Cognitive Psychology Final Exam
One of the key properties of the _________ approach is that a specific concept is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network as if neurons work.
Connectionist
According to Craik & Tulving (1975) who did the levels-of-processing experiment, people remembered target words best when the questions that proceeded the target words were about ____________________.
Meaning (e.g., fit into the blank?)
According to cognitive psychologists, it is better to have an administrator of the lineup procedure who ___________________ know whether or not the lineup has a real suspect/perpetrator while letting the eyewitness know that there _____________ be the suspect.
Does not; may not
When a neuron is stimulated, the charge inside of the neuron rises to _________ mV due to the rush of positive sodium ions (Na+) into the cell body, which lasts about 1 millisecond.
(+)40
According to Edgar Adrian who studies pressure-sensitive receptors using micro electrode and voltmeter, when neurons are resting, the inside of the neuron's cell buddy shows ____________ mV relative to the outside.
(-)70
In the candle problem, subjects who were presented with ______ boxes were twice as likely to solve the problem as subjects who were presented with _______ boxes.
Empty; full
According to Tolman, rats learn about the physical map of their environment (relative positions of things) ______________________________.
Even though the learning process has not been explicitly reinforced or punished.
Which of the following is a correct description regarding spacing effect?
Even when subjects believe that cramming works for them, for the most of the cases, spacing effect occurs (i.e., when they space out study times, they perform better)
If you say that "Starbucks on the first floor of the Social Science building is my idea of a typical Starbucks," you are using the ______________ approach to categorization.
Exemplar
In the first phase of Posner's dot pattern experiment, participants learn the dot-pattern A and B based on the __________. In the second phase, when they see old (the same dot patterns from the first phase) and new dot patterns, they tend to recognize the seed pattern of A and B as _____.
Feedback; old
Here's the Wason four-card problem with the following rule, "If there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other side." Suppose you are presented with four cards as follows: [A, 2, M, 13], each showing one side of each of the four cards. To see if the rule is valid, you would have to turn over the cards showing _____________.
A and 13.
Which of the following is a good example of the distinction between sensation and perception?
A patient with visual agnosia who sees something but does not know what it is.
According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take the longest to verify which statement below (contrary to the actual response time of participants)?
A pig is an animal.
To study human mind, some researchers, especially Wundt, utilized introspection. Which of the following is true regarding introspection?
All of the above
Which of the following demonstrates the top-down processing?
All of the above
Which of the following has been introduced as an underlying mechanism of perception?
All of the above
Which of the following is an example of implicit memory?
All of the above
_________________________ supports the idea that experience changes the brain (experience-dependent plasticity).
All of the above
Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the effect of emotion on memory?
All of the above are correct description of the effect of emotion on memory.
Which of the following is a correct description of the three explanations for the reminiscence bump? Make sure to read all the options.
All of the above are correct description of the reminiscence-bump explanations.
In the Invisible Gorilla video, viewers are asked to count how many passes the white-shirt players make. Why half of the first-time viewers of the video misses the giant gorilla walking in?
All of the above are possible explanations.
According to Anne Treisman's Feature Integration Theory, ________________________.
All of the above.
Which of the following best illustrates the encoding specificity?
All of the above.
Considering that the members of the dot pattern A and B in Posner's experiment were generated by moving seed patterns of A and B a little, the answer of the above question suggests that participants __________.
Averaged dots of pattern A and B, respectively.
Which of the following represents the basic level item? (Make sure to read all the alternatives)
Basic level is dependent on an individual's knowledge and experiences
Which of the following was(were) the suggestion(s) for being creative?
Both a and c.
[Perception being affected by the sensation] corresponds to _________________ and [Sensations being consciously/unconsciously re-constructed based on person's knowledge, experience, expectations, and context] corresponds to _________________.
Bottom-up processing; top-down processing
According to Anne Treisman's Feature Integration Theory, one role of attention is ___________________________.
Combining (gluing) the free floating features that come from a stimulus
Donders, the father of mental chronometry, found that choice reaction time is ______________ longer than simple reaction time, suggesting that we need that amount of time to __________________.
One-tenth of a second; make a simple decision (e.g., decide whether a light is on the left or right side)
The results from the partial report condition suggest "unlimited capacity" of the sensory memory. Why?
Participants did not know which row to report until the array disappeared (only after the array disappeared, they heard the tone). Participants, however, remembered almost all letters from ANY given row.
Broca's area is responsible for language ____________ while Wernicke's area is responsible for language ____________.
Production; comprehension
Posner's dot pattern experiment was designed to demonstrate the ___________ in category-standard formation.
Prototype
Wickens et al. (1976) observed that if the category of words suddenly changes (in the fourth trial), then the memory accuracy, which was decreasing as trial goes, suddenly increases. They called it _____________, which indicates _________________ coding in the short-term memory.
Release from PI (proactive interference); Semantic
According to cognitive psychologists, it is better to have _________________ lineup and _________________ in the lineup to improve the accuracy of eyewitness testimonial.
Serial; fillers (someone similar to the suspect/perpetrator).
Results of the precueing experiment showed that participants responded __________________ to a stimulus that appeared at the invalidly cued location than to a stimulus that appeared at the validly cued location, demonstrating the __________________.
Slower; selective visual attention
According to the class discussion, as a car sales person, if you ask your customer about their idea of SUV, they tend to think of ______.
Specific SUVs they have some experience with
Which problem provides an example of how restructuring the mental representation of a problem can facilitate problem solving?
The circle problem: determining the length of a line of a triangle inside a circle
The semantic network model (e.g., Collins and Quillians's Hierarchical model) predicts that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information or answer a question should be determined by ______________.
The distance that must be traveled through the network.
Which of the following is an example of practical application of introspection?
Think-aloud testing in user experience (UX) design (especially, usability testing)
Which problem provides an example of how functional fixedness can hinderproblem solving?
Two-string problem
Lucky contestants of the deal-no-deal tend to accept a banker's offer early while unlucky contestants tend to keep playing. This is because ____________.
Unlucky contestants want to avoid the negative feeling of being a loser and take more risks in the hope of beating the odds.
Jay's problem was to make a large amount of money for a down-payment. He approached the problem by _____.
Using all of the above systematically
If you hear "red", then, it primes ______, which is an example of _______.
Vivid red; typicality effect
Imagine that your grandfather speaks fluently but what he says does not make sense and he does not seem to understand what you had ask although he continuously speaks. Then, the following brain areas might have been damaged.
Wernicke
Graf and colleagues used Korsakoff syndrome patients so that ____________________.
although the patients cannot explicitly remember the 10 words from the liability rating task, they may perform well in the word-fragment test with the help of the implicit memory of the 10 word that are related to the word-fragment task.
When the option is stated in terms of gains, people tend to _____ risks; When the option is stated in terms of losses, people tends to ______ risks.
avoid; take
The water-jug problem demonstrates that when we have a well-learned procedure that solves a problem from the past, then it may prevent us from __________________________.
being able to find more efficient solutions for similar problems.
Brenda is watching a political debate. When her preferred candidate gets up to speak, she nods her head when he makes points with which she agrees. When he is saying things that she does not support, however, she simply turns away and talks to her roommate. Brenda's tendency to seek out information that is consistent with her beliefs is called the ____________.
confirmation bias
The definitional approach to categorization ______________.
doesn't work well for most natural objects like birds, tress, and plants.
Bransford and Johnson (1972) study had participants hear a passage which turned out to be about a man on the street serenading his girlfriend in a tall building. The wording of the passage made it difficult to understand. Looking at a picture about the story made it ________________ to understand and memories the contents. The results of this study illustrated the importance of _______ in forming reliable long-term memories.
easier; An organizational context (i.e., big picture/framework)
Neurons in the visual cortex that respond best to only specific orientations (e.g., vertical lines) are called _____________.
feature detectors
Golgi method stains ______________ of the neurons to which the staining method was applied.
few (1%)
For a non-insight problem, warmth feeling (i.e., how close you are to the solution) ______________; For an insight problem, it _____________ prior to the solution.
gradually rises; rises suddenly just
Loftus and Palmer's "car-crash films" experiment shows how a seemingly minor word change can produce a large change in eyewitness reporting (especially the estimated speed of the cars). In this study, the critical words were ______________________.
hit vs. smashed.
Cajal applied Golgi stain method to __________________ animal brains that have _____________ density of cells, so that he can easily see the neuronal structure.
infant; low
After an attack of encephalitis, an Italian woman had difficulty remembering people or facts she knew before. She could, however, remember her life events and daily tasks. Her memory behavior reflects _____________________________.
intact episodic memory but impaired semantic memory.
In the serial position curve, the primacy effect is associated with ____________ memory which was supported by the following finding ___________________.
long-term; Repeating-words-out-loud during intervals between words showed that the number of repetition of each word corresponded well to the memory performance for the first few words
When the "abstract" version of the Wason four-card problem is compared to a "concrete" version of the problem (in which beer, soda, young boy, and old man are substituted for the letters and numbers), ____________________.
performance is better for the concrete task.
To obtain an insight to solve a problem, Gestalt psychologists suggest that it is important to ___________.
restructure the mental representation of the problem
Observations that people may actually process and manipulate information on a mental work table rather than simply storing it for brief periods of time challenged the conceptualization of ____________________ and proposed the term ___________________.
short-term memory; working memory
The Stroop effect demonstrates ______________________________.
the difficult of not performing a well-practiced or automatic task at the cost of an intended processing.
In the experiment in which participants sat in an office and then were asked to remember what they saw in the office, participants "remembered" some things, like books, that weren't actually there. This experiment illustrates the effect of _____ on memory. Choose the best answer.
(Scene) Schemas
In the partial report condition of Spering's experiment, participants could report about ________________ letter(s) out of the 4 letters in a given row.
3.3
Sperling presented a 3X4 array of letters to his participants for 50 ms. In the whole report condition, participants were asked to report as many letters as they could from the whole matrix. (Note, in the partial report condition, they were asked to report letters from a specific row indicated by a tone). In the whole report condition, participants could report on average of _______________ letter(s) out of the 12 letters.
4.5
Which of the following is a correct match of the Gestalt psychology principles to their meaning?
All of the above
Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the experiment with which the testing effect was proposed?
All of the above are correct description of the testing effect experiment.
Although behaviorism claimed objective studying of human mind, it showed its own limitations. Which of the following phenomenon cannot be explained by behaviorism (especially based on the principle of reinforcement and punishment?
All of the above cannot be explained well by behaviorism
Neural mind reading involves __________________________.
All of the above.
Which of the following is not the evidence for phonological loop?
All the above are evidence for phonological loop.
Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the results from eyewitness-testimony experiments?
Although not perfect, eyewitness testimony is quite reliable; at least innocent people have not been jailed at all based on inaccurate eyewitness testimonial.
Applying a solution from one problem-solving situation to a similar problem-solving situation is the most related to ________.
Analogy (analogical transfer)
Because of the ___________, we are more likely to overestimate the risk of pregnancy than the risk of asthma.
Availability (of specific cases) heuristic
In the semantic network approach, the cognitive economy refers to ____________.
Avoidance of repetitive assignment of category-specific characteristics to individual members of the category
Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of ________ in which feedback adjusts the weights.
Back propagation
Which of the following will most likely cause the recency effect to disappear from the serial position curve?; This also suggests that the recency effect is associated with _________________ memory.
Backward counting for 30 seconds after the word list was released but before the recall; short-term
According to Rosch, the ____ level of categories is the psychologically "privileged" level of category that reflects people's everyday experience and is often used to name objects.
Basic
Why Ebbinghaus used having method (ratios of relearning time to the original learning time) as a measure of memory instead of the number of nonsense syllables he could explicitly remember?
Because not being able to recall study material does not necessarily mean not remembering anything about the study material (i.e., you do remember something but just cannot explicitly recall it).
Among the following statements, what are the two criticisms of the specificity coding? 1. A single neuron typically responds to just a single stimulus. 2. A single neuron typically responds to multiple stimuli. 3. There are too many kinds of stimuli that we can represent while the number of neurons are limited. 4. The number of neurons (100 billion) is greater than the number of objects that we can represent.
Both 2 and 3
According to Schneider and Shiffrin (1977) who studies divided attention using an experimental paradigm in which the target frame is followed by a rapid sequence of frames with or without the target, ___________________________.
Both A and B
In order to demonstrate the double association, we need to see that ____________.
Both A and B
What were the possibilities (hypotheses) regarding the limited performance in the whole report condition in term of the capacity and duration of sensory memory?
Both A and B
Which of the following is a correct description of the what pathway and where pathway?
Both A and B
According to the transfer appropriate theory, processing the auditory aspect of stimuli during encoding can cause a better memory at later test than processing the meaning of stimuli during encoding, if ___________________________ (Make sure to read all alternatives)>
Both A and B.
You got a new phone number that ends with 1-9-4-5. In order to remember it, you think of it as the year 1945. This method of remembering best illustrates ______________. (Note, this was also introduced when you were asked to memorize code symbols such as 5 is associated with a square, 2 is associated with a square with open top, 3 is associated with L shape, and so on).
Chunking
During class, you saw an image of a store in Korea with a Korean sign "스타벅스커피." Even though you don't know Korean, you knew it was an image of a Starbucks store (not Burger King). Which of the following is a correct description of the cognitive process underlying such a categorization process? You categorized the store as Starbucks by ______________________.
Comparing the current image to the standard image you have about Starbucks.
As an explanation of the selective attention process (only the attended information tends to be fully processed), Broadbent proposed ________________ in his Bottleneck Model which is called an early selection model, while Treisman proposed ________________ in her model which is also called an early selection model.
Filter; attenuator
In the experiment conducted by Mantyla, participants saw many target words and generated three related to each target word. Then, those three words were presented as a retrieval cue in later recall. The result of the experiment supported which of the following?
Generation effect
Intuitive decision-making process based on past experiences is called _______ which is _______.
Heuristic, not foolproof
Which of the following is an incorrect description of Tolman's cognitive map experiment?
If rats were released from the opposite arm of the usual arm after a while of training, then, they made an unusual turn at the intersection and could not find the treat.
Watching a comedy film or receiving a basket of candy ________ the problem-solving performance while monetary reward improves the performance only if the task is _______.
Improves; easy
In the precueing experiment by Posner et al. (1978), how often the arrow cue at the center accurately predicted the location of the target?
In most (80%) of the trials
Peterson and Peterson obsersved that the recall rate of the trigram decreased as the delay increases (i.e., the longer the subjects count backwards). Based on this observation, Peterson and Peterson concluded that __________________.
Memory decays as time goes
What is flashbulb memory?
Memory for circumstances surrounding shocking or highly charged important events.
When sentence A, "The flimsy shelf weakened under the weight of the books." is followed by sentence B, "The flimsy shelf ______________ under the weight of the books." People often fill in the blank with the wrong word collapsed. This demonstrates that _____________________.
Memory is reconstructed based on previous/typical language usage
According to the typicality effect, members that are high in typicality (e.g., apple) are judged as being a member of a group ___________ than members that are low in typicality (e.g., pomegranate).
More rapidly
People tend to overestimate _______________________.
Negative feelings following a bad decision/consequence more so than positive feelings following a good decision/consequence.
In the experiment conducted by Mantyla, participants saw many target words and generated three words related to each target word. Then, those three words were presented as a retrieval cue in later recall. Which of the following is NOT a correct description of the result?
Neither self-generated nor others-generated cues were helpful for participants remembering the target words.
Functional fixedness would be LOWEST (i.e., less functional fixedness) fora(n) _____________.
New and unfamiliar object.
According to the discussion about dual-tasking along with the three-stage model (perception, response-selection or decision making, and motoric response), what is the primary cause of the dual-task cost?
Not being able to make two decisions regarding two stimuli at the same time.
As a supporting evidence of the cognitive hypothesis of the reminiscence bump, researchers found that people who immigrated at the age of 34-35 show a reminiscence bump that is ___________________.
Postponed comparing to those of people who immigrated at the age of 20-24.
According to Bayesian inference, our final experience is determined based on ________________ and _______________.
Prior (initial belief); likelihood (current evidence)
Unlike the conclusion of Peterson and Peterson, Keppel and Underwood proposed ____________________ as an alternative of forgetting. This account was proposed based on the observation that ______________________.
Proactive interference; subjects could recall the the trigram even after 18-second backward counting in the first trial.
Which approach to categorization involves forming a standard representation of a category based on averaging category members encountered in the past? For example, you have the idea of Starbucks stores by averaging many Starbucks stores you have visited.
Prototype
Only 30% of subjects could solve the Duncker's radiation problem after _________. In contrast, 75% of subjects could solve the problem after __________.
Reading the fortress story; being nudged to apply the fortress story to solve the radiation problem.
The Graf et al. experiment with Korsakoff syndrome patients and two control groups had two phases where the patients first performed the Likability rating of 10 words followed by either a surprise free-recall of the 10 words or a word-fragment task. Notably, the word sets used in those two phrases were _____________________.
Related to each other and therefore if the subjects remember the words in the first phrase, they can perform well in the second phase.
Tom is masculine, wears training pants, and regularly goes to a gym. If wejudge the probability that Tom is a professional bodybuilder to be quite high because the description resembles our stereotype of a professional bodybuilder, we are using the __________________.
Representativeness heuristic.
H.M. underwent experimental brain surgery (lobotomy) to relieve severe epileptic seizures. H.M.'s case has been extremely informative to psychologists by demonstrating that ___________________, which is similar to Clive Wearing's (an old pianist) symptoms.
STM can operate (relatively) normally while LTM is impaired due to the damage of hippocampus.
In the beginning of Ch 3, we learned that [sensory receptors being stimulated by energies from environment] corresponds to ____________________ and [processing of the sensory information by specialized areas of the brain that results in meaningful experiences] corresponds to ______________.
Sensation; perception
___________________ coding suggests that our mind represents a specific stimulus based on the firing of a specifically tuned neuron toward the stimulus (e.g., grandma cell).
Specificity
According to Lavie's load theory of attention, we are more likely to process task-irrelevant stimulus or unattended stimuli when ____________________________________.
The task load is low due to the low complexity of stimuli, and therefore available processing capacity is left
The primary principle of cognitive psychology is that ______________________________.
The though-like processes should be the primary focus of psychology. However, the mind cannot be measured directly (e.g., based on subjective reporting), therefore must be inferred from observable behavior.
In Peterson-Peterson task, subjects receive trigrams (e.g., JKH) followed by a number from which they needed to do the backward counting. What is the purpose of the backward counting?; Also, according to Peterson and Peterson, after how many seconds of the backward counting, do we start to lose the trigram information from the short-term memory?
To prevent subjects from rehearsing the trigram; 18-20
Which of the following is a good example of the practical application of mental chronometry?
Using GOMS model to evaluate the efficiency if NYNEX phone company's are work station (e.g., how much time it takes for an operator to connect a phone call).
Which of the following provides the best illustration of functional fixedness?
Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice.
The defining characteristic of simplicity memory is that _________________________.
We are not consciously aware of the fact we have them and under the influence of them.
Lydia is 48 years old, outspoken, and very bright. She majored inphilosophy as an undergraduate. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and she participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. Which of the following alternatives is most probable?
a. Lydia is a U.S. philosophy professor b. Lydia is a housewife C. Lydia is a housewife and active in the feminist movement (IDK which of these is the answer)
People favor one option over the other depending on how the two options are described even though the two options are essentially the same. Such phenomenon is called ____________.
a. confirmation bias b. framing effect c. propganda effect (IDK which of these is the answer)
According to McKay who proposed the late selection model based on the experiment where he released either "river" or "money" along with "The were throwing stones at the bank", unattended information ___________________________________.
can be processed fully (i.e., their meanings can be processed) without attention.
Murdoch's experiment from which the serial position curve was reported showed that memory is best for the _______________ of a list.
first few and the last few words
The application of a(n) _________ makes it easier to solve the "drinking beer/soda" version of the Wason problem, because it encourages to use __________.
permission schema; falsification rule
When a neuron is stimulated by varying degrees of strength, while ___________ is the same, _________ varied depending on the strength of the stimulation.
the magnitude (the degree of rise) of action potential, the rate of action potential
Jenkins and Russell (1952) presented a list of words like "chair, apple, t-shirt, cherry, sofa, pants" to participants. In a test, participants recalled the words in a different order than the order in which they were originally presented. This result occurred because of
the spontaneous tendency of grouping items based on their categories.