (symmetrical) 3) 'Make' a bond from the central atom to perimeter atoms 4) Complete the octet of perimeter atoms 5) Form multiple bonds around the central atom if necessary
What are the main problems with using H₂ as a fuel source?
1) We don't have any 2) How do we store/distribute it? 3)How do we use it?
What is the process for the Born-Haber Cycle?
1)Change each element from solid state to gaseous state 2) Ionize each element using oxidation/reduction half reactions 3) Cancel the products and reactants until the reaction equation is correct 5) Determine ΔH₅° 6) LE = -ΔH₅°
Oxidation Numbers/Oxidation states
1. For an atom in its elemental form, the oxidation number is always zero. Thus, each H atom in the H₂ molecule has an oxidation number of 0. 2. For any monoatomic ion, the oxidation number equals the ionic charge. Thus, K⁺ has an oxidation number of +1. 3. Nonmetals usually have negative oxidation numbers, but they can sometimes be positive: a. The oxidation number of oxygen is usually -2 in both ionic and molecular compounds. The major exception is in compounds called peroxides, which contain the O₂²⁻ ion, giving each oxygen an oxidation number of -1. b. The oxidation number of hydrogen is usually +1 when bonded to nonmetals and -1 when bonded to metals (for example, metal hydrides such as NaH). c. The oxidation number of fluorine is -1 in all compounds. The other halogens have an oxidation number of -1 in most binary compounds. When combined with oxygen, as in oxyanions, however, they have positive oxidation states. 4. The sum of the oxidation numbers of all atoms in a neutral compound is zero. The sum of the oxidation numbers in polyatomic ions equals the charge of the ion.
When and what for did Marie Curie win her two Nobel prizes?
1903 Nobel Prize in Physics for radioactivity 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovering Po & Ra
Fritz Haber Nobel Prize
1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for synthesize ammonia from N₂ & H₂
Albert Einstein Nobel Prize
1921: Photoelectric effect
Max Born Nobel Prize
1954 Nobel Prize in Physics for wave function for particles
Neil Bartlett
1st compound with a noble gas in 1962: the ionization energy of Xe is low enough to form a compound XeF₂, XeF₄, XeF₆
When 2 atomic orbitals overlap, how many MOs form? What are they called?
2: bonding & antibonding OR constructive & destructive
Oxide: M₂O + H₂O → ?
2MOH
Peroxide: M₂O₂ + 2H₂O → ?
2MOH + H₂O₂
Superoxide: 2MO₂ + 2H₂O → ?
2MOH + H₂O₂ + O₂
C (Speed of Light)
3.00 * 10⁸ m/s
Specific Heat H₂O
4.184 J
What are the fuel types and their use percentages?
40% Petroleum 23.0% Natural gas 22.5% Coal 8.2% Nuclear 6.3% Renewable
Composition of Earth's crust
49.5% O₂ 25.7% Si 7.5% Al 4.7% Fe 3.4% Ca 9.2% other
Mole
6.022 x 10²³
Composition of human body
65% O₂ 18% C 10% H₂ 7% other
Percent yield
=actual yield/theoretical yield * 100%
Displacement Reactions
A + BX → AX + B Reaction between a metal and either an acid or a metal salt commonly follow this form
What is used to measure atmospheric pressure?
A barometer
Resonance structure defintion
A compound that has multiple correct Lewis structures
"Exact Number"
A defined quantity (ie. Conversion Factors)
Solution
A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
What is a node? What is Ψ² at a node?
A region in space where the probability of finding an electron is 0 Ψ₂ = 0
Lewis Structure definition
A representation of the valence electrons in an atom, ion, or compound (only relevant for main group compounds)
Aqueous solution
A solution in which water is the dissolving medium
What is a stock solution?
A solution with a known concentration
Amphoteric definition
A substance capable of acting as either an acid or a base It acts as a base when reacting with a more acidic substance, and act as an acid when reacting with a more basic substance
Amphiprotic definition
A substance that can donate or accept a proton (H⁺)
Nonelectrolyte
A substance that does not form ions in solution (ie. sucrose) Molecular compounds
Explosive definition
A substance whose rapid decomposition creates hot, expanding gases
What is the Bayer Process?
A way to purify bauxite and produce pure Al₂O₃
Darts land on the bullseye
Accuracy
Non-metal oxide + water → ?
Acid
What is the relationship between bond strength and acid strength?
Acid strength increases as bond strength decreases
In what part of the EM spectrum do translations occur?
Across the spectrum
Ac
Actinium
Molecular Formula
Actual number of atoms in a compound Whole number multiple = molecular weight/empirical formula weight
Group 1 Name
Alkali metals
Group 2 Name
Alkaline earth metals
Second postulate of Dalton's Atomic Theory
All atoms of a given element are identical, but the atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements
Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment
Alpha particles directed at a gold foil Most went straight through but some were deflected at high angles
Al
Aluminum
Solubility Rules Alkali metals
Always soluble
Solubility Rules CH₃COO⁻
Always soluble
Solubility Rules ClO₃⁻ and ClO₄⁻
Always soluble
Solubility Rules HCO₃⁻
Always soluble
Solubility Rules NH₄⁺
Always soluble
Solubility Rules NO₃⁻
Always soluble
Solubility Rules Br⁻
Always soluble except Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg₂²⁺
Solubility Rules Cl⁻
Always soluble except Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg₂²⁺
Solubility Rules I⁻
Always soluble except Ag⁺, Pb²⁺, and Hg₂²⁺
Solubility Rules F⁻
Always soluble except Ca²⁺, Sr²⁺, Ba²⁺, Pb²⁺, and Mg²⁺
Solubility Rules SO₄²⁻
Always soluble except Pb²⁺, Ba²⁺, Sr²⁺, and Ca²⁺
Who discovered the mole?
Amedeo Avogadro
Am
Americium
Thomson's Plum Pudding Model
An atom consists of a uniform positive sphere of matter in which the mass is evenly distributed and in which the electrons are embedded like seeds in a watermelon > wrong because scattering of particles at large angles
Bohr's Second Postulate
An electron in a permitted orbit is in an "allowed" energy state. An electron in an allowed energy state does not radiate energy and, therefore, does not spiral into the nucleus
Calorimeter
An instrument that measures heat flow
Pauli Exclusion Principle
An orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons and they must have opposite spins
James Chadwick
Analyzed the results of particle scattering on thin Be films Recognized massive neutral particles
Sb
Antimony
How do you use the activity series?
Any metal can be oxidized by the cations of metals below it on the series
Ar
Argon
Where is the electron density in a pi bond?
Around/over the elements (p orbitals)
When are each of the acid/base theories preferred?
Arrhenius or Bronsted-Lowry preferred in H₂O Lewis in non-aqueous solvent and with main group and transition metal complexes
As
Arsenic
At
Astatine
Gay-Lussac's Law
At a given temperature and pressure, the volume of gases which react are ratios of small numbers
Third postulate of Dalton's Atomic Theory
Atoms of one element cannot be changed into atoms of a different element by chemical reactions; atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions
Octet "Rule" definition
Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons until they are surrounded by 8 valence electrons
Paramagnetism
Attracted to a magnetic field due to unpaired electrons
Chemical bond
Attractive force holding two or more atoms together in a molecule or ion
What factors were most important in the success of Charles Martin Hall in his research project?
Availability of sufficient electricity for the reduction of Al2O3 Cryolite as a solvent for Al2O3
Milikan's Oil Drop Experiment
Balance oil drop between the anode and cathode if the voltage is correct Determined the charge on the electron to be 1.60*10⁻¹⁴ C Determined electrons to have essentially no mass
Ba
Barium
Bk
Berkelium
Be
Beryllium
Radioactive particles
Beta (-) Gamma (0) Alpha (2+)
Where is the electron density in a sigma bond?
Between the elements
Bi
Bismuth
Group 18 trends: Boiling point Density
Boiling point increases down a group Density increases down a group
Order the following compounds by bond strength and by acid strength: HF, HCl, HBr, HI
Bond Strength: HF>>HCl>HBr>HI Acid Strength: HF<<HCl<HBr<HI
Order the following compounds by bond strength and by acid strength: H₂O, H₂S, H₂Se, H₂Te
Bond Strength: H₂O>>H₂S>H₂Se>H₂Te Acid Strength: H₂O<<H₂S<H₂Se<H₂Te
Bond order formula
Bond order = 1/2 (Bonding e⁻ - Antibonding e⁻)
Electronegativity differences are an indicator of what?
Bond polarity
B
Boron
Hypobromite
BrO⁻
Bromite
BrO₂⁻
Bromate
BrO₃⁻
Perbromate
BrO₄⁻
Br
Bromine
Methane
CH₄
Cyanide
CN⁻
Carbonate
CO₃²⁻
Cd
Cadmium
Ca
Calcium
Cf
Californium
C
Carbon
Ce
Cerium
Cs
Cesium
Group 16 Name
Chalcogens
Standard enthalpy of formation, ΔH⁰_f
Change in enthalpy that forms 1 mole of compound from elements in standard states
What does lattice energy depend on and how do they affect lattice energy?
Charge of ions: As charge increases, LE increases Distance: As distance between ions increases, LE decreases
Cl
Chlorine
Cr
Chromium
Hypochlorite
ClO⁻
Chlorite
ClO₂⁻
Chlorate
ClO₃⁻
Perchlorate
ClO₄⁻
Co
Cobalt
Does an endothermic reaction feel hot or cold?
Cold
Strong electrolytes
Completely dissociate in H₂O All ionic compounds Strong acids
Fourth postulate of Dalton's Atomic Theory
Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine; a given compound always has the same relative number and kind of atoms. Small whole number ratio; constant composition.
When are roman numerals used in nomenclature?
Compounds with Sn, Pb, and transition metals
Radiation composed of an array of different wavelengths
Continuous
Cu
Copper
Chromite
CrO₃²⁻
Chromate
CrO₄²⁻
Evangelista Torricelli
Created the barometer
Francis Aston
Created the mass spectrometer
Flame test colors for: Lithium Sodium Potassium Rubidium Cesium
Crimson Yellow Lilac Red-violet Blue
Dichromate
Cr₂O₇²⁻
Cm
Curium
Decane
C₁₀H₂₂
Acetate
C₂H₃O₂⁻ (CH₃COO⁻)
Ethane
C₂H₆
Oxalate
C₂O₄²⁻
Propane
C₃H₈
Butane
C₄H₁₀
Pentane
C₅H₁₂
Hexane
C₆H₁₄
Heptane
C₇H₁₆
Octane
C₈H₁₈
Nonane
C₉H₂₀
Where did Percy Julian get his B.S? M.D.? Ph.D.? Where was he a professor?
DePauw Harvard Vienna Howard
What unit is used for a dipole moment?
Debeyes
What is the benefit of using H₂ as a fuel source on the environment?
Decrease CO₂ (pollution) emissions
As the average number of screening electrons increases, Z_eff ___
Decreases
As the distance from the nucleus increases, Z_eff ___
Decreases
Electronegativity trend
Decreases down a group Increases left to right
Ionization energy trend
Decreases from top to bottom within a group Increases from left to right within a period (Arrow from Cs to F)
Density
Density = mass/volume
Extensive properties
Depends on the amount of the sample (ie. mass, length, and volume)
State Function definition
Depends on the initial and final states of the system, not on how the path the system took to get there
How to determine the limiting reactant (short cut)
Determine the number of moles of each reactant Divide by the reactant coefficient The smaller number is the LR
Allotrope defintion
Different structural modifications of an element
Allotropes of Oxygen
Dioxygen (O₂) = Linear = Standard State Ozone (O₃) = Bent
Paul-Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran
Discovered Gallia (Gallium)
Henri Becquerel
Discovered that uranium mineral pitch blende spontaneously emitted high energy particles Discovered radioactivity
Ernest Rutherford
Discovered the 3 types of radiation
Nuclear charge depends on
Distance from the nucleus Number of core electrons
Who were the two chemists that came up with the periodic table? Did they work together or independently?
Dmitri Mendeleev & Lothar Meyer Independently
Intensive properties
Do not depend on the amount of sample being examined (ie. Density)
Dy
Dysprosium
Average Kinetic Energy formula
E = 1/2 mμ² Where E = average KE m = mass μ = root mean square speed
Formula for quantum
E = hv where h is Planck's constant and v = frequency
Energy of the furthest orbit (as it approaches infinity)
E is 0
First postulate of Dalton's Atomic Theory
Each Element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms
Es
Einsteinium
Michael Faraday
Electrolysis is proportional to the current passed through compounds
Molecular Orbital Theory (MO Theory)
Electrons in molecules reside in molecular orbitals
Isotope defintion
Elements that have multiple mass numbers due to differing number of neutrons
ΔH>0 reaction type
Endothermic (q_p is +)
Bohr's Third Postulate
Energy is emitted or absorbed by the electron only as the electron changes from one allowed energy state to another. This energy is emitted or absorbed as a photon that has energy, E=hv
Kinetic Energy definition & Formula
Energy of Motion KE = 1/2 mv²
Avogadro's Law
Equal volume of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules (ie. 22.4 L of any gas at STP contains 6.02x10²³ gas molecules) The volume of a gas at constant temperature and pressure is directly proportional to the number of moles of the gas (V α n) So... V = constant x n
Er
Erbium
Eu
Europium
Conjugate base
Every acid has a conjugate base, formed by removing a proton from the acid
Conjugate acid
Every base has a conjugate acid, formed by adding a proton to the base
Surroundings definiton
Everything except for the system
ΔH<0 reaction type
Exothermic (q_p is -)
What does Kinetic Molecular Theory explain?
Explains the behavior of gases in motion
What does molarity express? What is the formula for molarity?
Expresses concentration M = moles of solute/L of solution
Is enthalpy an extensive or intensive property? Why?
Extensive, because the magnitude of ΔH is proportional to the amount of reactant consumed in the process
Formal charge formula
FC = Group #(1-8) - [# of bonds + # of unshared electrons] or as I like to say... FC = Group # - sticks and dots
Fm
Fermium
Hund's Rule
Fill each orbital with 1 electron before filling with the second electrons of opposite spin
Percy Julian
First to produce physostigmine Produced progesterone and testosterone Prepared cortisone One of the first African-Americans to receive a doctorate in chemistry Researcher for Glidden
F
Fluorine
How do you determine the relative acid strength for ternary acids?
For acids have the same central atom, the higher oxidation state of the central atom is [usually] the strongest acid
Intermolecular Force
Force between molecules
Intramolecular Force
Force within molecules
Formal charge definition
Formal charges are assigned by completely ignoring electronegativity and assigning the electrons in bonds equally between the bonded atoms
What are metathesis reactions driven by?
Formation of a precipitates, weak or non-electrolytes, and insoluble gases
What is H₂ made from in the US?
Fossil fuels
Fr
Francium
Gd
Gadolinium
Ga
Gallium
What is the order of the electromagnetic spectrum?
Gamma, X-ray, UV, Visible spectrum (violet to red), Infrared, Microwave, Radio
In terms of strength, rank the 3 types of radiation.
Gamma>Beta>Alpha
Condensation
Gas to Liquid
Deposition
Gas to Solid
Ge
Germanium
Au
Gold
Molar mass/Molecular weight
Grams in 1 mole of a substance
Allotropes of Carbon
Graphite = Standard state = can become Diamond with pressure, heat, and time Diamond Fullerene (C₆₀)
Strong Arrhenius Bases
Group 1 (Li, K, Na, Rb, Cs) and 2 (Ca, Ba, Sr) with OH⁻, H⁻, O²⁻, or NH₂⁻
First explosive
Gun powder
Enthalpy (H) Formula
H = E + PV
Bicarbonate
HCO₃⁻
Strong Acids
HCl, HBr, HI, HNO₃, H₂SO₄, HClO₃, HClO₄ BrINO SO CLO CLO + Cl
Order the following compounds by acid strength: HClO, HClO₂, HClO₃, HClO₄
HClO<HClO₂<HClO₃<HClO₄ +1 +3 +5 +7 (Oxidation states)
Common Weak Acids
HF, HCN, CH₃COOH, HNO₂, H₂CO₃, H₂SO₃, H₃PO₄, (COOH)₂
Diatomic molecules
HOFBrINCl
Hf
Hafnium
Group 17 Name
Halogens
What group has the most negative electron affinity?
Halogens
What is odd about Gilbert Lewis' death?
He died alone in his lab (possibly suicide?)
Specific heat capacity
Heat capacity of 1 gram of a substance
Molar heat capacity
Heat capacity of 1 mole of substance
Who came up with the Uncertainty Principle, when, and what did it state?
Heisenberg 1927 "The more precisely the position is determined, the less precisely the momentum is known in this instant, and vice versa"
He
Helium
Solvation
Helps stabilize the ions in solution and prevents cations and anions from recombining
Gamma end of EM spectrum: ___ energy ___ frequency ___ wavelength
High energy High frequency Short wavelength
Characteristics of Gases
Highly compressible Occupy the full volume of the container Form homogeneous mixtures with other gases
Ho
Holmium
Does an exothermic reaction feel hot or cold?
Hot
H
Hydrogen
Hypoiodite
IO⁻
Iodite
IO₂⁻
Iodate
IO₃⁻
Periodate
IO₄⁻
What country is most likely to become the first country that runs on H₂?
Iceland due to magma near the surface that provides lots of heat/steam for generation of electricity
Enthalpies of Formation (aka Heat of formation)
If 1 mole of compound is formed from its constituent elements, the enthalpy change is ΔH_f
Hess's Law of Heat Summation
If a reaction is carried out in a number of steps, ΔH for the overall reaction is the sum of ΔH for each individual step
Dalton's Law of Multiple Proportions
If two elements A and B combine to form more than one compound, the masses of B that can combine with a given mass of A are in the ratio of small whole numbers
What are the differences between Arrhenius and Bronsted-Lowry acids/bases?
In Bronsted-Lowry theory, reactions do not have to occur in aqueous solution and bases are not required to be hydroxides
What is the law of constant composition? Which of Dalton's postulates is the basis for the law?
In a given compound, the relative numbers and kinds of atoms are constant Fourth postulate
How is the activity series arranged?
In decreasing ease of oxidation (the higher up on the list, the more reactive the metal)
Does reactivity increase or decrease down a group?
Increases
Nuclear Charge trend
Increases SLIGHTLY from top to bottom Increases from left to right within a row
Atomic Radii trend
Increases from top to bottom within a group Decreases from left to right within a row (Arrow from F to Cs)
In
Indium
Water Gas Shift Reaction (WGSR)
Industrial way to produce H₂
In what part of the EM spectrum do vibrations occur?
Infrared portion
Solubility Rules CO₃²⁻
Insoluble except NH₄⁺ and alkali metals
Solubility Rules CrO₄²⁻
Insoluble except NH₄⁺ and alkali metals
Solubility Rules C₂O₄²⁻
Insoluble except NH₄⁺ and alkali metals
Solubility Rules PO₄³⁻
Insoluble except NH₄⁺ and alkali metals
Solubility Rules SO₃²⁻
Insoluble except NH₄⁺ and alkali metals
Solubility Rules O²⁻
Insoluble except NH₄⁺, alkali metals, Ca²⁺, Ba²⁺, and Sr²⁺
Solubility Rules S²⁻
Insoluble except NH₄⁺, alkali metals, Ca²⁺, Ba²⁺, and Sr²⁺
Solubility Rules OH⁻
Insoluble except NH₄⁺, alkali metalso, Ca²⁺, Ba²⁺, and Sr²⁺
The smaller the distance between gas molecules, the more likely ___ will develop
Intermolecular forces
I
Iodine
Which has a higher melting point: covalent or ionic compounds?
Ionic
Solubility in non-polar solvents: covalent and ionic compounds
Ionic = insoluble Covalent = soluble
Solubility in polar solvents: covalent and ionic compounds
Ionic = soluble Covalent = insoluble
Which type of compound can conduct electricity and why?
Ionic compounds generally conduct electricity due to mobile ions
Ir
Iridium
Fe
Iron
The Arrhenius theory of acids/bases is very limited, what is its restriction?
It is restricted to aqueous solutions
Who discovered the electron? The proton? The neutron?
JJ Thomson Ernest Rutherford James Chadwick
Unit for energy
Joule (J) = 1 kg∙m²/s²
Conversion K → °C
K = °C+273.15
Kr
Krypton
La
Lanthanum
Are anions larger or smaller than their parent ion?
Larger
Is lattice energy typically positive or negative? Why?
Lattice energy is ALWAYS positive because it takes energy to break the bonds
Lr
Lawrencium
Pb
Lead
What element comes first in nomenclature?
Least electronegative
Mole Fraction formula
Let n_i be the # of moles of grams i exerting a partial P_i, then P_i = X_i * P_tot where X_i is the mole fraction (n_i/n_t)
What is the mnemonic device to remember the activity series?
Li & K (lick) Ba & Ca (a back-a) Na (but you're like nah cause it's gross) Mg & Al (A magical) Mn (Man) Zn (goes to sleep) Cr (you're like, Crap!) Fe (so you feed him) Co (cookies) Ni (at night) Sn (In the sun-time,) Pb (you feed him peanut butter) H₂ (haha) Cu (see you later) Ag (alligator) Hg (hugs) Pt (he falls into a pit) Au (so you're like awww)
What did the photoelectric effect demonstrate?
Light has particle behavior
Photoelectric Effect
Light traveled in energy packets: Photons (E = hv)
Does a lighter gas or heavier gas have a higher rms speed, if they are at the same temperature?
Lighter
Diffusion is faster for...
Lighter gases
What shape is the graph V vs. T?
Linear When the T is in °C → intersect = -273
What is a failure of the Lewis theory?
Liquid O₂ is paramagnetic even though there are no unpaired electrons
Vapors definition
Liquid particles going to gas phase
Evaporation
Liquid to Gas
Freezing
Liquid to Solid
Li
Lithium
Radio wave end of EM spectrum: ___ energy ___ frequency ___ wavelength
Low energy Low frequency Long wavelength
What greek symbol is used for polarity?
Lowercase delta (δ)
Lu
Lutetium
What theory is related to bond order?
MO Theory
Mg
Magnesium
In a mass spectrometer, what does the extent of deflection depend on?
Magnitude of the accelerating voltage Magnetic field strength Masses of particles Charges of particles
Mn
Manganese
How to determine how many neutrons an atom has
Mass Number - Protons
How many electrons are in each MO?
Max 2 electron
Alkali Metals and Alkaline earth metals trends: Melting Point Density
Melting point decreases down the group Density increases down the group
Group 17 trends: Melting point Density Acidity
Melting point increases down a group Density increases down a group HX are strong acids except for HF
Group 16 trends: Melting point Density Metallic character
Melting point increases down a group Density increases down a group Metallic character increases down a group
Md
Mendelevium
Hg
Mercury
Ionic compound
Metal + nonmetal
Metal oxide + water → ?
Metal Hydroxide
What did Stan use to store H₂?
Metal hydrides using metal alloys
What is difference between Amphetamine and Methamphetamine?
Methamphetamine has a methyl group (CH₃) in place for one of the Hydrogens
In what part of the EM spectrum do rotations occur?
Microwave portion
Permanganate
MnO₄⁻
When are prefixes used in nomenclature?
Molecular compounds
Mo
Molybdenum
What are the prefixes used in nomenclature?
Mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, hexa, hepta, octa, nona, deca
Radiation composed of 1 wavelength
Monochromatic
The higher the ionization energy, the ___ to remove an electron
More difficult
What element ends in -ide in nomenclature?
Most electronegative
Rutherford's Atomic Theory
Most of the mass of the atom, and all of its positive charge, reside in a very small, extremely dense region called the nucleus
What is the most electronegative element and what is the least electronegative element?
Most: F (4.0) Least: Cs (0.7)
Dilution formula
M₁V₁ = M₂V₂
Ammonium
NH₄⁺
Nitrite
NO₂⁻
Nitrate
NO₃⁻
JJ Thomson
Named cathode rays "electrons" Discovered electrons
On what element should a negative formal charge reside?
Negative charges should reside on more electronegative elements
Cathode Rays
Negative to positive flow in the Cathode Ray Tube
Nd
Neodymium
Ne
Neon
Np
Neptunium
Ni
Nickel
Nb
Niobium
N
Nitrogen
What are the two explosives we learned about?
Nitroglycerine Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
Can lattice energy be experimentally determined?
No
Are Lewis acids/bases also Bronsted-Lowry acids/bases? What about Arrhenius acids/bases?
No! No!
Are Bronsted-Lowry Acids/Bases also Arrhenius acids/bases? What about Lewis acids/bases?
No! Yes!
Can we measure absolute internal energy? Why or Why not?
No! Because there are too many factors to take into account
Does the strength of an acid or base depend on reactivity?
No! Strength and reactivity are not related
Can bond order be measured?
No, but it can be calculated
At high pressure, does 1 mole of a real gas follow this formula: PV/RT =1?
No, it varies from 1 significantly
No
Nobelium
Group 18 Name
Noble gases
A dipole moment = 0 indicates what type of molecule?
Non-polar
What is the electronegativity difference of a non-polar compound? Polar? Ionic?
Non-polar = around 0 Polar = around 2 Ionic = around 3
Type of electrolyte: Not ionic; Not water soluble OR not a strong/weak acid/base
Nonelectrolyte
Molecular/Covalent compound
Nonmetal + nonmetal
Eugene Goldstein
Noted streams of + charged particles mixed in with cathode rays, but travelling in the opposite direction Canal rays=protons Not credited with the discovery of protons
Atomic Number
Number of protons
Hydroxide
OH⁻
Thermochemistry defintion
Observe, measure, and predict thermodynamics
Neutralization
Occurs when a solution of an acid and base are mixed
When making ions, what electron is removed?
One from the highest energy level (ie. Remove from 4s before 3d)
Decomposition Reactions
One substance undergoes a reaction to produce two or more other substances C → A + B
Bohr's First Postulate
Only orbits of certain radii, corresponding to certain specific energies, are permitted for the electron in a hydrogen atom
Os
Osmium
Solutes
Other substances in the solution Dissolved in the solvent
OIL RIG
Oxidation is loss Reduction is gain
O
Oxygen
How can fish breathe if O₂ is non-polar?
O₂ has an instantaneous dipole moment which allows it to dissolve in water
Peroxide
O₂²⁻
Phosphite
PO₃³⁻
Phosphate
PO₄³⁻
Ideal Gas Equation
PV = nRT
(Manometer) If P_gas < P_atm, then
P_gas + P_h₂ = P_atm
(Manometer) If P_gas > P_atm, then
P_gas = P_atm + P_h₂
Collecting gas over water formula
P_tot = P_gas + P_water
Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures
P_tot = P₁ + P₂ + P₃ ... Each gas obeys the ideal gas equation so... P_tot = (n₁ + n₂ + n₃...) RT/V = n_tot (RT/V) The total P (at constant T & V) is the total number of moles present
Who else made the same discovery as Charles Martin Hall?
Pall Heroult
Pd
Palladium
Humphrey Davy
Passed electricity through compounds & some compounds decomposed into elements Electrolytic cells
What is the difference between phenylephrine and methamphetamine?
Phenylephrine has two hydroxide groups and lacks a methyl group Therefore, meth cannot be made
P
Phosphorus
Pt
Platinum
Pu
Plutonium
Group 15 Name
Pnictogens
A dipole moment > 0 indicates what type of molecule?
Polar
Solubility of polar and non-polar molecules in non-polar solvents
Polar: Insoluble Non-polar: Soluble
Solubility of polar and non-polar molecules in polar solvents
Polar: Soluble Non-polar: Insoluble
Po
Polonium
Is bond enthalpy positive or negative? Why?
Positive because energy is always required to break a bond
K
Potassium
Chemical energy defintion
Potential energy stored in atoms due to their arrangements in molecules or ions
Pr
Praseodymium
Darts land in the same place
Precision
Weak electrolytes
Produce a small concentration of ions when they dissolve (partially ionize) Exist in equilibrium with non-ionized sample Weak acids and bases
What was the name of Charles Martin Hall's professor that challenged the students to free Al from its ore?
Professor Frank Jewett
Pm
Promethium
Relationship between Effusion and rms speed Relationship between Diffusion and rms speed
Proportional Significantly slower that rms speed because it is slowed by gas molecules colliding with each other
Pa
Protactinium
Bronsted-Lowry Theory: Bases
Proton (H⁺) acceptor
Bronsted-Lowry Theory: Acids
Proton (H⁺) donor
What is the difference between pseudoephedrine and methamphetamine?
Pseudoephedrine has an hydroxide (OH) group added To make meth, all one has to do is "nip off" the OH
Louis de Broglie
Published theory: Wave properties of the electron The same kind of wave behavior as EM radiation
Allotropes of Phosphorus
P₄ = white = Standard state Hittoff's Phosphorus = red Black Phosphorus
What did Max Planck discover?
Quanta: Energy can be absorbed/released from atoms in certain amounts
Ra
Radium
Rn
Radon
Combustion Reactions
Rapid reactions that produce a flame Usually: Hydrocarbon + O₂ → H₂O + CO₂
Diamagnetism
Repelled by a magnetic field due to no unpaired electrons
Re
Rhenium
Rh
Rhodium
Rb
Rubidium
Ru
Ruthenium
Rf
Rutherfordium
Thiocyanate
SCN⁻
Sulfite
SO₃²⁻
Sulfate
SO₄²⁻
Metal + nonmetal → ?
Salt
What does a neutralization reaction form?
Salt (metal + halogen → cation comes from a base and anion comes from an acid) and water
Sm
Samarium
Isoelectronic defintion
Same # of electrons (ie. O²⁻, F⁻, Na⁺, Mg²⁺, Al³⁺ all have 10 electrons)
The First Law of Thermodynamics
Same as the Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy is constant so any energy transferred from a system must transfer to surroundings (& vice versa)
Isomer definition
Same formula, different shapes
When reversing reactions, what happens to ΔH?
Same magnitude, opposite sign
Sc
Scandium
Se
Selenium
Covalent bond
Sharing of electrons between atoms
What are the common impurities of Bauxite?
SiO₂ & Fe₂O₃
Si
Silicon
Ag
Silver
In terms of σ and π describe the three types of bonds
Single: σ Double: σ & π Triple: σ & 2π
Are cations larger or smaller than their parent ion?
Smaller
Na
Sodium
Sublimation
Solid to Gas
Melting
Solid to Liquid
Formula for wave speed
Speed = vλ = c
Type of electrolyte: Water soluble and ionic
Strong electrolyte
Type of electrolyte: Water soluble, not ionic, but strong acid/base
Strong electrolyte
Sr
Strontium
Arrhenius Theory: Bases
Substances that form OH⁻ ions in aqueous solution
Arrhenius Theory: Acids
Substances that ionize to form H⁺ ions in aqueous solution
Electrolyte
Substances whose aqueous solutions contain ions (ie. Sodium Chloride)
S
Sulfur
Metathesis Reaction
Swapping ions in solution AX + BY → AY + BX
Thiosulfate
S₂O₃²⁻
Allotropes of Sulfur
S₆, S₇, S₈, Catena (S_infinity chain) S₈ = Standard State
STP
T = 0 °C or 273 K P = 1 atm 22.4 L of gas (1 mole)
Charles' Law
THe volume of a fixed quantity of a gas, at constant pressure, is proportional to the temperature (V α T) So,,, V= constant x T OR V/T = constant
What is the main exception to electron configurations?
Taking an electron from the s orbital to make the d orbital either 5 or 10
Ta
Tantalum
Tc
Technetium
Te
Tellurium
Tb
Terbium
Tl
Thallium
Electronegativity defintion
The ability of atoms to attract electrons
What groups are most easily oxidized?
The alkali metals and alkaline earth metals
Heat capacity
The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of an object by 1°
Ionization Energy
The amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atoms
Mean Free Path
The average distance of a gas molecule between collisions At sea level it is approximately 6 x 10⁻⁶
Energy definition
The capacity to perform work OR transfer heat
What do mass spectrometers measure?
The charge to mass ratio of charged particles Isotopic abundance
Graham's Law of Effusion
The effusion rate of a gas is inversely proportional to the √ of its molar mass r₁/r₂ = √(M₂/M₁) Where r = the rate of effusion and M = molar mass
Electron affinity
The energy change when a gaseous atom gains an electron
Fuel value defintion
The energy released when 1 gram of a substance undergoes combustion
Lattice energy definition
The energy required to completely transform 1 mole of an ionic solid into its gaseous ions
Potential Energy definition
The energy that a system possesses by virtue of its position or composition
Work definition
The energy used to cause an object to move against a force
Heat definition
The energy used to cause the temperature of an object to increase
Bond enthalpy
The enthalpy change, ΔH, for the breaking of a bond in 1 mole of a gaseous substance
Pressure definition
The force acting on an object per unit area (P = F/A)
When looking at a Lewis structure, how do we determine the hybridization of the molecule?
The hybridization of the central atom will add up to the number of electron domains
Effusion
The leakage/escape of gas molecules from a container through tiny holes
Calorimetry definiton
The measurement of heat flow
Bauxite
The most useful ore of Al Al₂O₃∙(H₂O)_x
KMT states that P results from?
The number of collisions per unit time on the walls of the container
System definition
The part of the universe we are interested in
Percent composition
The percentage by mass contributed by each element in the substance =(# of atoms of element)(atomic weight of element)/(molecular weight of substance) * 100%
Equivalence Point defintion
The point at which stoichiometrically equivalent quantities are brought together
What does a manometer measure?
The pressure of gases not open to the atmosphere
Radial electron density definition
The probability of finding an electron at a given distance
Limiting reactant
The reactant that is completely consumed in a reaction
Root mean square speed, μ
The speed of a gas molecule having average kinetic energy
Radioactivity definition
The spontaneous emission of energy as electromagnetic waves/high energy subatomic particles
Diffusion
The spreading/motion of a gas through space or through a second gaseous substance (like a 6th grader with Axe)
Bond order definition
The stability of a bond is related to its bond order
Thermodynamics defition
The study of energy changes that accompany physical and chemical processes
Solvent
The substance present in the greatest quantity
The number of hybrid orbitals is equal to...
The sum of the superscripts in the hybridization
What does a positive ΔE signify?
The system has gained energy from its surroundings (net gain)
What does a negative ΔE signify?
The system has lost energy to its surroundings (net loss)
What is the Law of Conservation of Mass? Which of Dalton's postulates is the basis for the law?
The total mass of materials present after a chemical reaction is the same as the total mass present before the reaction Third postulate
Boyle's Law
The volume of a fixed quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure (P α 1/V) So... V= constant x 1/P OR PV = constant
If: Elements in standard states → 1 mole of compound in standard state
Then ΔH° = ΔH°_f
Th
Thorium
Tm
Thulium
Sn
Tin
Ti
Titanium
What are formal charges used for?
To distinguish between Lewis structures. The most likely structure is usually where the charges are closest to 0
Internal energy defintion
Total energy of a system
Ionic bond
Transfer of electrons
W
Tungsten
Combination Reactions
Two or more substances react to form one product A + B → C
In what part of the EM spectrum do electronic transitions occur?
UV portion
U
Uranium
How can we calculate lattice energy?
Using the Born-Haber Cycle, which uses Hess's Law of Heat Summation
Biogasification
Using the photosynthesis of algae to make H₂
Combined gas laws proportion
V α nT/P P₁V₁/n₁T₁ = P₂V₂/n₂T₂
What theory is hybridization related to?
Valence Bond Theory
VSEPR Theory stands for...
Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory
V
Vanadium
Visible spectrum approximate wavelengths
Violet (400nm) → Red (750nm)
As pressure is increased, what happens to the volume of a gas?
Volume decreases as pressure increases
Titration
Volume of standard solution → Moles of solute in standard solution → Use coefficient from balanced equation → Moles of solute in unknown solution → Concentration of unknown solution
Percy Julian Overview
Watch Drunk History! (It's funny)
What is the autoionization of water?
Water can react with itself since its both an acid or base in Bronsted-Lowry theory H₂O + H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ + OH⁻
Erwin Rudolf Alexander Schrodinger
Wave Function Ψ^2 gives the probability of locating the e⁻ e⁻ density
Type of electrolyte: Water soluble, not ionic, but weak acid/base
Weak electrolyte
Precipitation Reactions
When 2 solutions are mixed and a solid is formed
Standard enthalpy change, ΔH°
When all reactants and products are in standard states
Endothermic reation
When the system absorbs heat (heat flows into the system from its surroundings)
Exothermic reaction
When the system loses heat (heat flows out of the system into the surroundings)
Continuous light through a prism
White light
Xe
Xenon
Is internal energy a state function? Pressure? Volume? Enthalpy?
YES
Can bond order be non-integer?
Yes
Are Arrhenius acids/bases also Bronsted-Lowry acids/bases? What about Lewis acids/bases?
Yes! Yes!
Does ΔH depend on the states of the reactants and products? (Solid vs. Liquid vs. Gas)
Yes, for example, H₂O(g) → H₂O(l) ΔH = -88 kJ
Yb
Ytterbium
Y
Yttrium
Effective Nuclear Charge formula
Z_eff = Atomic number - # of core electrons
Effective Nuclear Charge Defintion
Z_eff = The charge experienced by an electron in a many electron atom Electrons are attracted to the nucleus, but repelled by the electrons that screen the nucleus
Zn
Zinc
Zr
Zirconium
Antoine Lavosier
[The First] Law of Conservation of Matter: No detectable change in the quantity of matter in a chemical reaction
Most non metal oxides are acidic or basic?
acidic
Is ionization energy positive or negative?
always positive
Indicator defintion
an organic dye that changes color in the presence of H⁺ ions
Benzene is an ___ compound due to the π cloud/delocalization
aromatic
Valence Bond Theory states that bonds form when...
atomic orbitals overlap
When alkali metals react with O₂, different compounds form due to differences in
atomic size Li₂O (oxide) Na₂O₂ (peroxide) KO₂ (superoxide)
Most metal oxides are acidic or basic?
basic
At higher pressure, the gas molecules are ___ As molecules are closer, the V of the container ___ As volume decreases, the ___ space the molecules occupy Therefore, at a higher pressure, the ___ deviation from ideal behavior
closer decreases more greater
Lewis Theory is the most ___ of the theories
comprehensive
Gas density equation
d = PM/RT where M is molar mass
Orbitals of the same energy are ___
degenerate
d orbital name Number of orbitals Shape
diffuse 5: d_xy, d_yz, d_xz, d_x^2-y^2, d_z^2 4 have four lobes & 1 has 2 lobes and a collar
Charles Martin Hall
discovered the way to mass produce Al through cryolite (application of freezing point depression) Created the Aluminum Company of America (ALCOA)
Lewis Theory: Acids
electron pair acceptor
Lewis Theory: Bases
electron pair donor
As temperature increases, the gas molecules move ___ and ___ apart/together
faster further
f orbital name
fundamental
Reduction
gain of electrons by a substance becomes more negatively charged
Planck's constant
h = 6.626 x 10⁻³⁴ J∙s
The faster the movement, the ___ likelihood of effusion
higher
The magnitude of pressure in a system is given by?
how often and hard molecules strike the walls of the container
What shape is the graph of V vs. P? V vs. 1/P
hyperbola Linear going through the origin
As Z_eff increases, ionization energy ___
increases
Angular Momentum Quantum #
l (n-1) s=0 p=1 d=2 f=3 Shape of the orbital in space
Fingerprint of an element
line spectrum
Oxidation
loss of electrons by a substance becomes more positively charged
Magnetic Quantum Number #
m_l -l to +l Gives 3D orientation of orbital in space
Spin Magnetic Quantum #
m_s +- 1/2 Magnetic field
Chemical systems tend toward a state of ___ disorder
maximum (order to disorder)
Chemical systems tend toward a state of ___ potential energy
minimum (high PE to low PE)
VSEPR theory states that...
molecules tend toward minimum repulsion
IE₂ is ___ than IE₁
much greater
Principal Quantum #
n
The greater the attraction between an atom and an added electron, the more ____ the atom's electron affinity
negative
Strong acid → ___ conjugate base
negligible
Strong base → ___ conjugate acid
negligible
Electron affinity and ionization energy are ___
opposites
p: orbital name Number of orbitals Shape As n increases, p-orbitals get ___ How many nodes are there in a p orbital?
primary 3: p_x, p_y, p_z Dumbbell 1 at the nucleus
Calorimetry formula
q = MCΔT
Constant Pressure Calorimetry formula
q_solution = MCΔT = -q_rxn
s: orbital name shape As n increases, s-orbitals get ___ As n increases, the # of nodes ___ How many nodes are there in an s orbital?
simple spherical larger increases n-1 nodes
Empirical formula
smallest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound
Enthalpies of Reactions (heat of reaction) definition
the enthalpy change in a reaction (ΔH_rxn)
Mass Number
total number of nucleons (Protons+Neutrons)
To predict molecular shape, we assume...
valence electrons repel each other
If pressure is constant, in pressure volume work (PV work), what is its formula?
w = -PΔV
Weak acid → ___ conjugate base (& vice versa)
weak
The stronger the acid, the _____ its conjugate base
weaker
The stronger the base, the _____ its conjugate acid
weaker
Valence Bond Theory explains...
why bonds form
Conversion °C → °F
°C = 5/9 (°F-32)
Conversion °F → °C
°F = 9/5 (°C) +32
What is the formula for an electron absorbing/emitting energy in quanta? What does this energy change signify?
ΔE = E_f - E_i = hv Electrons move between orbits
What are the formulas for change in Internal Energy?
ΔE = E_final - E_initial ΔE = q + w where q=absorbed heat & w=work done
Enthalpy change formula
ΔH = H_products - H_reactacts
Hess's Law and enthalpies of a reaction
ΔH = SUM(nΔH°_f products) - SUM(mΔH°_f reactants)
If P is constant in the Enthalpy Formula, what does the formula become?
ΔH = ΔE +PΔV = (q_p + w) - w = q_p
ΔH_rxn in terms of bonds
ΔH_rxn = SUM(bond enthalpy of bonds broken) - SUM(bond enthalpy of bonds formed)
What is the formula for the Born-Haber Cycle?
ΔH°_overall = ΔH₁° + ΔH₂° +ΔH₃° + ΔH₄° + ΔH₅°
The Uncertainty Principle Formula
Δx ∙ Δmv >= h/(4pi)
Louis de Broglie's Formula
λ=h/(mv) where h = Planck's constant and mv = momentum λ = wave property mv = particle property
Formula for dipole moment
μ = Qr where μ is dipole moment Q is magnitude of charges r is bond distance
Effusion Equation
μ = √(3RT/M)
Limitations of the Bohr Model
∙Cannot describe spectra of other atoms (only H) ∙Describing e⁻ as merely particle circling the nucleus ∙Bohr model does not work with the wave properties
Significance of the Bohr Model
∙Electrons exist in certain discrete energy levels (basis for quantum numbers) ∙Energy is involved for an electron to move energy levels
What are the assumptions of KMT?
∙Large # of molecules in constant random motion ∙V of individual molecules is negligible ∙Intermolecular forces are negligible ∙Enegy can be transferred between molecules but total KE is constant at a constant T ∙Average KE of molecules is proportional to T