child development 8-11

Reading comprehension is dependent on many component skills, including all of the following except __________.

concrete operations

All of the following are categories of specific learning disorders under the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5) guidelines, except impairment in __________.

working memory

A randomized controlled trial study conducted by the NIMH revealed that the most effective interventions for ADHD involve __________.

a combination of medication and behavior management

The underlying cognitive/neurobehavioral difficulty in at least some cases of ADHD appears to involve any of the following, except __________.

a delay in the development of motor regions of the cortex

Based on experiments such as that of Markman and Seibert on class inclusion, many researchers now conclude that children are capable of concrete logical thought at the ages of about __________ years.

4 to 5

What is an important difference between moral and social conventional rules?

Conventional rules are viewed by children as more open to change than moral rules.

According to research, what should a father who wants to increase prosocial behavior in his 3-year-old boy do?

Model prosocial behavior or help the child regulate his emotions.

After five decades of follow-up research, developmental scientists now agree that __________.

Piaget underestimated young children's cognitive competence, and development is more gradual and continuous than Piaget thought

Which of the actions below appropriately uses more than one of the parenting techniques recommended in the chapter in a situation in which a child has just hit another child hard enough to leave a bruise?

The parent explains to the child how aggression makes others feel and puts the child in time-out to calm down and think about it.

What has the well-known Abecedarian study, which provided a full-day, year-round educational program to low-income African American children from 6 weeks to 5 years of age, shown about the effects of child care on young children's cognitive skills?

The program produced gains in IQ and reading and math achievement, and the experimental group had lower rates of repeating a grade and placement in special education and higher rates of attendance at four-year colleges.

While Vygotsky has made many positive contributions to developmental psychology, critics have pointed to all except which of the following shortcomings?

Vygotsky failed to see how society and culture influenced development.

In the "Shape Up Somerville" study, the intervention was carried out __________.

at multiple levels of children's environment

The contributions of genes and environment to variations in intelligence __________.

differ in advantaged and disadvantaged environments

Four-year-old Lisa meets a cuddly-looking dog at the park. She has a dog at home, and in the past she has impulsively petted unfamiliar dogs. However, before petting the dog, she asks the dog's owner if it's OK. Lisa is demonstrating __________.

effortful control

A child thinks that because she is traveling in a car, headed toward the zoo, everyone else on the road must be going to the zoo. This is an example of __________.

egocentrism

A study of sex differences in movement capacities in middle childhood found greater average __________ for girls and greater average __________ for boys.

flexibility; throwing ability

All of the following are environmental variables that appear to contribute to the rate of development of a theory of mind, except __________.

having a younger sibling

In keeping with their original purpose, intelligence test scores in childhood show consistent, moderate correlations with current and future __________.

school grades and achievement scores

Which of the following is implicated as an environmental source of the fourfold increase in childhood obesity since the 1960s?

sedentary lifestyle and higher calorie consumption

A common pattern in sports and activity participation for children is to __________.

shift from sport to sport during the early phases of middle childhood

Children who spend a lot of time watching TV are more likely to be obese than their peers because __________.

they are more sedentary and more likely to eat junk food

When asked what a female or male doll "likes" to do, 3- to 4-year-old boys and girls usually respond that the female doll likes cooking and dressing up, and the male doll likes play-fighting and playing with trucks. This response reflects an awareness of gender __________.

typing

According to Kochanska's longitudinal studies, children who develop a mutually responsive orientation with their parents are more likely to __________ than the children of power-assertive parents.

understand their parents' rules

According to Baddeley's model of memory, visualizing the numbers 12 and 8 being added on a sheet of paper involves the working memory buffer called the __________, whereas maintaining the total (20) in verbal memory as you move on to the next step in the problem involves the working memory buffer known as __________.

visuospatial sketchpad; phonological loop

__________ gets children started on a hypothesis about a word's meaning, but it may take them years to achieve full understanding of the word.

Fast mapping

Researchers who closely studied socioemotional functioning in groups of non-overweight, overweight, obese, and extremely obese children found that the groups of overweight, obese, and extremely obese children suffered from all of the following, except __________.

academic problems in school

A criticism of Piaget's concrete operations period is apparent in the longitudinal data collected by Tomlinson-Keasey and colleagues, which is that __________.

acquisition of concrete operational concepts is gradual rather than stage-like

Most researchers and educators today advocate a __________ approach to teaching reading.

balanced

Studies of children's eyewitness memory reveal that younger children tend to __________ when answering open-ended questions about events that have happened to them.

be accurate but leave out details

It may take several years for children who did not learn English as a native language in infancy or early childhood to master the use of English in school. Research studies reveal that __________.

bilingual programs have a moderate advantage over ESL programs

All of the following are aspects of the self-concept obtained from children's self-descriptions except __________.

complex psychological characteristics such as trustworthiness

The process of binding or linking new pieces of information to others in semantic memory is called __________.

consolidation

One of the best ways for young children to first begin learning addition and subtraction is to __________.

count on their fingers or use concrete materials such as chips

Although the total amount of aggressive behavior decreases between 4 and 8 years of age, as a proportion of aggressive behavior, instrumental aggression __________ and reactive aggression __________.

declines; increases

Longitudinal brain imaging studies reveal __________ is/are more common in children diagnosed with ADHD than in comparison groups.

delayed brain development, particularly involving the prefrontal cortex,

Studies measuring cortisol levels as children were induced to experience a self-conscious emotion revealed that __________.

evaluative embarrassment and shame are more stressful than simple embarrassment

The abilities to maintain focus across changing conditions of a task and inhibit competing responses are both aspects of __________.

executive attention

According to Vygotsky, sociodramatic play with peers may have benefits for __________.

executive functioning

Researchers have found that children who engage in more private speech as they solve problems tend to have higher levels of __________.

executive functions

A longitudinal study of personality types revealed that undercontrolled children were rated by teachers as having more __________ problems than the other two groups and lower scores in reading and math. Overcontrolled children had more __________ problems in relation to resilient children.

externalizing; internalizing

Based on research, children are more likely to remember an event at a later time if they construct a narrative immediately afterward that contains __________.

facts as well as emotional content

Low-income children given two hours of music instruction in orchestras and ensembles showed greater changes than control groups in which aspects of brain development?

faster maturation of auditory processing and white matter connections associated with better coordination of sensory and motor information and executive functions between left and right hemispheres

Evidence for __________ is provided by studies showing that each gender pays greater attention to and has better memory for objects and events associated with their own gender.

gender schema theory

Fewer than 50 percent of U.S. children __________.

get 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity per day

Interventions to prevent or reduce obesity in children, such as the "Shape Up Somerville" study, have had limited success actually demonstrating weight loss in children but may be more successful at __________.

getting children to change specific patterns of behavior such as excessive screen time or drinking sugar-sweetened beverages

Longitudinal twin studies reveal that the heritability of intelligence __________.

goes up with age

Gray matter undergoes a complex set of transformations in childhood and adolescence, but white matter __________.

grows steadily throughout middle childhood and adolescence

During middle childhood there is greater communication between different brain areas, which is associated with __________.

growth and myelination of long axons connecting distant brain regions

According to Barbara Rogoff, an adult who hands a child a toy shovel to play with in the sandbox as the adult digs with the shovel in the garden is engaging in __________.

guided participation

In a classic study of delay of gratification, it was observed how long 4-year-olds could wait for a larger treat when they had a smaller treat in front of them. Children who could wait longer, or who did not give in and eat the smaller treat, __________.

had higher educational achievement and social competence in adolescence

Shaw et al. (2006) concluded from the pattern of changes in the brain that children with superior IQ scores __________.

have a longer period of brain plasticity in middle childhood and adolescence than other groups

Diana Baumrind's influential studies of parenting style showed that children of authoritarian parents were more likely to __________ than children of authoritative parents.

have higher levels of both internalizing and externalizing behavior

The assumption that intelligence is not a single entity but is broken up into distinct aspects of intelligence, such as verbal and spatial ability, is known as the __________ model of intelligence.

hierarchical

A study in which low-income children were adopted revealed that higher-SES in the adopting family was associated over time with __________.

higher IQ scores

Compared to Piaget's original versions of tasks, children are less likely to make errors of egocentrism and centration with tasks featuring all of the following characteristics except __________.

higher demands on sustained attention

A 4-year-old boy who adamantly believes that only boys can be firefighters and only girls can be nurses is applying __________ to the classification of these two careers.

his gender schema

The place value concept is a key to understanding the number system and has been found to benefit from all of the following except __________.

improvements in working memory

Each of the following is a limitation of traditional intelligence tests except __________.

inaccurate measurement of IQ or general cognitive ability

Results of the National Head Start Impact Study __________.

included temporary cognitive gains and temporary reduction of behavior problems

The fact that in the afternoon child care is associated with rising levels of cortisol and staying at home with falling levels of cortisol __________.

indicates that at least some children may experience child care as stressful

When a child seeks to harm another child's social reputation or social relationships, this type of aggression is called __________ aggression.

relational

In Piaget's theory, concrete operations are systematic mental procedures (such as addition and subtraction) that are __________.

reversible

The style of play most characteristic of boys, involving physical play and mock aggression, is called __________ play.

rough-and-tumble

Diagnosis of ADHD requires that all of the following conditions be met except __________.

that the symptoms originate in middle childhood (between 6 and 11 years of age)

As she is working the lemonade problem, Maria decides to write down $20 as the cost of going to the movie before moving on to the next step in the problem. In terms of Baddeley's working memory model, Maria's decision reflected the operation of __________.

the central executive

In the experiment by Passarotti et al. (2003), both children and adults were fully capable of recognizing faces after a delay, but fMRI analysis showed that __________.

the children used a larger area of the brain to accomplish the task

All of the following are aspects of cognitive development that may contribute to improvements in autobiographical memories after age 3 except __________.

the formation of scripts for familiar events

Children who engage in more sociodramatic play with peers or siblings are found in longitudinal studies to exhibit higher levels of __________.

understanding of other people's mental states (theory of mind)

In terms of improvements in processing speed, Kail's research shows that children approach adult levels of speed on a wide range of mental functions by ages __________ years.

13 to 15

Young children display more advanced emotions, such as embarrassment, pride, and shame, between ages __________. These self-conscious emotions are crucial to human interaction.

18 and 24 months

Intellectual disability is defined as an IQ score of __________ combined with deficits in __________.

70 or below; adaptive behavior

Which of the following is an example of scaffolding?

A 10-year-old sibling stands by to help his 4-year-old brother put together Legos when he stumbles over a particular step.

Sarah is not overly active or distractible in class, but she often fails to follow the teacher's instructions. Her mother has also noticed that she daydreams instead of working on her homework. If Sarah's symptoms persist for more than six months, she would be diagnosed as having __________.

ADHD, primarily inattentive symptoms

All of the following statements are true regarding gender and cultural differences in children's autobiographical narratives, except __________.

Asian parents tend to have more detailed conversations about past events with their children than Western parents

Which of the following is true of the impact of child care experience on subsequent cognitive and social development?

The NICHD study found modest increases in cognitive skills but higher levels of disruptive behavior at kindergarten entry compared to home-based care or parental care.

Which of the following descriptions of research findings regarding factors that influence the development of executive function is correct?

The cumulative amount of stress in the home environment is more important than any single stress factor considered alone.

A child asks for some candy in the car ride to the grocery store and starts crying when denied. Her father calmly explains that they are stopping at the store to buy groceries for dinner, and not candy. He tells his daughter she is expected to hold his hand and walk through the store quietly. Which parenting technique did this father use?

The father established family routines and responsibilities.

At 3 and 4 years of age, children's knowledge of living and non-living things is still growing. Which of the following is true?

When asked specific questions such as whether a plant or a toy car can grow, and whether it needs food or water, children of these ages differentiate living from non-living things.

Each of the following is a likely difference in memory functioning between experts and novices on a particular subject, such as sports or biology, except __________.

a generally better functioning working memory

A key difference between Montessori preschool programs and academically oriented programs is __________.

a greater emphasis on child-centered activities in the Montessori schools

In the Pokémon MRI study, the change in children's brain activity on the no-go trials between 9 and 11 years of age was attributed by the researchers to __________.

a reduction in the effort exerted by the brain as it inhibited inappropriate responses

A type of memory that consists of a generalized version of everyday events is __________.

a script

All of the following are factors that increase the suggestibility of children under 6 years of age except __________.

a warm and supportive interviewer

Children are more likely to be physically active if they have __________.

adequate parental support for physical activities

All of the following are effective sources of increases in young children's receptive and expressive vocabularies except __________.

an adult correcting a child's pronunciation of a word

Parents wanting their children to have an early positive experience in sports should look for which qualities in a prospective team, coach, or instructor?

an emphasis on skill learning and fun

Children whose parents speak two languages to them __________.

are able to select which language to use when addressed in that language

The existence and severity of myopia in children __________.

are dependent on both genetic variation and environmental factors

Interventions for dyslexia __________.

are effective if they are intense and delivered early in the child's school career

According to a study by Kuhn and Pease (2008), children can make quite a lot of progress in learning to coordinate theory with evidence in the fourth through seventh grades if they __________.

are given systematic and motivating instruction in scientific reasoning from at least the fourth grade onward

Increases in average height of people over the past 150 years __________.

are most likely due to improvements in nutrition and health

The cognitive benefits of high-quality child care programs __________.

are seen across a wide range of cognitive skills such as language, memory, and literacy

One of the best ways adults can improve children's narratives of events (such as a trip to Grandma's) is to __________.

ask the child to tell what happened and prompt her with specific questions

All of the following may help investigators obtain more complete testimony from children about potential abuse except __________.

asking children multiple-choice questions to simplify their task

All of the following influence the rate of overall physical growth (as measured by height) except __________.

attendance at school

A mother asks her 3-year-old son to keep his food on the table and reminds him when he "accidentally" knocks it off. When he throws food at his sister, she explains to him that this is against the rules because it makes things dirty and hurts his sister's feelings. This parenting style would be classified as __________.

authoritative

The finding that many Chinese parents use a style that is more demanding and less overtly affectionate than the average Western (European or Euro American) parent __________.

can be viewed as a culturally influenced variation on authoritative parenting

According to DeLoache's dual representation hypothesis, young children may not be able to use a scale model to help them search for a hidden object in a full-sized room because they __________.

cannot think of the scale model as both an object and a representation of another object at the same time

The leading cause of death in middle childhood is unintentional injuries, and within that category the most common source of mortality is __________.

car accidents

When Allison picked the taller of two glasses with equal amounts of liquids as having more, she was demonstrating __________.

centration

All of the following are characteristics of early diversification in sports during childhood except __________.

children being more likely to become overwhelmed and stressed

Cross-cultural studies of the development of theories of mind have found all of the following except __________.

children show the most progress in understanding theory of mind concepts between two and three years of age across cultures

A cultural difference in moral socialization goals was found in which Taiwanese parents emphasized __________ with their young children, whereas European American parents emphasized __________ days or weeks after the original misbehavior.

children's misdeeds and their consequences; the children's autonomy and self-esteem

Each of the following has been found in laboratory studies to be an effective emotion regulation strategy in the preschool years except __________.

comforting the child with physical affection

The huge increase in receptive vocabulary in middle childhood and adolescence is thought to be due in large part to children's increased ability to understand __________.

derived words

Psychologists infer that children know they have a personality because when asked to compare themselves to a puppet's personality, the children __________.

described how they usually acted in a way that was consistent with parents' assessment of their personality traits

Parents promote gender typing not only by modeling gender stereotyped roles around the house, but also by praising gender-typical play and ignoring (or failing to reward) gender-atypical play, a process known as __________.

differential reinforcement

Children who can guess what a character described as selfish might do next in a story appear to have a level of understanding of other people's __________.

dispositional traits

Older studies gave children a choice as to whom they were more like, boys or girls. A recent study asked children how similar they were to both boys and girls in terms of appearance, behavior, preferences, and spending time. About half of the children endorsed primarily their own birth gender. The next most common response was to __________.

endorse both genders about equally

All of the following are aspects of attention that improve in early childhood and may contribute to the ability to comprehend stories read aloud by a teacher or math lessons except __________.

engaging in social interaction at the same time as listening to the teacher

Mei emigrated with her parents from China to the United States at the age of 3. According to research, the best strategy her parents could take to avoid difficulties in mastering English when she attends elementary school is to __________.

enroll her in a preschool program emphasizing English language enrichment

Adoptive parents who were authoritative tended to have adoptive children with higher social competence at age 7, independent of the child's temperament or attachment security. This finding suggests that there are __________.

environmental influences of parenting style on social competence

Research using fMRI and EEG measures of brain activity reveals increasing efficiency of brain function as children get older and greater __________.

integration of brain functions across different regions

The prevention studies focusing on annual family check-up meetings with researchers provided interventions to high-risk children who showed problem behavior as toddlers and lived in adverse family and socioeconomic conditions. A key finding was that __________.

interventions were successful in reducing conduct problems through age 9½ years

Children's emotional knowledge is greater when parents __________.

label and explain emotions

Parents might put magnetic letters and pictures of items beginning with that letter (such as C - cat) on the refrigerator to reinforce __________ and read stories aloud to their children to build __________.

letter and phonological awareness; oral language skill

High-quality child care is linked to __________ and __________.

low levels of aggression; high levels of social competence

Five-year-old Veronica understands that someone can hold a false belief. She spilled some milk and was not observed doing it. Her father asks her who spilled the milk. Based on observational and experimental studies, she is more likely to do which of the following at this age, compared to age 3?

make up a story about how the milk got spilled by accident

Girls exposed to male sex hormones prenatally may tend to show __________.

masculine play preferences

The ability to reflect on and self-correct language or grammatical errors is an ability that is attributed in part to increases in __________.

metalinguistic awareness

Ramel has recently become consciously aware that he needs to use different study strategies for different school subjects, such as language and social studies. This probably involves improved __________.

metamemory

Research using motion recorders has revealed that the highest level of physical activity is in __________.

middle childhood

Interventions for dyslexia and other specific learning disorders benefit from all of the following intervention strategies except __________.

motivating children to perform well by engaging them in a competition to avoid being placed in the lowest reading (or math) group

When children and adults were asked to ride bicycles in a virtual environment simulating the movements of cars in an intersection, the children had more virtual accidents than the adults because they did not __________.

move out into the street as quickly as the adults after making a decision to cross

Level 1 perspective taking is possible at 2 to 3 years of age, but level 2 perspective taking may not be possible until 4.5 years of age, particularly when children __________.

must realize that another person may see an object differently than the child sees it

Emergent literacy consists of which two broad categories of skills that are especially important to learning to read and write?

print-related skills and oral language skills

Young children construct theories about what makes living and nonliving things different by __________ and asking questions about living things.

observing biological processes

Contemporary researchers investigating the zone of proximal development concept have found that children working together generally work at a higher level of skill than children working alone, but only when __________.

one collaborator is more advanced in the particular domain

The study by Sameroff and colleagues (1993) provided evidence that environmental risk factors tend to __________.

operate in a cumulative fashion on IQ scores

A fifth-grader studying for a history test puts all of the Revolutionary War leaders from England on one index card to study and all of the American leaders on another card. This student is using the memory strategy known as __________.

organization

Excessive amounts of time doing each of the following is implicated as a factor in children experiencing visual strain, visual fatigue, and headaches, except __________.

outdoor play

A child who watches a magician and then tries to do the trick on his own might imitate the magician's tone of voice or accent. This is called __________.

overimitation

A 2-year-old who exclaims, "I runned really fast!" is making which type of grammatical error?

overregularization

According to Inhelder and Piaget, when children can solve the class inclusion task, they understand __________.

part-whole relationships

Young children's self-assessments of their abilities and personality traits are often characterized by an overconfidence known as __________.

positivity bias

According to the __________, the difference between highly skilled and expert levels of performance can be a matter of a few thousand hours of practice.

power law of practice

According to Piaget, all of the following statements are true about preschoolers' thinking in the preoperational period, except __________.

preschoolers have a solid understanding of the principle of conservation and can perform reversible mental operations

Evidence used by Howard Gardner to justify the existence of multiple intelligences includes all of the following except __________.

presence of the intelligence at birth

Mrs. Greenwood finds that one of her pupils, Valeria, completes her work much more accurately when she is allowed to work in a quiet corner of the room as compared to the main classroom. The difference in Valeria's behavior in the two situations is most likely attributable to delayed development of __________.

selective attention

Kalei is sorting through old belts at a garage sale trying to figure out which ones belong to him, his older brother, and his dad. He ends up organizing them from shortest to longest. Kalei has just accomplished a version of the Piagetian task of __________.

seriation

Parenting intervention studies can be used to __________.

show that changes in parenting style may be causally linked to changes in child behavior

Head Start and state-funded pre-K programs need improvement in all except which of the following?

showing initial positive effects of the preschool program

With regard to personality type, overcontrolled children are __________ and undercontrolled children are __________.

shy but obedient; impulsive and emotional

Motion recorder studies have revealed associations between poor-quality sleep and all of the following skills/behaviors the next day except __________.

shyness

One of the most important predictors and components of mathematical achievement has been found by Siegler and colleagues to be __________.

skill in placing numbers, including fractions, on a mental number line

Extensive experience in child care (an average of 20 hours per week or more) over the first four years is linked at age 5 to __________.

slightly higher externalizing of problems and lack of compliance with teachers

Researchers have found that lower SES individuals show __________ in cortical thickness with age compared to higher SES individuals in two areas related to language and literacy (left superior temporal gyrus and left fusiform gyrus).

slower declines

Dynamic systems theory explains motor skills as the combination of many small or large changes in all of the following except __________.

social development

In contrast to older children, who regard friends as having a long-term relationship based on trust, preschool-age children regard friends as __________.

someone to share toys and have fun with, possibly over several days or weeks

Which method of parental correction has been frequently and consistently associated with negative outcomes, such as higher externalizing behavior (e.g., aggression and antisocial behavior), reduced quality of parent-child relationships, and elevated child mental health problems?

spanking

According to studies of patterns of development in movement capacities, most skills show __________.

steady improvement during middle childhood, with the exception of flexibility

Structural changes to the brain in middle childhood involve all of the following, except__________.

steady thickening of the cortex throughout middle childhood

As the kindergarten year progresses, a teacher lengthens the time he expects children to stay engaged in activities (from 5 to 10 minutes), an aspect of attention referred to as __________.

sustained attention

In the study by Sadeh and colleagues (2003) in Israel, asking some children to sleep more per night and others to sleep less per night over a three-day period produced differences in __________.

sustained attention and inhibition

To study developmental changes in the bases of prosocial actions, researchers staged games in which a child or the experimenter "accidentally" damaged a block tower painstakingly built by another experimenter. The researchers concluded that 2-year-olds responded more on the basis of __________ and 3-year-olds on the basis of __________.

sympathy; guilt

After a few experiences in which they correctly figure out the pronunciation of a printed word, children often can recognize it immediately the next time they encounter it. This process is called __________.

the self-teaching mechanism

An understanding of the reversibility of cognitive operations is directly relevant to __________.

the understanding of mathematical operations such as addition and subtraction

All of the following have been found to be true of gifted children except __________.

they are not understood or supported by their parents

All of the following are criticisms of Piaget's tests of concrete operations except__________.

they do not involve concrete mental operations

Children tend to have more advanced conversation skills when __________.

they have parents who often signal when the child needs to clarify a remark

Dental checkups are important in middle childhood because __________.

they help children learn dental and oral self-care

By age 3 ½ (for middle-SES English-speaking samples), children understand the stable order principle of counting, which is __________.

to always say the number words in the same order, even if the order is initially wrong for a given child

A Chinese boy whose parents recently emigrated from China to the United States becomes impatient with a trip to the grocery store and starts whining loudly. He is likely to be __________.

told by his parents that he is embarrassing them

Part of the reason children can discriminate between moral and social conventional rules at such a young age is that parents __________.

treat moral rules more seriously and speak about different kinds of issues in connection with the two types of rules

Children learning to speak English develop an increasing variety of sentences that use subject-verb-object order between 2 and 4 years of age. Development of these sentences appears to hinge on children's learning of the meanings of __________.

verbs

Fluent speakers of two languages tend to have an advantage in executive functions but limitations in __________.

vocabulary

The underlying cognitive difficulty in dyslexia involves all of the following except__________.

vocabulary knowledge

A mutually responsive orientation at ages 1 to 2 years differs from secure attachment in infancy in that it consists of __________.

warmth and responsiveness as well as the establishment of rules

One of the reasons Piaget created so many tasks, such as conservation, class inclusion, seriation, and transitivity, is that he was testing whether the thinking of children __________.

was similar across tasks at a particular stage of development

The zone of proximal development is defined as the gap between __________.

what children can do on their own and what they can do with the help of a more skilled partner

Each of the following is an aspect of intelligence in Gardner's framework except__________.

working memory ability