CMS 306M Exam 2
Explain the levels of influence (attitudes, beliefs, and values) and the difficulty of persuasion in each level.
-Attitude: A learned disposition of feeling toward something; while attitudes can be fickle, they are directly related to behaviors -Belief: An understanding that something is true or false; involve our convictions as to what is true or false; provide a measure to determine if something is real or probable -Value: A deeply felt, ethical stance toward something; represent people's concept of what is right or worthwhile; use values to ascertain whether something is fundamentally good or bad Behavior: The way in which people conduct themselves or act, particularly in relation to their attitudes, beliefs, and values
What are the important aspects of auditory and visual delivery?
-Auditory: Volume: The degree of loudness. Pitch: How high or low a voice sounds to the audience. Inflection: How human pitch moves up and down. Rate: The speed, pace, or tempo of a speaker's presentation. Articulation: Saying each syllable of each word clearly and distinctly. Pronunciation: The articulate clustering of a group of letters to make the correct sounds that form a particular word. Stress: Emphasis or inflection placed on specific words or phrases. Fluency: The flow of speech. Pausing: Silence within a speaker's delivery. -Visual: Eye gaze: Refers to how we use our eyes to exchange and maintain focused engagement with others. Facial Expressions: The feelings expressed on a person's face. Body posture: Position in which a person holds his or her body. Hand gestures: Movements of the hands, arms, and the head that communicate social meaning and information. Appearance and attire
What are the types of fallacies of reasoning? Be prepared to give examples.
-Begging the Question: Circular reasoning; when you beg the question, your conclusion is based on the initial premise; EX: "Stealing is immoral because it is illegal." -Straw Person Fallacy: Occurs when someone argues that a person holds a view that is actually not what the other person believes. Instead, it is a distorted version of what the person believes; EX: "Senator Smith says that the nation should not add to the defense budget. Senator Jones says that he cannot believe that Senator Smith wants to leave the nation defenseless." -Slippery Slope: Suggests that if you take one action, any action similar to that will be taken as well, often stretching the original argument to its most absurd conclusion; EX: "If we allow men to marry men and women to marry women, what's to stop us from marrying snakes or dogs, or buildings?" -Appeal to Authority: Used to denote expertise; EX: "A commercial claims that a specific brand of cereal is the best way to start the day because athlete Michael Jordan says that it is what he eats every day for breakfast." -Appeal to Tradition: Relies on past events or actions as reason to continue to repeat behavior; "For several generations all the children in my family have attended The University of Texas for college, so I must attend school there." -Hasty Generalization: Occurs when an argument's conclusion is based on far too little evidence; EX: "You visit a new country and the first person you meet in the airport is rude. You send a message to a friend back home that everyone in this new country is rude." -Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc: "After this, therefore because of this;" Argues that when things happen in sequence, they are casually related; EX: "I rubbed my rabbit's foot before the test, and then I got an A" -False Dilemma: Either/or fallacy; An erroneous argument in which an audience is presented with only two alternatives, despite there being other options; EX: "You can either pick the Republican plan or the Democratic plan for healthcare." -Non Sequitur: "This does not follow;" Occurs when a conclusion does not follow from the premises stated before it; EX: "If a reporter asks a candidate why they should be taken seriously when they are flip-flopping on issues, the candidate might respond, "I'm very steady and constant. Just ask my wife of 42 years. You can't be much more constant than that." -Ad-Hominem: "Against the person;" Name-calling in order to discredit your opponent's position; EX: "Hilary Clinton is not trustworthy because she cackles like a witch."
What are the key elements to consider for improving impromptu delivery?
-Breath support is essential; maintain even and full breathing; keep in mind that posture has an effect on breath support -Muscle relaxation helps your presentation; make a mental note of the way your muscles feel when they are relaxed; once you become conscience of the feeling, you will recognize tension in the key areas of the body fairly quickly; that muscle memory can help to identify the locations of tension and learn how to compensate when your body becomes tenser -Perfect pace and fluency; operate at a pace that allows the thought process to operate just ahead of the oral delivery
What are the goals and techniques that make a strong introduction and conclusion?
-Capture the audience's attention; use a startling statement or statistic, ask a question, use a quotation, tell a story -Show your audience the relevance of your topic -Establish your credibility -Have a strong thesis statement
Explain the differences between questions of fact, questions of value, and questions of policy.
-Questions of fact: Determines whether an issue exists (is it real?). -Questions of value: Determines whether an issue is important or relevant and why. -Questions of policy: Determines whether or not an issue is governed by a policy that should be implemented or changed.
Identify organizational styles for both informative and persuasive speaking. Pay attention to the examples and how to organize points in each type of outline.
-Chronological pattern: an organizational structure in which main points are organized according to sequential order in which events or steps occurred -Elimination pattern: an organizational structure that involves establishing criteria for a solution, demonstrating how alternate solutions fail to meet the criteria, and demonstrating how the proposed solution meets the criteria -Familiarity/acceptance pattern: an organizational pattern that involves establishing agreed-upon criteria and then demonstrating how the criteria are met -Monroe's motivated sequence: an organizational pattern that is composed of five steps: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action -Problem-cause solution pattern: an organizational structure used to discuss a problem, the causes of the problem, and the possible solutions to address the problem -Refutation pattern: an organizational pattern in which the objections to the thesis are anticipated and rebutted one by one -Spatial pattern: an organizational structure in which the main points are organized by geographic location or direction Topical pattern: an organizational style in which the main points are organized according to naturally occurring parts, sections, or divisions
What are the primary components of Toulmin's model of argumentation? Be prepared to explain how they function together.
-Claim: A short statement or argument that a speaker uses to state their position. -Data: The evidence you provide in your argument that takes the claim from opinion into argument. -Warrant: The inferential leap that is made between the data and the claim; is an often unstated explanation of how the data presented supports the claim.
What are the different motivational strategies of persuasion?
-Cognitive dissonance: A state of conflicting thoughts or emotions that produce tension that a person works to reduce; the theory suggests that when people have inconsistent attitudes and actions, they will change one of them to establish consistency -Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: Suggests that there are psychological, safety, social, self-esteem, and self-actualization needs that people desire to have fulfilled
What are the key elements to consider when designing a visual aid (e.g., PowerPoint, Keynote, handouts, etc.)?
-Create a consistent "look and feel": you should design your visual aids to interrelate -Design for high contrast: use light-colored text on dark backgrounds and dark-colored text on light backgrounds -Design text for readability: major titles should be at least 44 points in height, main bullet items should be at least 32 points, and sub-bullets should be 28 points; use heading capitalization in main titles only, use sentence capitalization in main bullet items, and use no capitalization in sub bullet items -Objects and word art: graphic elements such as auto-shapes, boxes, circles, call-outs, and lines (use this before the confusing technique of Word Art) -Adding effective animation: stationary effects (occurring with no text or object movement), moving effects (texts or graphics physically move as they appear on the screen), slide transitions (the way that a slide replaces the one before), on-slide animation (controls the way that objects appear on a given slide), remote mouse, grouping items (allows a presenter to click once and have all grouped objects appear simultaneously), over-clicking, and missed timing -Adding appropriate sound: be mindful of volume and quality -Copyright considerations of photographs and cartoons: Copyrighted images belong to someone and require a fee; Public domain images also belong to someone, but either the copyright term has expired, or they were produced as an entity; using an image once for a presentation for a class assignment falls under the category of Fair Use
Explain the difference between denotative and connotative meanings.
-Denotative meaning: The literal meaning of a word or phrase. -Connotative meaning: The associations and emotions connected to a word or phrase.
Describe how to appropriately use evidence to support your claims.
-Descriptive statistics: merely quantitative representations of measurements or properties, such as averages, ratios, percentages, sizes, or frequency -Inferential statistics: those that you use to make claims about other groups or populations -Narrative evidence: refers to stories people tell about their own or others' experiences Objective evidence: refers to numbers, statistics, and ratios that experts in the field have discovered
Describe what advice you would give someone who is going to give a public presentation.
-Develop brief notes -Test your technology (if using any) -Breathe -Be yourself
Describe the differences between a formal and delivery outline.
-Formal outline: a detailed and complete outline intended to help you prepare your speech -Delivery outline: a brief outline intended to jog your memory of your written content when you deliver your presentation
Be prepared to identify and write transitions (e.g., previews, summaries, signposts).
-Internal previews: statements used during the presentation to let your audience know what is coming up next -Internal summaries: statements used during the presentation to summarize what you just said -Signpost: a structural marker that points the listener to a specific point being addressed
What are the ways in which you can prepare for impromptu speeches?
-Learn to read deliberately; stories have agendas; think about what they are and under what circumstances you might refer to them -Generate examples or supports to help illustrate your ideas; supports can be drawn from art, literature, philosophy, music, science, history, or even personal interest stories
What are the types and purposes of different visual aids?
-Objects: concrete visual aids that can be inanimate or animate -Visual representations: visual representation of an object-a map, a drawing, a diagram, a blueprint, a photograph-either enlarged to presentation size or projected onto a screen -Numerical classifiers: a chart or graph used to simplify and explain numerical concepts
Define rhetoric and why it is an important part of civic life.
-Rhetoric: Discovering the available means of persuasion in any given situation. -Fotheringhan- "...it is part of living, the most sanctioned means by which one tries to influence others. It is a major means of satisfying a need to deal with one's environment."
Consider how delivery style affects perceptions of credibility, authenticity, and the connection with an audience.
-See chart on page 338
Be prepared to describe the differences between self, message and audience-focused delivery.
-Self: to focus much on what the speaker herself is doing rather than connecting with the audience -Message: to focus too much on the message, creating a rift between the speaker and the audience -Audience: to use delivery as a tool to help shape your interaction and involve your audience
Explain why it is important to be aware of organizational communication norms.
-So that you can avoid doing something unprofessional; it also important to be aware that your team and/or organization may have norms for everyday communication that differ from your personal communication preferences
How do visual aids benefit both the speaker and the audience?
-Speaker: you can use visual aids to assist you in explaining complex ideas, and improve your professional credibility -Audience: well-constructed visual aids stimulate retention of information
Describe the professional attire tips for interviews and everyday business attire.
-Stake out the location before you go for an interview (observe how employees dress) -Have back up clothes at work -Dress a little better than your colleagues -Dress to be invited Don't let your clothes detract from your qualifications
Explain Fisher's narrative model of argumentation.
-Suggests that human beings are at their most persuasive when they tell stories -Narrative: Symbolic action, words, and/or deeds that have a sequence of meaning for those who interpret them. -Fisher contends that all humans are born with the ability to judge the quality of a story's argument with two main criteria: 1.Narrative coherence: The understanding of how well a story fits together and makes sense. 2.Narrative fidelity: The judgment of how a story fits with one's own beliefs and experiences.
What is Aristotle's syllogism? How is it distinct from an enthymeme?
-Syllogism: A type of deductive reasoning where certain premises, or a statement that is presumed to be true, build or follow one another to a logical claim or conclusion. -Enthymeme: A variant of the syllogism, where one of the premises (either major or minor) is left unstated.
Define professionalism and classify what it means to display professionalism in the classroom and in the workplace.
-The set of qualities and characteristics that represent perceptions of your competence and character as judged by your key constituents -Classroom setting: being punctual to class, using technology appropriately during class time, and completing assignments on time -Work setting: whether or not you are willing to work late or come in early, and if you demonstrate the ability and willingness to take on increasing levels of responsibility.
Consider how certain ethical stances alter how an individual approaches persuasion (e.g., veil of ignorance).
-Using actions and words to persuade: make the speech appropriate for the occasion and live the actions you are advocating for in your speech (walk the talk); a "good" speech is impossible without a speaker that lives a "good" life -Consider the relationship with the audience: use the "I-Thou" approach- shift the style of public speaking from speaking at the masses to speaking with other individuals -Judging the speaker and audience: veil of ignorance: Means "shielding" your eyes from things that might bias you against an argument (race, gender, religion, etc.); allows you to capture your audience's attention without their biases getting in the way
Discuss how to prepare for your presentation and how to manage unexpected situations.
-When preparing to deliver your informative speech, it is imperative that you practice -Extemporaneous speaking: internalizing your ideas so that you are comfortable with the concepts and familiar with the information -Knowing that you are distracted easily, take preventative measures by removing the possibility of external noises to the best of your ability
Define surveillance and multicommunicating and explain how they impact your reputation in the workplace.
-close observation, especially of a suspected spy or criminal; being found engaging in non-work related activities during the hours your organization is paying you to work can severely damage your reputation; employers are increasingly monitoring their employees to ensure their productivity and identify online behaviors that may pose a risk to the company's public reputation -communication behaviors using technology, where people conduct multiple, nearly simultaneous conversations; people in the room with you don't know why are texting; they only see you communicating a lack of focus and disrespect to the presenter/professor leading the meeting in which you are currently sitting
What are the five aspects to consider when choosing a topic?
1. Pick a topic that is not over your listeners' heads 2. Pick a topic that is not too personal 3. Pick an intriguing topic 4. Pick topics that are manageable 5. Pick a topic that has substance
What are three primary types of impromptu speaking?
1.Dealing with subjects: The student is given a subject of a general nature, and the task of the student is to establish a central claim or argument about that subject 2.Dealing with objects: The strategy for dealing with objects is similar to the task of association used by psychiatrists-what subject does the object bring to mind? 3.Dealing with quotations: Pinpoint the definitive meaning or relationship suggested by the quotation; it should be clear to you and you should be able to make it clear to your audience
Discuss the seven presentation pitfalls with PowerPoint.
1.Blinded by the light 2.No face in sight. Never turn around and read off your slides. 3.Is there just a head? Do not hide behind a podium or a computer keyboard. 4.This is not the version of Powerpoint I use on my computer. Spend some time getting comfortable with the keyboard and know how to start your presentation and maneuver your slides as needed. 5.But I don't know how to use a Mac (or PC...)! Practice using each one so you are comfortable with both! 6.What did that say? Do not make the mistake of having too many visual aids or slides, so that you can only spend a few seconds on each one, leaving your audience no time to fully take in or read what is being projected. 7.That's a lot of text! Avoid putting too much text on your slide or your audience will spend their time reading, and not paying attention to what you are saying.
What are the different ways to structure impromptu speeches?
1.Classification: A structural division that breaks a topic into "classes" of information. 2.Unification: Structural division in which all main points unify to support the thesis or central idea. 3.Cause-Effect-Solution: Purpose is to show why the problem occurs (or why we struggle to make it so), what the potential effects are, and some ways that you can change your thinking or control yourselves or foster a better world.
What are the types of evidence and their subtypes? Be prepared to explain their functions and give examples.
1.Definition: A statement that establishes the meaning of a term or phrase 2.Description: A statement that provides details to your idea and helps your audience understand the characteristics and qualities of your topic -Pictorial description: Creates a mental picture of your subject -Objective description: Rely on logos to give detail to a concept; offers a litany of facts relating to your subject; provides imperial and unbiased accounts of the concrete facts relating to your subject 3.Explanation: A statement that addresses how or why something works, occurs, or exists -Comparison: Identifies the similarities and differences between two ideas or objects -Division: Breaks down the subject and analyzes its various parts or types -Interpretation: Moves beyond the simple assertion of facts and offers a substantive analysis of the important issues and themes relating to a subject 4.Statistics: Numerical data that help bolster your ideas. -Descriptive Statistics: Numerical data that describe, summarize, or show the basic features of something -Interferential Statistics: Data used to help reach a conclusion and make predictions 5.Examples: Illustrate a particular instance of your subject, and it can make the subject more vivid and clear -Factual Example: An illustration of a real person, object, or event -Hypothetical Example: An illustration that creates an imaginary situation for your audience 6.Testimony: Firsthand authentication of a fact or evidence. -Authoritative testimony: A statement or group of statements given by a credible expert -Lay testimony: States the opinion, expresses the feelings, or recalls the experience of someone who has had some personal involvement with or sentiments about a subject -Nominal testimony: A general statement made by a well-known person that can be related to your subject
Identify the two rules for structuring the main points in your speech.
1.Don't overlap your main points; happens when there is repetition of material 2.Create feasible main points with a similar scope; you should be able to cover each of your main points in detail in the time allotted for your presentation
Identify the five modes of speech delivery and be able to discuss the differences between them.
1.Extemporaneous delivery: A mode of delivery in which the speaker focuses on talking directly to the audience with minimal reference to notes. 2.Impromptu delivery: A mode of delivery in which the speaker has little or no time for preparation and must deliver a speech on the spot. 3.Manuscript delivery: A mode of delivery in which the speaker refers to a script of some sort, such as a written document or digital text. 4.Mediated delivery: Any mode of delivery that is carried out and recorded using a form of media technology. 5.Memorized delivery: A mode of delivery in which a speaker gives a short, impactful speech from memory, without notes.
What are four essential tips for constructing an effective impromptu speech?
1.Introduce and conclude: "Bookend" you presentation strongly with a clear introduction and conclusion 2.Support: Stories/narratives, opinion, description, explanation, and illustrations are all excellent ways to support your claims in lieu of "hard" data 3.Organize: Basic framework (parts of the introduction, body and transitions, and parts of the conclusion) 4.Audience Knowledge: Assess the level of knowledge your audience may already possess on the topic
Identify and describe the six principles of persuasion.
1.Reciprocation: Recognizes that we often feel obligated to repay others for their benevolent actions towards us; seems to be an unwritten social code that favors must be repaid in some form or another 2.Commitment and consistency: Rests on the belief that we want to act in accordance with the words we say and the values we hold; people who have committed time and effort are more likely to commit even more because they do not want to feel like they have wasted what they have put in so far 3.Social proof: When we are uncertain about what to do, we have a tendency to follow the lead of others 4.Liking: Based on the idea that we are more likely to say "yes" to people we like 5.Authority: People have a tendency to respect those in authority; tell your audience why you are equipped to address your particular topic Scarcity: The ultimate persuasion tool; people show greater desire for something when they learn that their access to it is limited
State three criteria for effective written workplace communication.
1.Skillfully identify your ideas 2.Skillfully organize your ideas 3.Skillfully present your ideas
What are two keys to using evidence appropriately?
1.Use rationally relevant evidence: Use evidence that is logical; the type of evidence you select should reflect the type of claim you advocate 2.Use motivationally relevant evidence: Your evidence must create a compelling desire on your listeners' part to be involved, endorse the belief, or undertake a course of action; To motivate your listeners, you must answer the "So what?" question
What is the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion and why is it important when considering visual aids?
A theory posited by Richard Petty and John Cacioppo that explains how individuals vary messages based on the level of involvement of the listener or audience; before selecting a visual aid to use for your speech, be sure and consider the level of involvement of your audience so that you know how much information should be given and what type of information will be most effective
Define informative communication.
Communication that builds awareness or deepens understanding of some phenomena
Define argumentation and its benefits.
The process by which logical and critical reasoning are structured and applied verbally or in written form; is essential to navigating everyday life situations and provides the opportunity for both sides to adjust their viewpoints
