Cognitive Psych Exam 3
The strategy of maintenance rehearsal involves
the repetition of the items to be remembered, with little attention paid to what the items mean.
The term "processing pathway" (discussed in Chapter 7 of the textbook) refers to
the sequences of nodes and connections between nodes that activation flows through.
Cryptoplagiarism happens when you
unintentionally steal someone else's ideas.
relatively spared memory functions in anterograde amnesia
- short-term/working memory - semantic memory - procedural memory
assessing STM capacity
- simple span tasks (primarily requiring simple storage) - digit span, letter span, and word span
distinction fo STM vs LTM
- some patients only have LTM problems and some have STM problems so we know they are different - primacy effect = LTM contribution - recency effect = STM contribution
roles of schemas and scripts
- they are often useful because they serve as *default* options and help us fill in *gaps* - they can cause problems like stereotyping, possible memory distortion
example of iconic memory
- seeing lighting or a flash
If you are presented with a series of 15 words (1 word per second) and are asked to recall the words in any order you want (= free recall), you will likely demonstrate the serial position effect (i.e., both the primacy and rececy effects). Which of the following changes to this procedure would greatly REDUCE THE RECENCY EFFECT without affecting the primacy effect?
(a) counting backwards by 3's for 20 seconds after the presentation of all words
People are faster at judging whether BUTTER is a real word or not if it is immediately preceded by BREAD than by NURSE. This phenomenon is known as the (a)________ effect, and Collins and Loftus's spreading activation model (b)________ it.
(a) semantic priming; (b) can easily explain
Which of the following statements about imagery-based mnemonic techniques is TRUE?
(b) Both the pegword method and the method of loci require you to do some preparation first (i.e., memorizing a set of items that later serve as retrieval cues), but, once this preparation is done, these mnemonic techniques are fairly easy to learn and use
The typicality effect can be successfully explained by which models of semantic memory?
(b) Collins and Loftus's spreading activation model
*QUIZ QUESTIONS I MISSED*
*BELOW*
Multiple Semantic Memory Systems
*basic assumptions* - each concept is represented in the brain in a *distributed* manner - there are *multiple semantic systems* supported by different brian regions, visual system and functional system *main proposal* - *living things* are represented more strongly in the*visual system* than in the functional system - *nonliving things* are represented *equally strongly* in the two semantic memory systems what is a dog? - people describe *visual characteristics* (furry, playful, has a tail, four legs) what is a car? - people describe the *functions of the car* (used for transportation, moves fast, takes us from one place to another)
assessing explicit memory
*direct testing* - refer specifically to the 1st session & ask participants to demonstrate their memory of the words directly - recall, recognition - conscious reflection is needed for performance - typical memory study
assessing implicit memory
*indirect testing* - make no specific reference to the earlier session and avoid asking any direct memory questions - word fragment completion, tachistoscopic identification - no conscious reflection is needed for performance - does not seem like testing memory at all
Jacoby's findings
*recongniton test (direct test)* - depends on your having done active semantic anaylsis - the deeper the processing the better (levels of processing) - the generation effect: something you generated on your own is recalled better *tachistoscopic identification test (indirect perceptual test* - depends on your having done some perceptual analysis - changing the perceptual characteristics of the stimuli weakens the effect
A: transfer mechanism from STM to LTM
*revision:* elaborative rehearsal is far more effective for LTM encoding Why the primacy effect? - the modal model's account: earlier items receive more maintenance rehersal than later items - revised explanations: more elaborative/deeper processing for earlier than later items - more focus/attention for earlier than later items
Distributed Network Approach
*strengths* - it can explain category-specific impairments - the idea is tested further in neural-network simulation models - the idea of distributed semantic knowledge is consistent with the way information is represented in the brain *weakness* - more semantic knowledge systems are probably necessary (auditory, motion, etc.)
what does the case of S.F. tell us about STM capacity limits?
- LTM knowledge can supplement the STM capacity - S.F.'s basic STM capacity did NOT increase with practice - his digit memory ability did NOT transfer to other STM tasks - STM capacity is 7+/- chunks (not items) - chunking allows you to recall more information than 7+/- 2 items
implicit memory
- LTM knowledge that can influence thought and behavior without conscious awareness - requires little effort, if any - ex: rereading goes faster, even though you don't remember having read the material before - even though we are usually unaware, implicit memory can powerfully influence our thoughts and actions in everyday lives
Ericcson, Chase, & Faloon 1980
- S.F. - after hearing digits multiple times, he could remember them much better - maybe 30 minutes everyday - he used *retrieval structures* - used chunking
working memory
- WM is an active system that supports complex thinking - WM involves both processing and storage ex: mentally doing 46 x 44 - best-known WM theory: Baddeley's multicomponent theory
episodic buffer
- a subsystem for binding together different types of info and storing those bindings - integrating visual and verbal information (both phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad) - involved in chunking (binding info in phonological loop and LTM)
sensory memory
- a temporary memory store that holds incoming sensory information for very brief periods of time - raw unanalyzed form - *auditory* sensory memory = *echoic* memory - *visual* sensory memory = *iconic* memory - selectively attended info gets transferred to STM
anterograde amnesia
- an inability to form new memories - typically permanent - famous case H.M.; hippocampus and surrounding areas removed - impaired: consolidation of new episodic memories - spared: retrieval of previously stored episodic memories
retrograde amnesia
- an inability to retrieve information from one's past - temporary result of injury - recent memories are worse than distant past memories - recovery takes a while - typically caused by TBI or psychological events
spreading activation model (collins & loftus)
- moving away from the rigid hierarchical model - nodes interconnected by links - ex: bread and butter - links have different strengths - activation spreads along the links making related concepts more accessible - related phenomenon: *semantic priming effect* ex: bread (prime), butter (target) related pairs ex: nurse (prime), butter (target) unrelated pairs why is this model good - it can explain the semantic priming effect - it can explain the findings that the hierarchical model failed to explain (like the typicality effect) weakness with this model - the model may be too flexible and is difficult to falsify (the model can be easily tweaked to fit the data)
repetition priming effect
- an initial presentation of a stimulus affects the person's response to the same stimulus later - no conscious awareness of the previous encounter needed *Two Types* - *conceptual priming*: facilitation of later processing of stimulus *meaning* ex: *propaganda effect*: perviously heard statements are judged to be more credible than new statements, a vague sense of familiarity without conscious recollection affects your judgment ex: *the false frame effect*: previous encounter to names can influence participants' judgments of fame, a vague sense of familiarity without conscious recollection affects your judgment - *perceptual priming*: facilitation of later *perceptual* processing ex: *word fragment completion task* - typical results: word fragment completion performance is better for words shown before than for new words - this perceptual facilitation occurs even when you do not consciously remember seeing those words recently - what matters is whether you recently SAW those words (= perceptual processing)
becoming memory experts
- anyone can do it with practice - cost: takes a ton of practice - you need intensive focus
central executive
- attentional control system - coordinates the activities of the subsystems - it is important for the control of thought and action, multitasking and task switching
assessing working memory capacity
- complex span tasks requiring simultaneous processing and storage - operation span (math and remembering) - reading span (reading and remembering)
declarative LTM
- concious accsess to - often can be verbally described *episodic memory*: personally experienced events *semantic memory*: general knowledge
category-specific impairments in semantic knowledge
- due to brain damage (or dementia), semantic knowledge of certain categories can be selectively impaired - dissociation between living things and nonliving things - more specific deficits have been reported (e.g., fruits & vegetables) - semantic knowledge impairment is different from visual agnosia ex: *patient JBR* - he is better at identifying (from a picture) non-living things but not alive things living things = impaired non-living things = spared ex: *patient YOT* - (for picture matching) living things = spared non-living things = impaired
which of the following types of memories are impaired in patients suffering from anterograde amnesia?
- episodic memory (short term memory is fine)
schemas and scripts
- general knowledge of what is typical -both are types of semantic memory (general knowledge) - example of schemas: your knowledge of objects that are typically present in a professor's office or in a kitchen - example of scripts: your knowledge of the sequence of events that usually take place in a restaurant or at the airport
Baddeley's Multicomponent Model (newer version 2000)
- he now emphasized the link between LTM and STM - tighter connections between WM and LTM
brain regions involving amnesia
- hippocampus (main one), helps with episodic memory - medial temporal lobe - medial prefrontal cortex involved with encoding and retrieval
the modal model of human memory (atkinson and shiffrin, 1968)
- human memory consists of three distinct subsytems (stores) - sensory store - short-term store - long-term store - info goes from one store to another
multiple semantics systems model (Farah & McClelland's )`
- inspired by how the brain processes information - assumes that the brain represents a concept in a distributed manner *(discrete or local representation)* - a concept is represented by a single node - a concept is represented by multiple nodes *(distributed representation)*, similar concepts associated with similar patterns
heirarchical network model
- knowledge is organized in a hierarchical manner - each node represents a concept - nodes are linked together with related concepts - the *principle of cognitive economy*: (same meaning as inheritance), associated properties are stored at the highest possible level of hierarchy - we don't want too many redundancies - ex: "breathes" is stored at the level of "animal," not "bird" or "canary" *prediction*: the closer the two concepts (or the concept and the property), the faster the response ex: a canary is bird is faster thought of than a canary has skin or a canary can sing (takes longer to think about) *the prediction was correct* *other results/problems* - some findings are incompatible with the model - *typicality effect*: a robin is a bird is verified faster than a peacock is a bird - *prominent features effect*: a peacock has feathers is verified as quickly as a canary can sing (although the theory says that a canary can sing should be identified faster, but we all know a peacock has feathers) -it is also unlikely that neat hierarchical structures exist for some concepts or categories - most things can be classified in more than one way ex: apple belongs to plants and food
non-declarative LTM
- memories we have no conscious access to - can't verbally describe *classical conditioning*: associating two stimuli to elicit a response (pavlov's dog) *procedural memory*: motor and cognitive skills and habits
method of loci
- memorized a fixed sequence of familiar locations - create a series of interactive images - imagine your list on different body parts
explicit memory
- memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" - LTM knowledge can be retrieved and reflected on consciously - requires a concentrated effort to bring memories to the surface - ex: remembering the name and artist of a song you hear on the radio
mnemonic techniques
- memory strategies that facilitate retention and later retrieval of information - everyone can learn/use them easily - mnemonic techniques require you to link the incoming to be remembered information to your existing knowledge - they are effective because you create unique and memorable retrieval cues
new skill learning in anterograde amnesia
- mirror drawing task - performance gets better
ZAPS operation span
- remembering words while doing math - more difficult than simple span tasks - remembering 5 words was hard
Jacoby's (1983) Study
- say target words out loud - three encoding conditions... "No context" condition - XXX, DARK "Context" condition - HOT, COLD "Generate" condition - LOW, ???? *recognition test* best: generate worst: no context *tachistoscopic identification test* best: no context worst: context
major challenges to the original modal model
A: is maintenance rehearsal really the transfer mechanism from STM to LTM? B: are STM and LTM really independent (completely separate) memory structures? C: is STM really a passive "holding place" purely for memorization?
Which of the following statements is TRUE about individual differences in multitasking or divided attention?
Both (b) and (c) - (b) Frequent media multitaskers tend to be more impulsive and more sensation seeking than less frequent multitaskers. - (c) Although it is now well established that media multitasking frequency is related to cognitive performance (including academic records), it is not yet clear whether the relationship is causal or not.
Which of the following approaches to semantic knowledge uses discrete or local (rather than distributed) representations?
Both A and B - A. The hierarchical network model (Collins & Quillian) - B. The spreading activation model (Collins & Loftus)
*ZAPS Sensory Memory Learning Check Question:* Which of the following statements BEST describes a key difference between echoic memory and iconic memory?
Echoic memory lasts for a number of seconds, rather than a fraction of a second
S.F.'s ability to remember a long sequence of digits transferred well to other STM span tasks; he was also able to recall a long list of random alphabet letters as well as random words.
F
Which of the following is NOT an example of an implicit memory?
None of the above (i.e., the three phenomena above are all implicit memory phenomena) - classical conditioning - repetition priming - procedural memory
Which of the following is NOT true regarding recall performance?
Physical context is more important in recall than psychological context.
*ZAPS Operation Span Learning Check Question:* The difference between short-term memory (STM) and working memory is that...
STM describes a temporary information store, while working memory also involves processing or manipulating information.
If you must generate and maintain a visual image, which of the subsystems of working memory do you need to rely on most strongly?
The visuospatial sketchpad
*ZAPS Sentence Verification Learning Check Question:* During flu season, people are more likely to ask, "Do you have any Kleenex?" than "Do you have tissues?" This is best explained by the typicality effect.
True
long-term store
a storage space for long lasting information (ranging from 15-20 s to almost permanent)
sensory store
a store that holds incoming information (visual, auditory) briefly in a raw, unanalyzed form
pegword method
a strategy for memorization in which images are used to link lists of facts to a familiar set of words or numbers - one is bun - two is shoe - three is tree - four is door - five is hive etc.. - then you recall bun or shoe or whatever and then connect it to a new word like milk for example (when he asked us to recall celebrities, imagine them doing something involving the peg like tom hanks putting on a shoe bc he's second)
short-term store
a temporary "holding place" with a limited number of slots (7 +/- 2), where items can last without rehearsal - this is a stepping stone to long term store
Imagine that you briefly flash the picture below to a split brain patient while she is staring at the central fixation point. If you ask the patient to draw what he just saw using his LEFT hand, what picture is she most likely to draw?
a woman's face
Theories of spreading activation assume that activating one node will lead to
activation of all nodes connected to the one that was activated at first.
Anterograde amnesia victims:
can learn new skills, even though they fail to remember they have actually practiced those skills before
A helpful analogy for the encoding and retrieval process in long-term memory is
cataloguing, the way librarians catalogue new books.
what reduces the recency effect but keeps the primacy effect the same?
counting backwards by 3's and engaging in serial recall
which TWO of the memory principles were particularly important for Foer's mastery and effective use of mnemonic techniques?
deep & elaborative processing and focused learning
partial-report technique
developed to reduce the problem of rapid fading from sensory memory
Your friend asked you a question. You were a bit distracted, so you were not sure what he said initially. But before you asked him to repeat the question, you figured out what his question was. This phenomenon nicely illustrates the operation of a transient memory store known as __________.
echoic memory
Anterograde amnesia victims:
express newly learned skills only in exactly the same context in which the skills were learned
In the "remember/know" paradigm, a response of "know" is NOT
given when the participant can recall details about the context in which a stimulus was encountered.
imagery-based mnemonics
involving interactive mental images - pegword method - method of loci - good for *sequential* learning - some prep work is needed to take advantage of these methods
how do you transfer from short term to long term?
maintenance rehearsal
Memory research has repeatedly shown that elaborative rehearsal is __________ maintenance rehearsal.
more effective than
the two "slave" systems (visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop)
phonological loop - specialized for verbal, speech-based information - crucial for performing simple span tasks visuospatial sketchpad
For a procedure that relies on processing fluency, what matters most is that you __________ the test stimulus.
previously encountered
B: The seperability of STM and LTM
revision: STM and LTM are much more tightly connected than assumed in the modal model (LTM can supplement STM)
C: STM as a passive rehearsal buffer
revision: STM is too passive and limited. we need a more active temporary storage system that can support complex cognitive activities
From our experience, we have extracted information about what is typical or frequent about a particular SITUATION or OBJECT (e.g., what can usually be found in a kitchen). This type of knowledge is often called:
schemas (schemata)
according to the original version of the modal model, the mechanism that transfers information from the sensory store to the short-term store is...
selective attention (we narrow down what we have to process)
Which event will increase the magnitude of the PRIMACY effect during a free-recall task?
slowing down the presentation of the list
is Clive (guy from video who lost his memory) spared or impaired?
spared - he can hold a normal conversation with his wife short term memory or working memory? - working memory has an issue
non-imagery based mnemonics (verbal)
story method - *M*en *V*ery *E*asily *M*ake *J*ugs *S*erve *U*seful *N*octurnal *P*urposes (planets)
which of the following is considered an "indirect" way to test memory and hence is appropriate for the testing of implicit memory?
tachistoscopic identification
chunking
when we have to remember a list of letters read to us, it is easier when it it spells out words (DUCKBATCATPET)
Baddeley's Multicomponent Model (original)
working memory has 3 components - central executive - phonological loop - visuospatial sketchpad