Cognitive approach to understanding

reliability of memory.

"Reconstruction of automobile destruction: An example of the interaction between language and memory", is a study by Loftus and Palmer (1974) that investigated the reliability of memory. The study aimed to investigate how information provided after an event influenced a witness's memory of that event. The researchers changed the verb in a question when asking the witnesses to recall an event. The hypotheses for the study were as follows: Null hypothesis: Modifying the wording of questions after an event will not influence the accuracy of memory of a witness for that event. Research hypothesis: Modifying the wording of questions after an event will influence the accuracy of memory of a witness for that event. Two laboratory experiments made up the study. Both experiments adopted an independent measures design. The IV was the verb used to describe the event. In the first experiment, the DV was the participant's estimate of speed in miles per hour of the cars involved in the accident and in the second experiment the DV was whether or not the participant believed they saw broken glass at the crash scene. The researchers used an opportunity sample of 45 college students of the University of Washington for the first part of the study and 150 participants for the second part. First study - In the first study participants were shown seven 5-30 seconds film clips of traffic accidents. The clips were excerpts from safety films made for the education of drivers. After each film participants filled in a questionnaire about the accident. The critical question (IV) here was, "About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" Different conditions were used, where the verb was changed to "smashed", "collided", bumped", "hit" and "contacted". Participants were asked to estimate the speed in miles per hour. Second study - This study used 150 participants divided into three groups. All participants watched a one-minute film on a multiple-car accident. They then answered some questions about the film. The critical question was, "How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" The verb was changed to "smashed" in the comparison group. The control group was not asked to estimate the speed. results: g1: When the critical question had the word "smashed" or "collided" speed estimates were higher than that for the other words. For "smashed" it was 40.8, for "collided" 39.3, while for "contacted" the estimate was 31.8 miles per hour. According to Loftus and Palmer, the speed estimate was moderated by the verb used to describe the intensity of the crash. The greater the intensity conveyed by the word, the higher the speed estimate to match it. The researchers did note that the estimate could be the result of demand characteristics. results g2: In the second study participants were asked about the speed of the cars and about seeing any broken glass around the scene of the accident. The word "smashed" which employs a more forceful impact, drew more than twice the "yes" responses than when the word "hit" was used. This result indicates that questions can alter the memory of events and lead to distortions. One initial change in wording can have prolonged effects on memory. Loftus and Palmer offered the reconstructive hypothesis to explain the phenomenon: A person obtains two kinds of information about an event - first is the information obtained from witnessing the event itself; second is the information supplied or acquired after the event. If there is some difference between the two sources, integration of information can lead to memory distortions. The findings of this study have implications for examination of witnesses and how courts should consider eyewitness testimony. Questions that lead a witness to answer in a particular way lessen the accuracy of testimony given by witnesses to crimes. As demonstrated, a single change of word can bring significant changes in how an event is remembered.

3. Cognitive Processing

3.1 Models of Memory 3.2 Schema Theory 3.3 Thinking and Decision-making

4. Reliability of Cognitive Processes

4.1 Reconstructive Memory 4.2 Biases in Thinking and Decision-making

5. Emotion and Cognition

5.1 The Influence of Emotions on Cognitive Processes

Theory of Planned Behaviour

Ajzen (2006) devised the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to identify factors that influence the successful completion of plans and goals people make in their lives. For example, people can plan to exercise more to become healthier. His model identifies three components of this process: beliefs about a particular behaviour, subjective norms about that behaviour and beliefs about how much control a person has over that behaviour. These factors all contribute to a person's intention to carry out the planned behaviour. As a general rule, the more favourable the belief and the subjective norm, and the greater the perceived control, the stronger the person's intention to perform the behaviour. For example, Susan plans to exercise more regularly. She acknowledges exercising is important and some of her friends have joined a class at her local sports centre. She knows her family and friends would support her efforts and she feels positive about joining her friends and going to the gym. Susan is reasonably fit and believes she can keep up with the programme of exercise. She has money saved for the gym membership, the gym is close by and she is sure she can find the time to attend.

Illusory Correlation

An illusory correlation is a belief that two things are associated when there is no actual or only a minor association.

first schema theory

Bartlett (1932) first introduced the schema theory to psychology. A schema can be defined as an internal mental representation that helps us organize and make sense of information. While conducting a series of studies with British students recalling Native American folktales, he noticed the participants often recalled information inaccurately. He found familiar information replaced unfamiliar information as the participants tried to make sense of the story as they recalled it. To account for these findings, Bartlett proposed that people have schemas which can be defined as unconscious mental structures that represent an individual's experience and knowledge of the world. One study was how well a North American folk story called "War of the Ghosts" could be remembered. To the British participants, parts of this story appeared strange as it contained many unfamiliar and supernatural elements. To European and white American listeners, references to a spirit world appeared illogical. Participants read the story and then repeated the story from memory after differing periods of time (the procedure is called serial reproduction). These time periods varied from days to years. Bartlett found that the participants changed the story as they tried to remember it. He noted: The story became more consistent with the participants own cultural expectations, that is, names and places were unconsciously changed to fit the norms of British culture. For example, a canoe was recalled as a boat. He called this a process of assimilation. The story became shorter with each retelling as participants omitted information judged as unimportant. He called this process of levelling. Participants changed the order of the story to make sense of it and added details. The overall theme of the story was remembered but unfamiliar elements were changed to match the participant's culture. This process was called sharpening.

video gaming and Visual Working Memory

Blacker, Curby, Klobusicky and Chein (2014) theorised that video games could expand the capacity of VWM. Of interest were action video games as they provide the player with a complex and changing visual environment in which accurate visual memories often decide the player's success or failure in the game. The hypothesis of the experiment was that exposure to games with rich visual environments over an extensive period would enhance VWM performance compared to games that did not involve rich visual environments. Thirty-nine male undergraduates with a mean age of 20 were randomly assigned to an action game group or control group. The action game group played video games like "Call of Duty", while the control group played games like "Sims". Both groups played their games for one hour per day for 30 days. After training, the participants' VWM was tested. Individuals who played on an action game showed significant improvement on measures of VWM capacity compared with those who played the control game. The investigators concluded that exposure to rich visual environments over an extensive period is a distinctive form of training that may allow individuals to extend the capacity of VWM.

flash bulb memory one

Brown and Kulik (1977) aimed to test their theory that flashbulb memories are more vivid and more accurate than normal memories. They conducted structured interviews of 80 US participants, 40 African Americans and 40 Caucasians, between 20-60 years old. The participants answered questions regarding ten different important events. Nine events were public and most related to assassinations or attempts to kill well-known personalities. The tenth event was of a personal nature. They were asked to recall where they were and what they were doing when they first heard the news of each event. They were also asked to indicate how often they had rehearsed information about each event. The researchers found the assassination of President Kennedy generated the most flashbulb memories, with 90% of participants recalling where they were and what they were doing when they heard the news. Most participants' personal flashbulb memories related to the death of a parent. They concluded the level of emotional arousal determined whether a memory was a flashbulb one or not and these findings supported their theory. Subsequently, psychologists have questioned the idea that flashbulb memories are a special category of memory. The challenge for researchers is determining if these memories as described by participants are accurate. In order to test the theory of flashbulb memory, Neisser and Harsch (1992) interviewed participants about the 1986 Challenger space shuttle disaster, one day after it happened and again two-and-a-half years later. One day after the event, 21% of participants reported hearing about the disaster on TV. But two-and-a-half years later, 45% reported hearing about it on TV. Their memories of how they knew about the Challenger explosion had changed over time. In the second interview, some of the participants incorrectly reported where they were when they first heard of the disaster. Neisser and Harsch concluded that although flashbulb memories are vivid and long-lasting, they are not always reliable. Flashbulb memories are defined by Brown and Kulik (1977) as memories of highly charged emotional information. They tend to be more vivid, long-lasting and accurate than other memories. They theorized that these events are maintained in a unique memory store through discussion and rehearsal.

2.1 Case Studies

Case studies examine correlations between mental processes and behaviour. Case studies sometimes focus on people with unusual mental abilities, or with mental processing problems. They can be longitudinal, which means the investigator studies the person for several years by re-testing or re-interviewing them at regular intervals. Case studies investigate mental processes of one person or a few people. They provide in-depth information about phenomena that cannot be studied experimentally.

3.2 Schema Theory

Cognitive schemas are seen as mental representations that organize our knowledge, beliefs, and expectations. Multiple studies have indicated that schemas influence memory processes in encoding, storage, and retrieval. Schema processing is to a large extent automatic and non-conscious which saves cognitive energy but at the same time could result in biases in thinking and memory processes. A schema can be defined as an internal mental representation that helps us organize and make sense of information. Schemas are composed of old knowledge. He stated that they are "masses of organized past experiences" (1932:197-198). These experiences affect a person's current understanding and memory. For example, going to school helps us to develop a schema of a typical classroom and what you would find in it. Schema processing is automatic and below our level of awareness but as we shall see later in the chapter, biases in thinking and memory can result. schema of the classroom. - can explain cross-cultural differences Rumelhart and Normal (1983) wanted to understand the properties of schemas and how they affect memory. They argued that schemas represent all kinds of knowledge including semantic meanings and procedures. Schemas could consist of sub-schemas. For example, a restaurant schema would comprise an ordering schema, an eating schema and a paying schema. They noted that all schema are based on personal experience and are updated to make sense of new information.

Confirmation bias

Confirmation bias is defined as the tendency to seek out information to confirm what you already believe. We unintentionally look for material that supports our opinions and tend to overlook evidence that does not support our viewpoint. When we consider evidence, we tend to interpret it to support our views. Our memories are also affected as we tend to selectively recall information that reinforces our views. Nickersen (1998) reviewed investigations of the confirmation bias and concluded that it is problematic, pervasive and strong. So powerful is the bias that he was doubtful you can give fair consideration to a belief that opposes your viewpoint. He advises that making people aware of the bias can help guard against it, as can encouraging people to adopt an alternative hypothesis as early as possible in the thinking process.

Illusory Correlation example one

Focus on Research Hamilton & Rose (1980) investigated illusory correlations in the maintenance of social stereotypes in three experiments with 73 male and 77 female high school and undergraduate students and adults. In the first experiment, participants read sets of sentences that described different occupations with pairs of adjectives. For example doctors (thoughtful, wealthy), and salesmen (enthusiastic, talkative). Other non-stereotypical traits were including such as boring, clever, demanding and courteous. In the second experiment, the trait adjectives were either consistent with stereotypic beliefs about one of the occupational groups or unrelated to the group's stereotype; in the third study, traits were either inconsistent with or unrelated to a group's stereotype. Participants estimated how frequently each of the trait adjectives had described members of each of the occupational groups. Each study revealed systematic biases in the participants' judgments so that the perceived correlation between traits and occupations was more congruent (congruent = similar to or in agreement with something) with existing stereotypical beliefs than the actual correlation. Findings indicate a cognitive bias in the processing of new information about social groups that are influenced by existing stereotypes. The study shows an example of stereotypical thinking. Hamilton and Rose (1980) argued that illusionary correlations are triggered when two fairly infrequent situations or events occur together. The observer's heightened attention to these events results in them being better encoded and remembered. As we know from the availability heuristic the more easily a memory is retrieved, the more it influences our thinking. We tend to overestimate the frequency of these events. For example, if we see a car driven by a young man mount a pavement narrowly miss hitting a child, we only need to see a young man driving a little erratically a few days later to become convinced that "all young people are bad drivers". Illusory correlations can lead to people to remember information that confirms the expected relationship.

availability heuristic example

Fox (2006) aimed to understand how the availability heuristic (or in this case the unavailability of information) influences judgments about the quality of university courses. In this field experiment, 64 business students at an American college completed a mid-course evaluation form. They were randomly assigned to two conditions. Half of the participants were asked to list two ways the course could be improved before they provided an overall rating for the course from 1 to 7 with 7 being the highest. The other participants were asked to list 10 ways the course could be improved before they gave their overall evaluation. The results showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the mean score of 4.92 for the group asked to list two improvements and the mean score of 5.52 for the group asked to list 10 improvements. Fox explained this paradoxically (paradoxically = not what is expected) in terms of the availability heuristic. When participants struggled to think of 10 ways to improve the course they misinterpreted the difficulty of recalling problems with the course as evidence that there were not so many problems after all.

example of false memories

Hess et al. (2003) conducted a meta-analysis of studies into the memories of older people and concluded that age-related declines in memory and cognitive functioning may not be as pronounced as once believed. They argue the idea that mental abilities decline with age might be the result of how the research was conducted. Hess argued that some of the age differences found in standard laboratory studies may be due to stereotype threat, a fear that one's behaviour will reinforce a negative stereotype that exists about a group to which one belongs. After conducting the meta-analysis, Hess asked older adults to read mock newspaper articles on recent findings related to ageing and memory. Half of the articles presented actual negative findings that suggested that mental decline was inevitable. The other half outlined more positive findings that implied that some memory skills were preserved with age and that mental decline could be slowed. After reading the articles, the subjects were given a basic memory test in which they had to recall a list of words. Individuals who read the positive article performed about 30% better on the memory test than those who read the negative article. Other studies that focused on everyday concrete memory tasks rather than lists of words or other abstract memory tasks, older people performed as well as younger ones. The conclusion is that a poor memory can result from a self-fulfilling prophecy. If older people succumb to the stereotypes and expect to forget, then they will.

confirmation bias example

Hill et al. (2008) investigated the role of confirmation bias in interviewing a suspect to a crime. They designed a study to examine whether an expectation of guilt on the part of the interviewer influenced their behaviour. Sixty-one undergraduate students were asked to make up questions they wanted to ask a person suspected of cheating. Before they wrote their questions they were lead to believe that the suspect was either guilty or innocent. Those participants who had heard that the suspect was guilty formulated more questions that presumed the suspect was guilty than presumed the suspect was innocent. These results indicate that expectations of guilt can have an effect on questioning style.

memory + technology

How digital technology affects cognitive processes and human interaction is a controversial topic. Both positive and negative effects have been the subject of research. On the positive side, some argue digital technology can enhance cognitive functioning. For example, video gaming can improve perception, mental rotation skills, visual memory, attention, task-switching, multi-tasking and decision-making. On the negative side, some contend that digital technology can lead to distraction, reduced attention spans, a sense of social isolation, scattered thinking, and a decline in the ability to think analytically.

Video Games

How video games affect children and adolescents remains a contested and unresolved issue. Those who oppose video games argue they increase aggressive behaviour, bring social isolation and teach anti-social values. In addition, excessive video-gaming can adversely affect academic performance and lead to poor health. Others argue video gaming can improve cognitive functions including memory, spatial skills, pattern recognition, analysis and decision-making. No consensus has yet emerged from the psychological research. The following study investigates video gaming and Visual Working Memory (VWM) and argues that gaming can have positive outcomes. VWM is the ability to hold visual information in mind for a brief period. This information is used to navigate our the visual world. The storage capacity of VWM is limited.

4.2 Biases in Thinking and Decision-Making

Human beings are not always rational thinkers. Instead, they rely on intuitive thinking and take cognitive shortcuts. We have already investigated System 1 thinking and the use of heuristics to make decisions that can lead to poor outcomes. Cognitive psychologists have investigated a wide range of cognitive biases, two of which are confirmation bias and illusory correlations.

4.1 Reconstructive Memory

Human memory is not an exact copy of events but rather a reconstruction that may be altered over time, through discussions with others or input from the media. Research shows that memory may be changed during storage, processing and retrieval, for example, due to schema processing. Knowing this could be important not only in our daily lives but in particular in relation to eyewitness testimony. Human memory is not an exact copy of our experiences in life but rather a reconstruction of events that may be altered over time. Our memory is much more active than we realise and we adjust what we remember so that memories fit our changing understanding of the world. Research shows that memory may be changed during storage, processing and retrieval. Freud proposed the first psychological theory of memory. According to his psychoanalytic theory, people force themselves to forget painful memories by repressing them into the unconscious. These memories continue to exist but can only be recovered by a psychologist or psychotherapist using hypnosis or dream analysis. Many researchers disagree and believe that recovered memories were created memories of events that never took place. Less controversial is research into the subtle factors that can influence how we recall events. Bartlett (1932) showed how schemas can change how we recall stories and his pioneering studies were supported by Loftus and Palmer (1974) who investigated eyewitness testimony.

Cognitive Processing in the Digital World

In particular, you will study: The influence of digital technology on cognitive processes and human interaction. The positive and negative effects of modern technology on cognitive processes Methods used to study the interaction between digital technology and cognitive processes. The influence of digital technology on cognitive processes and human interaction

False Memories

In the early 1990s, there were court cases in the USA and the UK involving children accusing their parents of sexual abuse. These alleged events took place during childhood and surfaced during later psychotherapy. Courts heard the abuse had been repressed and only recalled in the safety of the client-therapist relationship. Examination of these therapy sessions revealed that false memories could have been implanted in the minds of these children, many of whom retracted their accusations. Some parents together with their adult children have sued hospitals and therapists for implanting false memories. The False Memory Syndrome Foundation was set up in the USA in 1992, and the British False Memory Society was established in 1993. Investigations by Loftus and Pickrell (1995) and Loftus (2005) provide insights into false memories. You recall that Loftus and Pickrell (1995) could implant false memories of being lost in a shopping mall (See Focus on Research 5.1). In subsequent research, Loftus found that suggestive therapy procedures (e.g. guided imagery, dream interpretation, hypnosis and exposure to false information) could lead to even richer false memories. In one study (Loftus 2005), about one-third of participants were persuaded that as children they had nearly drowned and had to be rescued by a lifeguard. Loftus concludes that memory is fragile, and it is still extremely difficult to separate false memories from true ones One the other hand, there is evidence that memories can be accurately recovered. The experiment by Loftus and Palmer is criticised for lacking ecological validity. Yuille et al (1985) found that in real-life crimes, eyewitness testimony can be accurate. McCloskey and Zaragoza (1985) also argue that post-event information does not completely replace the original information in eyewitness testimony. Memories are also more easily retrieved when we are placed again in the same context where we created the first memory. This is why the police sometimes take victims back to the scene of the crime.

2.5 Ethics and Research Methods of the Cognitive Approach

Informed consent must be obtained when an experiment is performed. Obtaining consent may be difficult when conducting case studies and interviews of people with severe brain damage and memory impairment. Consent may need to be obtained from the nearest relative. Confidentiality and anonymity should be promised.

memory + technology study 2

Kaspersky Lab (2015) conducted an internet survey of 6,000 consumers aged from 16 to over 55. Males and females were equally represented, with 1,000 participants from each of the UK, France, Germany, Italy, Spain and Benelux. Participants were asked to recall important telephone numbers. They were also asked how and where they stored information they located online. An analysis of their data found that: More than half of adult consumers could recall their home phone number, 53% of parents could recall their children's phone numbers and 51% their work phone number. One in three participants reported they were happy to forget or risk forgetting information they can find - or find again - online. 36% of participants reported that they would turn to the internet before trying to remember information. 24% reported they would forget an online fact as soon as they had used it. The results were consistent across male and female respondents but higher rates of amnesia were prevalent in older age groups. The overall conclusion of the study was that connected devices enrich lives but they can result in digital amnesia.

second schema

Loftus and Palmer (1974) supported this early work by Bartlett schema and introduced the idea that schemas are susceptible to manipulation by information introduced after an event. They focused on eye-witness testimony and found that changing the verb used when questioning eyewitnesses about a video of a car accident changed how the event was remembered. The different verbs in the questions activated different schemas which then influenced the estimations of speed. For example, the typical schema of cars smashing into one another implies the cars were moving very fast compared to cars contacting each other.

Case study example for cognitive approach

Loftus and Pickrell (1995) Stratified sampling investigated whether it was possible to implant a false childhood memory in an adult. This memory was of being lost in a shopping mall. Twenty-four participants (3 men and 21 women) ranging in age from 18 to 53 completed the study. A booklet containing descriptions of childhood incidents was prepared. Three of these were descriptions provided by relatives and they were of real events. The fourth story was a false but plausible (plausible = believable) description of a trip to a shopping mall. In this story the child became lost. Participants were told that they were taking part in a study on childhood memories and that the researchers were interested in how and why people remembered some things and not others. The participants were told that the four incidents in the booklets were provided by their relatives. They were asked to read the booklets and write what they remembered of each event. If they did not remember the event, they were told to write "I do not remember this." The researchers found that 7 of the 24 participants 'remembered' the false event, either fully or partially. While two participants changed their minds, 5 participants out of 24 were convinced that they were lost in a shopping mall as a child. what this shows is that if you were to trust someone so much (by telling them that their family members had given information on them) your memory process could be affected. limitation: lacks ecological validity

example two of The Positive and Negative Effects of Modern Technology on Cognitive Processes

Manago et al. (2012) investigated how using Facebook impacted life satisfaction and perceived availability of social support. They designed an online survey for eighty-eight undergraduate students from an American university with a diverse ethnic population. The ages of the 67 female and 21 male students ranged from 18 years to 28 years. Ethnic make-up was 36% Asian/Southeast Asian American, 27% European American, 19% Latino American, 8% Middle Eastern American, 2% Pacific Islander American, and 8% mixed ethnicities combining Asian, European, and African ancestries. Participants answered questions about how often they used Facebook and how many friends they had. Questions also focused on status updates to determine their frequency, their nature and how many of their friends they estimated viewed these updates. For 20 of their friends, the participants were asked how they would classify the friendship (e.g. acquaintance, family member, etc.), how often they communicated with that friend on Facebook, and whether they saw that friend in person. Participants also responded to psychological tests designed to measure life satisfaction, self-esteem and perceived availability of social support. Results showed a correlation between larger Facebook networks and audiences for status updates and life satisfaction and perceived availability of social support. There was no correlation between the number of close contacts and life satisfaction and perceived availability of social support. The researchers argued that personal disclosures on Facebook were being used by students as a way of building a sense of intimacy with others which resulted in a greater sense of connection with friends. The researcher concluded that emerging adults are adapting psychologically to social network site tools.

Limitations of TPB

Most of the research evidence establishes correlations. It may not fully take into account the role of emotions.

2.3 Observations

Observation is often part of case studies and experiments. Observation can be quantitative and qualitative, depending on how the data is collected. If the researcher uses a list or grid that involves checking whenever a particular behaviour is exhibited, then the data is quantitative. If the researcher makes notes about the behaviour being observed and then writes down their own thoughts about that behaviour, then the data is qualitative.

5.1 The influence of emotion on cognitive processes

Psychological and neuroscientific research has revealed that emotion and cognition are intertwined. Emotions involve physiological changes like arousal but we may not be fully aware of these biological events. They also involve a subjective feeling of the emotion and associated behaviours. These emotions perform an adaptive function as they shape the experience of events and guide the individual in how to react to events, objects and situations regarding personal relevance and well-being. focus on memory. In general, emotional episodes tend to be better remembered. We tend to pay close attention to them as they connect us to important people and issues in our lives. These connections increase the strength of the memory. The biological changes associated with emotions also facilitate how memories are consolidated.

2. Research Methods of the Cognitive Approach

Qualitative: Case Studies Observations Interviews Quantitative: Laboratory experiments

cognitive approach

Researchers taking a cognitive approach study the mental structures and processes involved in such behaviours as attention, perception, memory, thinking and decision-making, problem-solving and language. Such processes are labelled cognition. cognitive psychologists examine the relationship between cognition and human behaviour. Cognitive psychologists argue they are able to study mental processes by building theoretical models and then testing predictions based on these models. Information was seen as being inputted through our senses to our brains. This data then underwent mental processing. Behaviour was the output of this system.

Illusory Correlation example two

Risen et al. (2007) conducted four studies to explore the phenomenon of "one-shot" illusory correlations. These correlations were formed from a single instance of unusual behaviour by a member of a rare group. In Studies 1, 2, and 3, unusual behaviours committed by members of rare groups were processed differently than other types of behaviours. They received more processing time, prompted more attributional thinking, and were more memorable. In Study 4, the authors obtained evidence from two implicit measures of association that one-shot illusory correlations are generalized to other members of a rare group. The results suggest that one-shot illusory correlations arise because unusual pairings of behaviours and groups uniquely prompt people to consider group membership as the explanation of the unusual behaviour. (i.e. "The only reason for this strange behaviour must be that they are members of this particular unusual group").

multi-store method example

Sacks (2007a,b) undertook a case study of Clive Wearing (CW) who contracted herpes viral encephalitis in 1985. At the time CW was a musician. The disease destroyed parts of his central nervous system especially the hippocampus. Sacks wanted to understand how this illness affected CW's mental processes. To find areas of damage, brain scans were used. Sacks also observed and interviewed CW. He concluded that CW suffered from both anterograde amnesia (failure to store memories after the illness) and retrograde amnesia (failure to recall memories before the illness). The case study lasted over the next two decades and Sacks and other psychologists gained more insights into memory. CW recalled little of his life before the illness but he retained his ability to play the piano. This suggested areas of the brain associated with procedural memory were undamaged. CW has a strong emotional response every time he sees his wife. This suggests that emotional memory (related to the amygdala) was not damaged. He recalls he had children from an earlier marriage but cannot recollect their names. The case of Clive Wearing supports the existence of different memory stores. His anterograde amnesia supports the multi-store model as his short-term memory had been left largely intact but he could not transfer new memories from his short-term memory to his long-term memory. -Clive Wearing shows that the model is too simplistic and needs to be focused more on the different types of memory, there are perhaps various stores in long term memory.

Neuroplasticity study

Small et al. (2009) conducted a study to see if internet searching can stimulate brain activity in middle-aged and older adults. Twenty-four adults (age 55-76 years) were divided into two groups based on their experience with computers and the internet: one group had extensive experience and the other minimal. Each group performed two different tasks: in one task, they used the computer to read a book, using the keyboard for simple tasks like advancing the page. In the second task participants used Google to research a particular topic. As they performed these tasks, a functional MRI (fMRI) recorded their brain activity. The participants with minimal digital experience showed the same levels of activation for both tasks. The results for the participants with more extensive computer and internet experience showed no difference in brain activation in the reading task compared to the participants with little experience. When these participants were engaged in an internet search, higher levels of activation in the parts of the brain associated with complex reasoning and decision-making were recorded. Small and Moody concluded that though the findings needed to be interpreted with caution, internet searching may engage more neural circuitry than just reading but only in people with prior computer and internet search experience. For middle-aged and older adults prior experience may alter the brain's responsiveness in neural circuits controlling decision-making and complex reasoning

memory + technology study

Sparrow, Liu and Wegner (2011) were interested in how search engines might affect memory. They likened these search engines to external memory sources accessible when information is needed. In this way, digital technology is changing the way information is stored. You may not remember the information, but you do know where you can find that information when necessary. Sparrow, Liu and Wegner are confident memory is adapting to new computing and communication technology and they reached this conclusion after a series of experiments. The researchers showed participants trivial pieces of information, for example "an ostrich's eye is bigger than its brain". These statements were then typed into a computer by the participants. Half the participants believed what they typed would be saved while the other half were informed the information would be lost. Participants who believed the information would be lost recalled more statements than the participants who were informed that the information would be saved. Additional experiments followed the same set of procedures but this time the computer responded either by saying "Your entry has been saved", "Your entry has been erased" or "Your entry has been saved to..." followed by a folder name. Each person was then shown a list of statements and asked two questions: "Have you seen this fact before?", "Was this fact saved or deleted?" or "Where was this fact saved?" When a fact had been flagged as one that the computer erased, participants had a better memory of the fact itself. However, when the computer told them that the fact had been saved and where it had been saved to, they more accurately remembered that it had been saved and where it had been saved compared to remembering the fact itself. Based on these results the researchers challenged simplistic arguments digital technology is detrimental (detrimental = make something worse) to cognitive processes like memory. Some people argue that knowing where to find information, which is almost immediate with a digital device in our hands, critically evaluating that information, and then using the information in an analytical process is better than having a basic memory of the information. Especially in a learning (school) context, higher order thinking skills can be developed sooner with outsourcing some factual knowledge to "search engines" because the testing of regurgitated factual information takes away time from developing higher order thinking skills.

strengths and limitations of Field Experiments

Strengths of Field Experiments Field experiments are more ecologically valid than laboratory studies because there is less artificiality. Behaviours like street protests, littering, children's behaviour in school, are best investigated in their natural setting. Limitations of Field Experiments The lack of control over variables is the main limitation of field experiments. This can lead to a loss of confidence in the results. Researchers should acknowledge the limitation of field studies and they need to take care not to make claims that are not supported by the evidence.

strenghts and limitations of Laboratory experiments

Strengths of Laboratory Experiments Laboratory experiments show a cause-and-effect relationship between the IV and the DV. Statistical testing allows for thorough data analysis. The precise nature of the experiment allows for replication (replication = to repeat a study) by other researchers which make the findings more reliability. Limitations of Laboratory Experiments Strict control over possible confounding variables can create an artificial environment. This leads to the criticism that a study lacks ecological validity. Another limitation is that participants can have expectations about what the nature and purpose of the study and that can result in a change in behaviour. The way these expectations influence a participant's response is known as demand characteristics. Experiments may lack internal validity as there may be other alternative explanations for the results.

2.4 Interviews

Structured interviews comprise a checklist of questions with tick boxes or yes and no answers. Unstructured interviews are similar to a conversation between two people, with a video or sound recorder used to capture the tone of the interviewee's comments and replies. Interviews can be a mixture of closed questions that need factual answers and other more open-ended questions that allow the interviewee to expand and discuss. Focus group interviews involve the interviewer facilitating a discussion amongst a group of interviewees. Cognitive psychologists use interviews to supplement other methods, to develop theories and to gain in-depth insight into behaviour. Cognitive testing can sometimes form part of an interview. The interview is used to gain access to the person's mental processes through conversations about their behaviour and feelings.

strengths and limitations of internet based surveys

Surveys have a number of strengths and these include the ease with which they can be completed because participants can complete them at their own leisure. This technique is also useful in assessing hard to reach participants and there can be a quick turnaround in obtaining data. In addition, interviewer bias can be minimized especially in postal and online surveys. However, without face-to-face contact the motivation to complete surveys may be low and hence response rates will also be low. There is also the potential for greater inaccuracy and bias in survey data as participants may rush completion. Finally, the use of a survey does not provide an opportunity for responses to be followed up by the researcher.

flash bulb memory two

Talarico and Rubin (2003) conducted a study to investigate FBM theory. On September 12th, 2001, 54 university students recorded their memory of first hearing about the terrorist attacks of September 11th in New York and also for their memory of a recent everyday event. This is the first study into flashbulb memory that has used the memory of an everyday event as a control. Participants have interviewed again either one, six, or thirty-two weeks later. Consistency for the flashbulb and everyday memories did not differ, in both cases declining over time. However, self-ratings of vividness, recollection, and belief in the accuracy of memory declined only for everyday memories. Initial emotion ratings correlated with a later belief in the accuracy, but not consistency, for these flashbulb memories. Initial emotional ratings also predicted later posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. The researchers concluded that flashbulb memories are not special in their accuracy, as previously claimed, but only in their perceived accuracy. In summary, the current view of FBT is that emotions enhance the vividness of the memory and confidence in the reliability of that memory. The true question is not why flashbulb memories are so accurate because they are not, but why people are so confident for so long in the accuracy of their flashbulb memories.

Weaknesses of the multi-store model

The MSM was criticized as being simplistic. The models did not capture how the different stores interact with each other. For example, the information stored in the LTR could influence what information is judged important by the STM. Baddeley and Hitch (1974) argue that memory stores are more complex than depicted by the MSM. Craik and Lockhart (1972) point out that rehearsal alone does may not account for the transfer of information from STM to LTM. The type of information being processed and the level at which this information is processed may also influence what information is transferred to the LTM. A further criticism was that many of the studies that support the model lack ecological validity as they rely on random lists of words presented to participants in a laboratory setting.

3.1 Models of Memory

The Multi-Store Model of Memory and the Working Memory Model provide a framework for an understanding of conceptualization of human memory processes over time. Early theories like the multi-store model (MSM) focused on storage of information. The working memory model is an elaboration of short-term memory, suggesting a number of components working together to process information.

Strengths of the working memory model

The WMM provides a more comprehensive and thorough explanation of memory storage and processing compared to the MSM. Most psychologists now agree that short-term memory is a working memory with processing and filtering powers. The model can be applied to reading and tasks like mental arithmetic and verbal reasoning. The model explains what happens to memory in cases of brain damage. Experimental studies also support the model by showing that there are separate systems in working memory. Baddeley and Hitch (1976) conducted a dual-task study to find if working memory had more than one process. Their model predicts that two tasks cannot be performed successfully if they use the same component of working memory. On the other hand, if two tasks use different components, they can be carried successfully.

Dual Processing Model

The dual processing model assumes that we think in two ways across several tasks: System 1 thinking and System 2 thinking. One way to contrast these two thinking systems is to examine how we learn to drive a car. At first, a new driver needs to concentrate on each of the actions involved in driving. With more experience and confidence, automatic processing takes over and the driver can talk to a passenger or listen to music. If the weather changes or an emergency arises, the driver can quickly revert to more deliberate driving. Cognition involves both types of thinking depending on the problem to solve or the decision to make. At times we might make more instinctive and emotional choices and on other occasions, decisions may be less emotional and more analytical.

Strengths of TPB

The model explains the relationships between intentions to behave in a certain way and the actual behaviour. It takes into account the person's social environment and also their emotions as they influence beliefs about what control a person has over a behaviour. The TPB has been applied by health psychologists to help clients stop smoking, reduce alcohol consumption or to improve diet

multi-store model (MSM)

The multi-store model (MSM) was first proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968). Their theory suggests that information flows through three stores. Each store has different capacities and can store information for different durations. Information is first stored in sensory memory for a fraction of a second. This information is then transferred to short-term memory if we attend to and make note of it. Short-term memory has a limited capacity of 7 items +/-2. Information is stored in the form of sound for about 30 seconds. This information will then be transferred to long-term memory. When the material is not rehearsed, new information that enters the short-term memory store will displace older information. The information in long-term memory is processed semantically (semantically = by meaning). The capacity of this store may be unlimited.

Strengths of the multi-store model

The multi-store model was an influential theory and prompted a great deal of research into memory. For example, Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) provided evidence that confirmed the model. They did this by conducting studies on the serial position effect using free recall experiments. These experiments involve giving participants a series of 20 or more words to remember and then asking them to recall these words in any order. The results generally fall into a pattern the researchers call the serial position curve. Participants recalled more of the first words and the last words on the list. This primacy effect showed these first words had been transferred into long-term memory. The recency effect indicates the last words on the list were also remembered as well as they were still in short-term memory when the participants recalled the words.

Methods used to study the interaction between digital technology and cognitive processes.

The studies you have read about use a variety of methods to investigate the interaction of digital technology and cognitive processes. Both laboratory and field experiments were employed as well as internet based surveys. Brain scanning is another method used by psychologists interested in how digital technology enhances cognitive functioning.

Weaknesses of the working memory model

There is little direct evidence for how the central executive works and what it does. The capacity of the central executive has never been measured. The working memory model only involves short-term memory, so it is not a comprehensive model. Andrés and van der Linden (2002) examined patients with frontal lobe damage and concluded that not all central executive processes are located there. Evidence indicates there are common brain areas but there are also differences in how different tasks are performed. Finally, the model does not explain changes in processing ability that occur as the result of practice or time.

3.3 Thinking and Decision-Making

Thinking involves using information and doing something with it, for example, deciding something. Thinking and decision-making are thus closely related. Thinking is based on factors such as concepts, processes, and goals. Modern research into thinking and decision-making often refers to rational (controlled) and intuitive thinking (automatic). There is an increasing understanding of how emotions may influence thinking and the decision-making process because the consequences of decisions result in the experiencing of emotions and many of our choices are guided by the experience of or anticipation of such emotions. Dual processing model Theory of planned behaviour

2.2 Laboratory Experiments

To examine the links between brain activity, mental processing and behaviour, psychologists design laboratory experiments and use brain imaging technology. Though mental processes are not being directly observed, these processes are inferred from the brain activity and the behaviour. Experiments are useful because they can identify cause-and-effect relationships between two or more variables.

third schema

Tuckey and Brewer (2003) examined how a crime schema influenced the types of details witnesses recalled over several interviews. Some witnesses experienced a delay before the initial interview and some between subsequent interviews. Data showed that, in general, schema-irrelevant memories (memories that neither confirmed nor contradicted the crime schema) were more often forgotten than schema-consistent and schema-inconsistent memories after the initial interview. Delaying the initial interview negatively affected recall at the initial interview, but led to less decay over subsequent interviews. Witnesses used their schemas to interpret any unclear information and, as a result, made more schema-consistent mistakes and were more likely to report false memories about any ambiguous details.

example one of The Positive and Negative Effects of Modern Technology on Cognitive Processes

Uhls et.al (2014) carried out a field experiment to determine if preteens' ability to recognise non-verbal emotions could be improved by restricting access to digital devices and encouraging more face-to-face interaction. The sample consisted of fifty-one preteens who spent five days at an overnight nature camp where television, computers and mobile phones were not allowed; this group was compared with school-based matched controls that retained their access to digital devices. All participants attended a US school. Both groups took pre- and post-tests that required participants to infer emotional states from photographs of facial expressions and videotaped scenes with verbal cues removed. In the first test, participants were shown 48 pictures of faces that were happy, sad, angry or scared. Participants were asked to identify the feelings. They also watched videos that depicted scenes typical of student life. They were asked to describe the characters' emotions. After five days interacting face-to-face without the use of any screen-based media, preteens' recognition of nonverbal emotion cues improved significantly more than that of the control group for both facial expressions and videotaped scenes. The findings applied equally to both boys and girls. The researchers concluded that the short-term effects of more opportunities for social interaction, combined with time away from screen-based media and digital communication tools, may improve a preteen's understanding of nonverbal emotional cues.

The Working Memory Model

While the MSM showed a theoretical model could be effective in investigating cognitive processes there were significant limitations. As a result, some psychologists argued that there must be more than one type of long-term memory store. Shallice and Warrington (1970) undertook a case study of K.F. who was involved in a motorcycle accident. They found he was still able to form new long-term memories even though his short-term memory capacity was nearly zero. Short-term memory is, according to the MSM, the gateway to long-term memory, so his long-term memory should also have been damaged, at least for events that happened after the accident. As K.F. could still form new long-term memories, Warrington and Shallice argued there must be another way to access long-term memory other than what is depicted by the MSM. Building on Atkinson and Shiffrin's research, Hitch and Baddeley (1974) developed an alternative model of short-term memory which they called the working memory model. They argued that short-term memory is not a static store, but is a complex and dynamic information processor. The central executive is the most important part of the model, although little is known about how it functions. The central executive monitors and coordinates the operation of the visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop and relays information to long-term memory. The central executive decides which information is attended to and where to send it. The central executive enables the working memory system to selectively attend to some stimuli and ignore others. The phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad are specialized storage systems the phonological loop includes articulatory control process and later episodic buffer - the addition of the episodic buffer makes it a more accurate model. 'backup' store which communicates with both long-term memory and the components of working memory.

system two

conscious reasoning controlled high effort small capacity slow includes rule following, comparisons, weighing of options. limited by working memory capacity logical complex decisions reliable. - algorithms. Algorithms can help people solve problems and make decisions. An algorithm is a well-defined process that will produce the right solution or the best decision. Algorithms are an example of System 2 as they require deliberate thinking, logical rules and procedures. Solving a Math problem by using a formula is an example of an algorithm in action. Finding a solution by trial and error is another example as is following a recipe to bake a cake. Follow the steps and you get the right outcome.

The Positive and Negative Effects of Modern Technology on Cognitive Processes

modern technology may improve VWM and stimulate brain activity and cognitive functioning in people aged over 50. On the other hand, there may be a negative effect of digital media on memory. We now shift attention to social media and the impact of technology on human interaction. Again there is no consensus of research findings with studies highlighting both negative and positive effects. One negative effect identified is that increased use of digital media denies children opportunities to interact face-to-face with others. Of particular interest is the impact that excessive use of digital devices and social media may have on a child's ability to read and understand the emotions in others. While the results obtained by Uhls appear alarming, other researchers have gathered evidence that social media can provide additional opportunities for young people to interact with others more widely. Valkenburg and Peter (2007) focused on the positive effects of social media on Dutch adolescents. They conducted an online internet survey of 1,210 adolescents between the ages of 10 and 17 (53% girls, 47% boys). The survey questions asked participants to estimate how long they spent on social media and whether they communicated with friends or strangers. They were then asked to rate their overall satisfaction with their social lives. The results showed that frequent online communication with close friends brought these friends closer together. The social lives of participants who used online communication to talk to strangers showed no improvement. The investigators concluded that online communication had a positive effect on friendships and satisfaction with life.

limitations of schema theory

not clear how schemas are acquired in the first place - too vague too much focus on inaccuracies of memory but most of the time people remember accurately Critiques of schema theory have focused on the vagueness of the concept (Cohen 1993). Others say schemas are too rigid and simplistic. For example, Clark (1990) writes that schema theory tries too hard to use a single framework to explain how knowledge is acquired, stored and retrieved.

Neuroplasticity

the theory of neuroplasticity which argues that experiences can reorganise neural pathways. Cognitive psychologists have raised the question: Can exposure to digital technology bring about long-lasting functional changes in the brain? Small et al.(2009) found evidence to support this theory in studies of middle-aged and older adults.

System one

unconscious reasoning automatic low effort large capacity rapid includes recognition, perception, orientation independent of working memory non logical everyday decisions error prone. Heuristics are mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that generally, but not always, produce the right outcome. Heuristics offer a trade-off between helping us make quick decisions and being occasionally wrong. Some of these easy and quick mental shortcuts are described below: Representative Heuristic We make decisions based on whether an individual, object or event looks like what we expect it to be. The availability heuristic is used to judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples of that event come to mind