CMS 306M Exam 2

example of signpost transition

"first, I'll cover..." "second, I'll talk about..." next, last, additionally, finally

example of an internal summary transition

"today I have discussed two benefits of studying abroad: cultural exposure and developing your language skills"

example of an internal preview transition

"today I will cover three key steps of washing your dog: selecting high quality shampoo, keeping your dog calm during the wash, and proper drying technique"

cognitive dissonance

a state of conflicting thoughts or emotions that produces tension that a person works to reduce

goals and techniques to make a strong introduction

1. capture the audience's attention > use a startling statement/statistic > ask a question > use a quote > tell a story 2. establish the relevance of the topic to the audience > show your audience the relevance 3. establish your credibility as the speaker 4. have a strong thesis statement 5. provide an initial preview of the presentation/main points

five modes of speech delivery

1. extemporaneous delivery 2. impromptu delivery 3. manuscript delivery 4. memorized delivery 5. mediated delivery

four essential for constructing an effective impromptu speech

1. introduce and conclude - "bookend" your speech with a clear introduction and conclusion 2. support - will not necessarily be able to cite sources but still need to support your main points > Stories/narratives, opinions, descriptions, and explanations are all good examples of support 3. organize - know the basic framework for speaking, allows for more time for developing your topic rather than organizing it audience knowledge - assess the level of knowledge the audience possess so that you can include the proper amount of background information for your topic

three primary types of impromptu speaking

1. subject-based - centers around a single topic and establishes a central argument 2. objects - what a subject does, the object brings to mind 3. quotations - need to determine what it means first and define the relationship inherent in the quotation

value

A deeply felt ethical stance toward something (People's concept of what is right or worthwhile)

attitude

a learned disposition of feeling toward something

logos

logical appeals

Aristotle's syllogism and how it is distinct from an enthymeme

a type of deductive reasoning where certain premises, or statements presumed to be true, build or follow one another to a logical claim or conclusion. > ex. you see a major premise ("All men are mortal"), followed by a minor premise ("Socrates is a man," followed by a final claim or conclusion ("Socrates is mortal")

pronunciation

accurate clustering of a group of letters to make the correct sounds that form a particular word > aspect of auditory delivery

example of peripheral route audience from the elm model

an instructor for a basic communication class will focus on making the material interesting and persuade with simple graphs and provocative imagery vs. detailed statistics and complex data, because they know that some students come from other majors and won't be as interested in the topic,

belief

an understanding that something is true or false

speech delivery mode 5: mediated delivery

any of the forms of delivery (such as extemporaneous, impromptu, manuscript, or memorized) conveyed to an audience via technology such as radio, television, or video-conferencing.

levels of influence and the difficulty of persuasion in each level

attitudes - feelings you have towards something, or likes and dislikes > "I get so bored reading history" "snowboarding makes me feel awesome" > can be fickle but are directly related to behaviors beliefs - provide a measure to determine if something is real or probable > "studying history will not help get me a tach job" "snowboarding is the highest-paying winter sport" > more difficult to influence because they involve our convictions at to what is true or false. values - used to ascertain whether something is fundamentally good or bad > "the study of history is useless" "snowboarding os a way of life" > the most difficult to influence because they represent people's concept of what is right or worthwhile

the importance of being aware of organizational communication norms

building relationships through informal networks adapting to workplace communication culture (how organization makes decisions, values, etc.) they can differ from your personal communication preferences > ex. you may prefer text, but your teammates use email

professional attire tips for business casual and casual

business casual: slacks and a button-down shirt, blouse, or sweater, loafers or heels casual: jeans and a t-shirt, sandals

different ways to structure impromptu speeches

classification - subdivides the major topic into separate categories (or classes) of thought as they relate to the major subject > ex. if your topic is candy you could divide it by size, brand name, or sweetness. finding the classes held in common by the different types enables you to explore the classes deeper unification - all main points unify to support thesis or central idea. (most appropriate for persuasive speeches in defense of a claim or an answer to a question) > ex. central claim that "teachers are undervalued" then divide the speech into reasons why they are undervalued. reasons 1: teachers work long hours; reason 2: teachers are not as respected 3. cause-effect-solution - why problem occurs, what potential effects are, and some ways that you can change your thinking or control yourselves or foster a better world

informative communication

communication that builds awareness or deepens understanding of some phenomena

key elements to consider for improving impromptu delivery

maintain even and full breathing muscle relaxation - perfect pace and fluency

question of fact

determines whether an issue exists (is it real?)

pathos

emotional appeals

informative speaking

enhances the audience awareness of new or unknown information about an already familiar topic

ways to prepare for an impromptu speech

establish your central claim determine how to structure speech generate examples or supports that help illustrate your ideas -- narrative proof based on the expertise of the speaker

key elements to consider when designing a visual aid: numerical clarifiers

ex. charts or graphs > enhance readability through sizing based on space > enhance clarity by limiting amount of info > provide descriptive title telling people what to look for > clearly label all significant features (with large letters)

explanatory speaking

expands or deepens the audience's understanding of a phenomenon, issue, or topic

statistic

facts or occurrences that are represented numerically

differences between formal and delivery outline

formal outline - > detailed and complete sentences > typed document that helps you prepare for and polish your presentation by typing the pieces of the intro, body, and conclusion together > cannot be used for the actual presentation delivery outline - > brief and consists of key words only > typed or handwritten notecards > main purpose: help you remember main points and key ideas during presentation

pitch

how high or low a voice sounds to the audience > aspect of auditory delivery

three criteria for effective written workplace communication

identify your ideas organize your ideas present your ideas

transitions (identify and write them)

internal preview - statements that tell your audience what will come next > use during preview of main points in intro internal summaries - statements that recap what was covered previously > use when reviewing main points in conclusion signposts - markers that clue listeners into the speech's organization

powerpoint presentation pitfall 5: but I don't know how to use a Mac or PC

know whether you will be using a Mac or PC and (to be safe) practice both so you are comfortable

target audience

listeners you most want to influence

professional attire tips for interviews

men: full matching suit, button down shirt, belt, tie, and leather shoes women: skirt or pant suit, button down shirt, and dress shoes > dress for your boss's job

types of visual aids

objects - concrete visual aid that can be inanimate or animate > baseball, person visual representations - visual representation of an object enlarged to presentation size or projected on a screen > map, drawing, diagram, blueprint, photograph numerical clarifiers - a chart or graph used to simplify and explain complex numerical concepts/data

refutation organizational pattern

organized by: anticipating objections, listing them, and providing rebuttal for each > best suited when dealing with controversial issues where some people may disagree with your opinion > persuasive speaking

questions of fact, questions of value, questions of policy, and their differences

questions of fact - determines whether an issue exists (is it real?) reality of a given topic, whether something is true or false > ex. is the earth flat? questions of value - determines whether an issue is important or relevant and why. ideas about rightness, worth, or morality. can involve fact but asks value judgement from audience. ethical issues are most prevalent > ex.argue that basketball is the best sport in the world questions of policy - determines whether or not an issue is governed by a policy that should be implemented or changed. involve a specific plan of action and asks audience to take action > ex. convincing of roommate that the dishes need to be cleaned

difference between self, message, and audience-focused deliveries

self-focused - speakers focuses too much on what they are doing rather than connecting with the audience > concentrating on what you are doing keeps you from creating a relationship with your audience by focusing on their needs message-focused - speaker focuses too much on the message, creating a rift between the speaker and the audience --> speech is stiff/uninviting > concentrating too much on the content and is lost without a script audience-focused - speaker uses delivery as a tool to help shape your interaction and involve your audience > basically having a conversation with your audience and delivering your ideas simple/understandable way

fluency

smoothness and regulating how the flow of your speech is perceived > aspect of auditory delivery

organizational styles for persuasive speaking (be prepared to organize points in each pattern)

spatial topical familiarity/acceptance elimination problem/case/solution monroe's motivated sequence refutation

articulation

speaking and joining together of sounds that make up words > aspect of auditory delivery

rate

speed, pace, or tempo at which we speak > aspect of auditory delivery

surveillance and multi communicating and how they impact your reputation in the workplace

surveillance: monitoring online activities through eyes or computer program > engagement in non-work-related activities multi communicating: communication behaviors using technology, where people conduct multiple, nearly simultaneous conversations > no one knows why you are texting > loss of focus

elaboration likelihood model (elm) and its importance

the elm states that effective speakers adjust their message based upon the level of involvement of the audience different routes and involvement will change the type of visual aids 2 routes: central and peripheral

appearance and attire

the first thing that people notice and they will make assumption about you, so dress for the occasion > aspect of visual delivery

persuasion

the process of influence

professionalism and how to display it in the classroom and workplace

the set of qualities and characteristics that represent perceptions of your competence and character as judged by your key constituents competency: possessing required skill, knowledge, qualification or capacity > soft (communication) skills > technical applications accountability: taking care of your responsibilities and being responsible to others self-regulation: ability to stay calm under pressure or under less-than-ideal circumstances professional image: set of qualities and characteristics that represent perceptions of your competence and character as judged by your key constituents > attire > social media

behavior

the way in which people conduct themselves or act, particularly in relation to their attitudes, believes, and values

message-focused delivery

to focus too much on the message, creating a rift between the speaker and the audience

two keys to using evidence appropriately

use rationally relevant evidence - evidence that is logical; the evidence you select should reflect the type of claim you make. > ex: If you're arguing that shark fishing should be more regulated then you should find examples of poor fishing practices and statistical evidence of overfishing and ecosystem loss. use motivationally relevant evidence - evidence that creates a compelling desire on their part to be involved, endorse the belief, or undertake a course of action. > ex: Answer the "So what?" question. Motivationally relevant speech should meet the following criteria: > Concreteness - follow up abstract ideas or theories with definitions and examples > Variety > Proximity - hits close to home > Suitability - appropriate for speaking context, the audience, and you.

speech delivery mode 2: impromptu delivery

when the speaker has little or no time to prepare and must deliver a speech on the spot

speech delivery mode 1: extemporaneous delivery

when the speaker has thoroughly researched and prepared for the speech

speech delivery mode 3: manuscript delivery

when the speaker reads from a script. usually occurs in more formal situations when the speaker does not want their speech misinterpreted

speech delivery mode 4: memorized delivery

when the speaker writes down a speech and memorizes it completely

stress

which words the speaker puts more emphasis on > aspect of auditory delivery

seven presentation pitfalls with powerpoint

1. blinded by the light 2. no face in sight 3. is there just a head? 4. this is not the version of powerpoint I use on my computer 5. but I don't know how to use a Mac/PC... 6. what did they say? 7. that's a lot of text

advice to give someone for a public presentation

1. develop brief notes > short and consistent with main points, key terms, and revenant citations 2. test your technology > arrive early and have a plan B 3. breathe > calms your nerves and helps you relax 4. be yourself > the audience came for you, so be comfortable, real, and genuine

two rules for structuring the main points in your speech

1. don't overlap your main points -- happens when there is a repetition of material 2. create feasible main points with a similar scope -- main points should be manageable

important aspects of visual delivery

1. eye gaze 2. facial expression 3. body posture and movement 4. hand gestures 5. appearance and attire

five aspects to consider when choosing a topic

1. pick a topic that is not over your listeners' heads 2. pick a topic that is not too personal 3. pick an intriguing topic 4. pick a manageable topic 5. pick a topic that has substance

goals and techniques that make a strong conclusion

1. recap the main points 2. restate the relevance of the speech and the main thesis 3. bring closure to the presentation > try to tie it back to your introduction (full circle)

six principles of persuasion

1. reciprocation - we feel obligated to repay others for their actions toward us (obligation) > ex. you are given a free concert ticket by a friend, you then in return give them your extra OU ticket 2. commitment and consistency - we want to be true to the words we say (guilt) > ex. animal lover liking a speech about ATX being a no kill city. on the phone and on hold for 10+ min, you stay on the line because you already invested that time and it would be a waste to hang up now 3. social proof - we're uncertain about what to do, so we follow others (bandwagon) > ex. on facebook we see what our friend liked and then they advertise this to us 4. liking - we like those who like us (bias) > ex. door-to-door fundraiser as a kid and people who liked you/your family would buy more product 5. authority - we tend to respect those who are in positions of authority (respect) > ex. things associated with authority (lab coats, degrees, fancy office) 6. scarcity - we desire what we have limited access to > ex. "get it while supplies last" "you only have four years in college.."

important aspects of auditory delivery

1. volume 2. pitch and inflection 3. rate 4. articulation, pronunciation, and stress 5. fluency and pausing

hand gestures

helps us conceptualize and communicate our message to the audience -- compliments our vocal message. be careful because hand gestures can have different meanings to different people > aspect of visual delivery

volume

how the audience perceives loudness > aspect of auditory delivery

inflection

how the pitch moves up and down, or how we make patterns with our pitch ranges > aspect of auditory delivery

pauses

how the speaker deals with and makes meaning of silences > aspect of auditory delivery

eye gaze

how we use our eyes to exchange and maintain focused engagement with others > aspect of visual delivery

central route persuasion from the elm model

audience members are deeply involved and highly motivated in order to persuade, speaker should use detailed, well-contracted arguments

peripheral route persuasion from the elm model

audience members are not as involved and have low motivation or interest in the subject in order to persuade, speaker should establish their credibility, likability, and have compelling visual aids. they shouldn't focus on the details

powerpoint presentation pitfall 7: that's a lot of text

avoid putting too much text as the audience will not pay attention to what you are saying. only use bullet points, 6x6 rule -- six word on a line and 6 bullet points on a slide only

criteria

bases on which judgements are made

the types of fallacies of reasoning

begging the question - your evidence/conclusion only repeat the original claim (circular reasoning) > ex. "stealing is immoral because it's illegal" "why is it illegal?" "because it's immoral" straw person fallacy - distort, skew, or exaggerate a position. your counter-argument can easily tear down these exaggerated points, but you never address their actual argument > ex. i think freshmen should live in the dorms! - "this person wants to force students to bankrupt themselves in mountains of student loan debt just to afford substandard housing, all while the university profits from predatory pricing!" slippery slope - if you take one action, any action similar to that will be taken as well > ex. "if I let you eat in class, then I have to let everyone eat in class, and then someone will bring an entire thanksgiving turkey into class for their snack." appeal to authority - popularity as authority, even when one has no experience with it > ex. Beyonce promoting vacuums (celebrity endorsement) appeal to tradition - relies on past events as reason to continue to repeat behavior > ex. grandparents and parents went to UT, I should go to UT hasty generalization - conclusion is based on far too little evidence > ex. my grandma plays video games. conclusion: "all grandmas play video games" post hoc ergo propter hoc - when things happen in a sequence, they are casually related > ex. I rubbed my lucky rabbit foot before the test, and then I got an A! It must be from the rabbit foot!" false dilemma: audience is presented with only two alternatives > ex. you either pick democrat or republican non sequitur: conclusion doesn't follow from the premises stated before it > ex. political candidate asked by a reporter, why do you flip-flop on issues so much? "well, I'm actually very constant and steady! I've been married to her for 42 years - you can't get much more constant than that!" ad hominem - rather than attack the argument, you attack the person > ex. "who are you to tell us what women do? you wear skimpy clothes and dance around for money"

How to manage unexpected situations

block out any distractions by concentrating on individuals in the audience who are focused on you prepare for unexpected complications with technology -- be able to continue your speech even if your slides freeze > a visual aid is just an AID, not a crutch

organizational style for informative speaking (be prepared to organize points in each pattern)

chronological, spatial, topical

expert testimony

claim statement made by an expert in his or her field of expertise

different motivational strategies of persuasion

cognitive dissonance: the destructive feeling we get when our attitudes and actions are inconsistent > people will change wither their actions or attitudes to line up with the other to form consistency mallow's hierarchy of needs: people are motivated to act because they want to fulfill self-actualization, which cannot be satisfied -- cycle is endless (from bottom to top) > physiological - breathing, food, water, shelter > safety and security - health, employment, property > love and belonging - friends and family > self-esteem - confidence > self-actualization - morality, creativity, purpose

key elements to consider when designing a visual aid: powerpoint/keynote

create a consistent "look and feel" > choose good design template design for high contrast > light colored text on dark backgrounds (vice versa) design for text readability > sans tarif fonts are best > heading/sentence capitalization (main titles/main bullet points) > no capitalization in sub-bullet items

types and subtypes of evidence

definitions: > denotative > connotative descriptions: statement that provides details to your idea and helps your audience understand the characteristics and qualities of your topic > pictorial: create mental picture of subject, pathos > objective: relies on logos/facts explanations: a statement that addresses how or why something works, occurs, or exists > analogy: literal, figurative > division: breaking down subject and analyzing its various parts or types > interpretation: substantial analysis of the important themes and issues relating to a subject statistics > descriptive: present picture of your subject by representing it in > quantitative terms (aggregate amounts, ratios, percentages, and averages) > inferential: provide support that leads to a claim that goes beyond the evidence collected >>>soft: offers a measurement of statistical calculation pertaining to one population, as the basis about another >>>scientific: methodical data analysis (correlative study, experimental method) examples > factual: illustrates a real person, object, or event (confirms existence and helps audience recall or imagine similar instances) > hypothetical: creates imaginary situation that allows your audience to visualize what might happen under similar circumstances testimony: quotation by someone who is either an authority on your subject, a witness, or a trusted source of social wisdom >authoritative: statements given by credible authority (heart attacks = cardiologist) >lay: states opinion, expresses feelings, or recalls the experience of someone who has had some personal involvement with or sentiments about a subject (hurricane Harvey = victims) >nominal: general statement made by a well-known person that can be related to your subject (relies on "good name" of the person)

toulmin's model of argumentation and primary components (be prepared to explain how they function together)

demonstrates how arguments are constructed out of three major elements claim: short statement or argument speakers use to state their positions > ex. "lebron james is the best basketball player in history" data: evidence -- what turns the claim from an opinion into an argument > ex. "lebron james is the best basketball player in the history of the NBA because he has scored the most points in NBA finals history" warrant: (often unstated) explanation of how the data presented supports the claim. most crucial > ex. "the NBA finals feature the best players, and so scoring the most against them means that they are the best of the best."

the difference between denotative and connotative meaning

denotative meaning - the standard, or literal meaning of a word or phrase, the "dictionary definition" > ex. home = a place where one lives permanently connotative meaning - the meaning each individual associates with a word or phrase > ex. (for dorothy from the wizard of oz) home = a loving place that nowhere else is like

key elements to consider when designing a visual aid: handouts

design simple/easy to understand handouts > less absorbing to keep attention on your presentation > wait to hand out until you are ready to discuss it unnecessary for short presentation avoid speaking while handing out documents > difficult to maintain eye contact/makes voice drop > have someone else pass it out

question of value

determines whether an issue is important or relevant and why

question of policy

determines whether or not an issue is governed by a policy that should be implemented or changed.

rhetoric and its importance in civic life

discovering the available means of persuasion in any given situation in everyday life, rhetoric works to advance our understanding of how human beings use language to influence one another

powerpoint presentation pitfall 6: what did that say?

don't have too many visual aids/slides because that leaves no time to fully take in what is being projected

powerpoint presentation pitfall 3: is there just a head?

don't hide behind a desk/podium; move around to connect with audience

powerpoint presentation pitfall 1: blinded by the light

don't stand in a spot where the projector light blinds you

how visual aids benefit the speaker and the audience

dual coding: humans make separate sense of auditory and visual stimuli allows presenter to explain, simplify, and illustrate complex ideas helps catch the audience's attention, stimulate the audience's retention of information, and improve professional credibility keeps audience's attention and aids in their following/understanding the presentation

fisher's narrative model of argumentation

human beings are at their most persuasive when they tell stories narrative: symbolic actions, words, and/or deeds that have a sequence of meaning for those who interpret them narrative coherence: understanding of how well the story fits together and makes sense > ex: when you put 2-2 together and don't get 4 narrative fidelity: judgement of how the story fits with our own beliefs and experiences > ex: thinking "i would never do that" when you hear a story

powerpoint presentation pitfall 2: no face in sight

know your material so only quick glances are needed -- never turn around to read off screen

veil of ignorance

means of 'shielding' your eyes from things that might bias you against an argument (ex: race, gender, religion, etc)

monroe's motivated sequence organizational pattern

organized by 5 steps: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, action > best when you want to persuade audience to take immediate action > persuasive speaking

chronological organizational pattern

organized by: beginning steps, middle steps, and end steps > informative speaking

elimination organizational pattern

organized by: eliminating solutions so that the audience is encouraged to adopt your proposal > best for convincing your audience of a single solution when a problem is widely agreed upon > persuasive speaking

familiarity/acceptance organizational pattern

organized by: establishing criteria that's familiar to audience in the first main point, then following points show how question of value fulfills standards > best for question of value > persuasive speaking

spatial organizational pattern

organized by: geographic location > informative and persuasive speaking

topical organizational pattern

organized by: main points broken into subtopics > informative and persuasive speaking

how to prepare for your presentation

practice in a similar setting as the one you will present in, with an audience of family and friends don't memorize; be comfortable with the concepts and familiar with the info practice + preparation = extemporaneous speaking --> speaker is rehearsed but doesn't sound like they are reciting

extemporaneous speaking

presentation style that is practiced

problem/case/solution organizational pattern

presented as a problem, cause, solution > involves questions of fact and policy > persuasive speaking

body posture and movement

the position people hold their body; good posture sends the audience the message of confidence and the importance of that they are saying > aspect of visual delivery

argumentation and its benefits

the process by which logic and critical reasoning are structured and applied orally or in written form. there must be opposing participants willing to actively listen, process, and reflect critically on positions that are put forward > ex. a well-reasoned argument may convince a community to adopt a new recycling program. a manager might argue to change procedures to increase profits

self-focused delivery

to focus too much on what the speaker herself is doing rather than connecting with the audience

audience-focused delivery

to use delivery as a tool to help shape your interaction and involve your audience

how to appropriately use evidence to support your claims

use statistics - the larger the sample size, the more accurate/reliable the results use narrative v. objective evidence > narrative evidence - personal, sometimes emotional, uses pathos, stories > objective evidence - expert testimony, numbers, stats, ratios report evidence by citing sources

facial expression

used to signal emotions to others and how the audience should feel about the speaker's message > aspect of visual delivery

how do certain ethical stances alter how an individual approaches persuasion

veil of ignorance - the means of "shielding" your eyes from things that might bias you against an argument. by "putting on the veil" people can see the speaker for what they are truly saying > race, gender, religion, etc. attitude of speaker towards the audience - consider your relationship with the audience and develop/deliver the speech with the audience's best interest in mind. speak with the audience, not at the audience using actions and words to persuade -- make sure they are appropriate for the occasion and that the speaker lives the actions they advocate for

powerpoint presentation pitfall 4: this is not the version of powerpoint I use on my computer

when using a computer, spend some time getting used to the keyboard and how to start the presentation. know the version -- it is safe to always make sure the file is "backwards compatible" with any version

example of central route audience from the elm model

you are in a business meeting and asking managers to allocate money from their budget to yours; they will want detailed info on how you will use that money