Comm 102 FINAL

Self-Efficacy

"Can I do it?": belief in one's own abilities with respect to the probability that s/he will succeed in adopting and performing an innovation

Microblogging/Twitter (3 main use motivations, effects for organizations and for politics)

-1. Information source: Individual uses twitter to provide information to others (to serve as a source); Generally has a large group of followers 2. Information seeker: Individual uses Twitter to get information from others; These users log on but do not post 3. Friends: Connect with people actually known -For organizations: Research suggests companies/ organizations active on Twitter develop better relationships with users; Depends on approach- "when organizations use Twitter as a two-way communication tool, the results can lead to the generation of quality organization-public relationships" -For politics: High interaction on Twitter (answering questions, responding to tweets) associated with more positive perceptions of candidate than low interaction; Decreased users' issue-related thoughts and recognition of issues; Twitter largely used for politics by those already interested in politics; Twitter use does not necessarily lead to political engagement, opinion leadership does

Social Networking Sites (personality factors and uses and gratifications, effects on well-being/negative effects)

-Personality Factors and Uses and Gratifications: Multitaskers more likely to use SNSs and stay on longer; Studies suggest SNS users do not seek out new people but focus on established relationships; Collect info, reduce stress, record daily events, social networking -Effects on well-being: First-year undergrads use Facebook more than upperclassmen; Heavy use connected to lower self-esteem and academic performance; Honest self-presentation results in greater happiness from SNS use -Negative Effects of SNS Use: SNS users more dissatisfied with their own bodies after viewing profiles of attractive users, social comparison; Fears of privacy invasion; Older users are afraid burglars will monitor posts to determine whether they are home; Passive use linked to lower well-being; Active use not significantly linked

5 Uses of Traditional Blogs

1.Document life events 2.Commentary and opinions 3.Express deeply felt emotions 4.Articulate ideas through writing 5.Form and maintain community forums

Minority Portrayals in Advertising (know main eras and who was represented)

1940s-1960s: Blacks appeared in only 3% of national magazine ads; all were well-known entertainers, famous athletes, or unknowns in servant roles 1970s-1980s: presence deteriorated; one study showed only 2% presence, another <1% presence in ads; Studies showed White magazine readers did not respond negatively to Black models 1990s: portrayal of characters of color in TV ads greatly increases to overrepresent population percentages by more than double; Native Americans and disabled continue to be avoided

Evolution of the Internet: what is it, original purpose, connection to military, development of World Wide Web, difference between Internet and World Wide Web

1960s: Internet first developed; Created by ARPA- US Defense Dept's Advanced Research Projects Agency; Originally called ARPAnet - System to share computer time for military and academic researchers Late 1980s: World Wide Web developed by Tim Berners-Lee (Internet = underlying structure connecting computers together - World Wide Web = cataloguing system for organizing Internet; Provides unique tags for information using HTML-HyperText Markup Language; Made collaboration on the Web easier)

Media Effects on Prescription Drugs

1997 - FDA approved mass media advertising of Rx drugs directly to the public, including magazines and television; Advertisements influenced many people's behaviors - 6% discuss advertised drug with doctor, 30% of those were prescribed the drug, 11.5% were prescribed the drug although doctor did not believe it would help them

Computer-Mediated Communication

2015: over 205 billion e-mails sent PER DAY; Messages asynchronous - sent and received at convenience of users; Acknowledged to be less fulfilling than face-to-face contact; Verbal and nonverbal cues greatly reduced

Six Suggestions for Reducing Harmful Effects (Bryant and Rockwell's three mitigating factors and the three other approaches on that slide)

3 mitigating factors to reduce harmful effects: Clear, well-defined family value system; Free and open discussion encouraged and practiced in family; Active viewing and critical analysis of program content Other three: Debriefings effective in lessening harmful effects; Men most affected by learning that women are not responsible for sexual assaults against them; Training emphasizes reality that women are absolutely unable to enjoy rape

Sexual Arousal

70% of sexually explicit videos are viewed by males; male arousal increased by violence and dehumanization; less explicit material sometimes more arousing; different individuals aroused by different stimuli; heavy consumers become habituated, less satisfied with real sex

The Current Picture: Film

80% White lead characters; 19% Black lead characters; 1% Hispanic lead characters; Other non-Black racial minorities rarely seen in US motion pictures

Media Effects on Tobacco Use

83% of studies found causal link between media exposure and smoking initiation; The higher the ad recognition, the more likely one is to smoke; Tobacco companies spend more advertising dollars at point of purchase than all other advertising outlets combined; fictional media also matters; exposure to smoking in media increases likelihood of smoking

Gender Schema Theory

A cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus, including its attributes and the relations among those attributes; Schema about gender can affect the way people (especially children) process information in the real world and from the world of mass media

Cline's 4-Factor Syndrome

Addiction, escalation, desensitization, tendency to act out or copy - effects occur in same order

Define and know percentages for: Laggards

Adopt only when certain the technology will not fail, or when forced to change; innovation-decision process is lengthy; tied to the past (reluctant to try new things, don't see a need to change); suspicious of innovations; limited resources; when adopted, the innovation has become outdated - 16%

Media Effects on Food Behaviors and Eating Disorders

Advertisements: Food ads strongly related to childhood obesity, yet parental eating habits much more influential. Ads for nutritional items with health benefits increases audience awareness - e.g. 1980s ads for Kellogg's All-Bran stressed anticancer benefits of high fiber and low fat Television: American "thin standard" for women on TV linked to global viewer eating disorders

Media Effects on Alcohol Use

Alcohol use and abuse in young people higher than any other drug including cigarettes and marijuana; Alcohol use by movie characters associated with early-onset drinking among 10-14-year-olds; Studies focus on causal relationship between media and (1) start of adolescent drinking and (2) increased consumption/drunk driving; Likelihood of adolescent drinking of beer or liquor directly related to TV alcohol ad exposure; again, fictional media also matters - adolescents exposed to drinking in media are more likely to start drinking, earlier to start drinking, and more likely to suffer a drinking problem

Innovation

An idea, practice, or object perceived as new

Decision

An individual (or other decision making unit) engages in activities that lead to a choice to adopt or reject the innovation

Persuasion

An individual (or other decision making unit) forms a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the innovation

Implementation

An individual (or other decision making unit) puts an innovation into use

Confirmation

An individual (or other decision making unit) seeks reinforcement of an innovation-decision already made, or reverses a previous decision to adopt or reject the innovation if exposed to conflicting messages about the innovation

Knowledge

An individual (or other decision-making unit) is exposed to an innovation's existence and gains some understanding of how it functions

Innovation Adoption S-Curve

At first, only a few individuals adopt the new idea, then great numbers of individuals accept the innovation, and finally the rate of adoption slackens

Minority Portrayals in Motion Pictures

Blacks and other minorities historically were cast only in roles specifically requiring a minority character; 1990s films broke new ground - Blacks cast in starring roles and nonstereotypical roles that could be played by any actor

Significance of Star Trek

Bridge of the U.S.S. Enterprise is a true racial melting pot; Uhura (Nichelle Nichols) one of first Black women on TV not shown as maid or nanny; Captain Kirk (William Shatner) and Uhura had first interracial kiss on TV in 1968

Social Capital

Bridging - many weak friendship ties (common in U.S.); Bonding - close relationships providing emotional support; Maintained - users stay connected with old social networks despite lack of physical connection

Health Campaign Efforts

Campaigns used worldwide with mixed results; Some health campaigns produce long-term behavior change; some do not; Fear appeals can increase anxiety; Some campaigns criticized for blaming victims who have been bombarded with ads featuring unhealthy behavior

Absent Presence

Cell phone users physically present, but minds are engaged elsewhere

Internet of Things

Connecting physical devices, vehicles, buildings, etc. to the Internet and gauging their status via sensors; Impact of this on users, behaviors, data collection, privacy

Prevailing Tone

Contextual variables that contribute to prevailing tone: context of viewing (alone, with spouse, with male friend, grandmother, or preacher), seriousness or triviality, artistic value or intent, degree of explicitness/relevance to plot, cultural context

Sex Offenders and Pornography

Correlation between sex crimes and sexually explicit material; Far more sex offenders than nonoffenders report using sexually explicit materials; Sex offenders more likely to become aroused and more likely to perform a sexual act after viewing explicit material

Internet Addiction vs. Problematic Internet Use

Currently no approved medical diagnosis for Internet addiction; Internet dependency considered a form of deficient impulse control by some researchers; addiction by others; Heavy users unaware of their behavior; Users with lower social skills prefer computer-mediated communication and therefore use Internet more often; Bored individuals more likely to overuse Internet to problematic levels

Kaiser Family Definition of Sexual Content

Definitions of sexual content include verbal references to sexual activity, innuendo, implied sexual activity, and visual presentation

Messe Commission's 5 types of Pornography

Depictions of sexual violence like rape; depictions of degrading or humiliating activities; depictions of consensual, nonviolent intercourse; depictions of nudity; child pornography

Media Richness Theory

Describes medium's capability to communicate a lot of information quickly and with low potential for error; About amount of communication cues included (E.g. face to face includes verbal words, tone, facial expression, body language; Phone includes words and tone, not expression or body language; Higher potential for miscommunication on phone)

Animating Race and Gender (types of representations and significance of animation)

Disney: Male characters outnumber females 199:83; Females performed more in-home labor; Males performed much wider range of out-of-home jobs; Males held more positions of power than women; Characters aligned with femininity (passive, dependent, emotional) and masculinity (aggressive, independent, unromantic, unemotional); Disney animation not an innocent art form; nothing accidental or serendipitous occurs in animation as each second of action is rendered in 24 different still frames

Media Effects on Illegal Drugs

Drug use (other than marijuana) rare; Ill effects of drug use portrayed frequently; drug addicts usually portrayed as evil; Viewing film/TV can increase individual odds of trying or using marijuana (Pop music has similar effect); Minimal impact on other types of drug behaviors

Payne Fund Studies

Effects of movies on the behavior of children

Experimental Method and Violence Media Research

Experimental Method: subjects -> random assignment -> violent/nonviolent tv -> aggression? (for both assignments) -> difference between the two? Research on media violence: diverse methodologies (lab exp., field exp., cross-sectional surveys,...), prevalence of violence in media programming and the impact of medial violence on aggression

High-risk Contexts (5)

Five key elements of context that make people susceptible to negative effects: A perpetrator who is an attractive role model; Violence that seems justified; Violence that goes unpunished; Minimal consequences to the victims; Violence that seems realistic to the viewer

Importance of Individual Differences

Force-oriented vs. nonforce-oriented males respond differently; Harmful effects occur when sexually violent materials depict female aroused by assault; Link exists between viewing sexual violence and propensity to inflict pain upon females

Risk-Learning Models (4 types of messages)

Four types of messages shown to increase self-protective behavior: 1.Severity - show severe consequences of behavior; 2.Vulnerability - show ease of contracting disease; 3.Response efficacy - show how protective behaviors reduce or cure disease; 4.Self-efficacy - show effectiveness of protective behavior

National Television Violence Study

Four universities: U of California, Santa Barbara -Violence in entertainment programming; U of Texas-Austin - Violence in reality-based programming; U of Wisconsin-Madison - Violence ratings and advisories; U of North Carolina-Chapel Hill - Anti-violence public service announcement

Definition of Pornography

Graphic and explicit depictions of sexual activity

Effects of Sexual Health Representations (or lack thereof)

High levels of romance reading associated with negative attitudes toward condoms, reduced intent to use condom in the future; (experimental study) safe sex condition displayed increased positive attitudes toward condoms and marginally increased intent to use condoms in the future; Content analysis of popular culture: when included, sexual health content was ambiguous and/or inaccurate, based on traditional gender stereotypes that males seek sex and females are responsible for protection against pregnancy, presented contraception as embarrassing or humiliating

Types of Media Violence Effects (4)

Imitation/Modeling: Social learning theory/social cognitive theory; Disinhibition: as viewers grow more accustomed to seeing violence on television, they become less inhibited by social restrictions against committing violent acts; Arousal: watching a violent scene, viewers become excited or emotionally aroused, the arousal could transfer to aggression when an opportunity exists; Desensitization: repeated viewing of media violence makes viewers less and less sensitive to violence - making us numb to it

Mobile and Social Capital (Effects)

Information exchange: positively linked to civic engagement & political involvement; Relational use: Not significantly linked to civic & political; Recreational use: positively linked to civic & political, but this mostly applies to older users

Positive Effects of Internet in Workplace

Intranet: company links computers within workplace; Really Simple Syndication (RSS): employees receive corporate information; Blogs allow communication between CEOs and employees; Telecommuting enables working from home; Leisurely web surfing for pleasure may provide needed break and ultimately increase worker productivity

Definition of Obscenity

Material appeals to a shameful, sick, morbid, or lustful interest in sex; material is offensive beyond community standards regarding sexual depictions; material lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value - not all pornography is considered obscene

Nature of Sexual Content

Media content described as "sexual" must be clearly defined; explicitness depends on how much is left to the imagination; Time/CNN Poll: 30% of teenagers get most of their sex info from TV; 30% of adolescent males listed pornography as most significant source of sex info

The Current Picture: Advertising

Men portrayed as professionals, promote nondomestic items; 1990s Black breakthroughs - Tyra Banks on 1996 Swimsuit Edition (with white model), 1997 appeared solo 2007 - Beyoncé on Swimsuit Edition cover; Asian and Hispanic models rarely appear in magazines: Asian Americans, 2% - appear passive in nature or tech-savvy; Hispanics, 1% - more likely appear provocative and sexualized

How mobile is distinctive (Mobile vs. portable vs. fixed)

Mobile: Can be used while on the go; Portable: such as laptops, carried place to place and then used; Fixed: tethered to a location

Forced Eavesdropping

Most people do not like having to hear a person's phone conversations; Listening to "halfalogue" more distracting that hearing both sides of a conversation

Health News

Most people pay most attention to public health issues; Public also pays attention to health policy stories/specific disease stories; News coverage of smoking dangers significantly impacts numbers of people who quit; Framing of health stories can impact policy makers and affect public health policy; Intense scrutiny can cause officials to act; Greatest impact on public policy at local level when experts in agreement and media supports efforts of interest groups

Myths about violent media (4) and why are they myths

Myth 1: The level of violence in the mass media simply mirrors the level of violence in the real world - "If this rate applied in reality, then in just 50 days everyone in the United States would be killed." - Michael Medved; Myth 2: Violent media decreases aggression - Catharsis Theory is not true because there is no scientific data to support this, it also goes against social learning and priming theories; Myth 3: Violent media have a trivial effect on aggression - media violence and aggression has a higher correlation than condom use and reduced risk of HIV; Myth 4: One cannot know whether violent media causes aggression - through diverse methodologies (lab experiments, field experiments, cross-sectional surveys, etc.) prevalence of violence in media programming and the impact of media violence on aggression

Definition of Media Violence

National Television Violence Study: Any overt depiction of a credible threat of physical force (or the actual use of such force, intended to physically harm an animate being or group of beings); Certain depictions of physically harmful consequences against an animate being or group that occur as a result of unseen violent means.

The Internet Paradox

One study found that although Internet is used mainly for communication, heavier users found to be more lonely and isolated; Subsequent studies show extroverted users benefit from online socialization; Easily used to maintain contact with family and friends

Excitation-and-Valence Model

Pleasing non-arousing erotica counteracts anger; displeasing non-arousing erotica increases annoyance; displeasing non-arousing erotica increases aggression when provoked, through excitation transfer; pleasing arousing erotica transfers calmness

Media Effects on Sexual Activity

Portrayals of sexual activity increasingly abundant but few references made to safe sex practices or commitments -exposure linked to having sex earlier in life; Violent, sexually explicit films influenced college-age males to trivialize rape and show more sexually callous attitudes toward women after viewing

What is mobile communication

Possibility of mediated social interaction, media consumption, and information exchange while the user is in physical motion; May take place through voice, text, picture, video, or otherwise; Devices not necessarily used while on the go, but rather that they afford -- i.e., make possible --mobility during mediated social connectivity.

Define and know percentages for: Early Majority

Pragmatists; prefer to deliberate before making a decision; careful consumers who tend to avoid risk; rely on recommendations from others who have experience with the product; they legitimize an innovation - 34%

Effects on Social Relationships (pre-smartphone mobile vs. smartphone mobile)

Pre-smartphone era (still mobile): Individual addressability through texting & calling tightens flows of core network interaction; New rhythms and rituals; Heightened expectations for accessibility (among core ties); Concerns about social insularity - overly connected in "cocoons" and "monadic clusters" Smartphone era: Perpetual contact - heightened sense of connection strengthens social bonds; Text messages symbolic of friendship/ intimacy; Diversified channels (apps & social media) = more diversified connections fostered through mobile communication (opposite of cocooning)

Why study sexual content in media

Prevalence, rising access due to new technologies/changing media industries, and evidence for negative effects

The Current Picture: Television

Prime-time television characters: 14-17% Black in a society with 12-13% Black population; Typical Blacks are middle-class professional males in thirties, least aggressive characters, dress more provocatively (Genre-specific differences); Blacks overrepresented, Whites underrepresented as juvenile offenders; Hispanics: 17%* of population, 2-6% of TV characters; Portrayed as less intelligent, less articulate, and lazier; Portrayed on news as crime perpetrators more frequently than Whites; Asian-Americans: About 5% of population, 1-3% of TV characters; Usually portrayed in important professional jobs; Native American characters: <.5%, population 1%

Media Effects From Stereotyping (Priming studies and cultivation studies)

Priming studies: majority audiences blame minority crime on personal disposition, majority crime on unfortunate situation; long-term exposure to stereotypical portrayals of Blacks has been shown to result in subtle discriminatory thoughts among Whites; Cultivation studies: Whites who are heavy TV viewers more prone to stereotype Blacks as lower socioeconomically due to lack of initiative, not lack of opportunity; White heavy TV viewers cultivated stereotypical attitudes toward Hispanics; real-world contact lessened effects

Character Role Comparisons

Prominence: Black men in TV minor roles and bit parts, fewer leading and supporting roles; Crime/violence: Blacks and Native Americans portrayed as killers rather than victims; Social status: Characters of color usually in blue-collar/service jobs, but percentage depicted in professional/white-collar jobs exceeded numbers in society; Disability: 75% portrayed with abnormal or deviant personality traits- half were victimized during film; Interracial interactions: Only 13% of Black-White interactions on TV shown as friendly/respectful

Three Domains of Representation Research

Quantity (Head Count): How many characters of various demographic groups (race, sex, gender, orientation, disability, religion, etc.); Quality (Role Comparison): How characters of various demographic groups are portrayed (social role, occupation, demeanor, intelligence, etc.); Effects: How quantity and quality of portrayals affect the way audiences think about and act toward people of various demographic groups (beliefs, interpersonal interactions, political preferences, media preferences, etc.)

Sexual Violence in Slasher Films

R-rated; Readily available to teens; Violence juxtaposed with sexuality; Studies suggest men become desensitized, women do not; Over time, men find such films to be less degrading to women, more enjoyable, less offensive, less violent

Changes in Values and Attitudes

Repeated exposure results in desensitization - changes in attitudes that occur over time as previously taboo behavior becomes acceptable because of repeated exposure; real-world partners rated lower in appearance and performance; desire for marriage, monogamy and children decreases; sex becomes unfulfilling; media messages degrade and dehumanize women as victims or playthings

Health and the Internet

Searches for health-related info among most common uses of the Internet; People who seek Internet information on illness more likely to use information to formulate questions for their physicians during visits; Validity and quality of information is not checked by users and is sometimes substandard

Factors Affecting Adoption Rates

Self-efficacy, status incentives, relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, observability

Sources of Sexual Content/Extent of Sexual Content in Media (Where we see sexual media content and how often- do not need to know numbers)

Sex magazine circulation declining since 1990s, but videos, cable and pay-per-view TV, Internet, sexting, and talk about sex on TV makes sexual content even more pervasive; Music videos: sexually suggestive actions occur frequently, most videos with violence also contain sexual content, usually portray men as aggressors and females as targets; TV: sexual comments and overtures are frequent - most occurring in humorous scenes; Internet: studies show adolescent males most likely to seek sexual content on Internet, directly affects male tendency to view women as sex objects, highly realistic portrayals associated with recreational attitudes toward sex

Effects of Exposure to Highly Explicit Content

Sexual arousal; changes in values and attitudes; changes in behavior; aggressive impacts

Define and know percentages for: Late Majority

Skeptic (conservative and cautious, even after others embrace the innovation); wait until the rest of the community has adopted it first; may adopt the innovation, though unwillingly (peer pressure may be a motivator or economic necessity) - 34%

Stereotype Priming Models

Stereotype priming model uses salient preexisting social stereotypes about people who do or do not behave as advocated - Cigarette smokers presented showing negative stereotypical traits like stained teeth; Nonsmokers shown with positive stereotypical traits, i.e., enjoying good health

Relationship Between Sexual Content and Sexual Behavior

Studies confirm that exposure to sex on TV encourages earlier sexual experimentation among adolescents; studies show adolescent males most likely to seek sexual content on Internet, directly affects male tendency to view women as sex objects, highly realistic portrayals associated with recreational attitudes toward sex

Micro-Coordination (impact on time and space, softening of the schedule)

TIME & SPACE no longer rule planning and logistics; Softening of the schedule; Ongoing refinement - change plans or make them up on the fly (directly, while moving about); Mobile communications allow more planning for spontaneous face-to-face encounters; Mobile workers - lower boundaries between work and home may cause stress

Children and Violent Media

TV violence increases aggression in viewers of all ages, but young children are especially susceptible (children are more likely to identify with violent TV characters and imitate them than are older children and adults; children have difficulty distinguishing reality from fantasy); both high and low aggressive children are affected by tv violence, but there is a reciprocal relationship between TV violence and aggression

Define and know percentages for: Innovators

Technological enthusiasts; require a shorter adoption period than any other group; risk takers who are willing to try an unproven product; financial resources to absorb unprofitable innovations; tend to form cliques or reference groups that exist outside a local community - 2.5%

Telecommuting and Effects

Telecommuting enables working from home; Employees can balance job/home life demands; Some telecommuters can feel lonely, isolated and stressed; Can be effective cost-saving measure

Trialability

The degree to which an innovation can be experimented with on a limited basis and if necessary discarded without undue costs; can people "try out" the innovation first, or must they commit to it all at once? - if the latter, people will be far more cautious about adopting it

Compatibility

The degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters: if potential adopters feel as though they have to become very different people to adopt the innovation, they will be more resistant to it

Relative Advantage

The degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the thing it is replacing (if people do not perceive the innovation better than the status quo, the innovation will not spread quickly, if at all

Complexity

The degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand or to use: the more difficult it is, the slower the adoption process

Observability

The degree to which an innovation's results are visible and measurable; if the results are not visible, the innovation will spread more slowly

Status Incentives

The degree to which one desires to be the first to have and use an innovation: latest hairstyles, new fashions, new technologies

Adoption

The process by which an individual begins to attempt and use an innovation

Diffusion

The process by which an innovation is communicated and spreads through certain channels over time among the members of a social system

Amount and Type of Violence on TV

The typical program contains at least 6 violent incidents per hour; most violence on tv is sanitized - no physical harm or pain to the victim, no long-term consequences; much of the serious physical aggression on tv is trivialized - quite violent, but with humor

Catharsis Theory

Theorizes that acting aggressively or even viewing aggression purges angry feelings and aggressive tendencies or drives; by watching violent media, people could be relieved of their negative feelings vicariously through observing other people acting out their anger, but there is not a shred of convincing scientific data to support this theory and the one field study cited as demonstrating a catharsis effect has methodological flaws that the authors have recognized; most studies show that violence viewing and aggression are positively related, which contradicts this (social learning) and research shows that fantasizing about aggression increases aggression (priming)

Use for information vs. use for relational purpose

Users of mobile technology for information more likely to engage in conversation with strangers; Users of mobile technology for relational purposes less likely to talk to strangers

Changes in Behavior

Viewers learn from material depicted; disinhibition toward depicted sexual acts; studies have found correlation between rape incidence and availability of sex magazines

Effects on Aggression

Viewing sexually explicit material tends to enhance aggressive tendencies; excitation transfer - intensifies unrelated affective states, however pleasing, non-arousing nude photos calmed aggressive behavior

Define and know percentages for: Early Adopters

Visionaries who are respected for their willingness to try new innovations; opinion leaders, well connected in the local community; motivated to preserve respect; seek greater knowledge of innovations; greater exposure to mass media channels - 13.5%

Reciprocal Relationships of TV Violence and Aggression

Watching violent TV makes aggressive kids feel better about their own aggression (everybody is doing it!); aggressive children are more unpopular, and unpopular children watch more TV, which may add to the process

Critical Mass

When the number of adopters reaches a critical mass (5%-25%), the process takes off and is probably irreversible

Saturation

Where virtually everyone who is going to adopt the innovation has done so

Gender Stereotypes in Media (effects of counter-stereotypical representations and effects on children)

Women represent 45-49% of people seen in commercials but more likely to be sexualized; When characters shown in counter-stereotypical ways, gender effects are diminished; Children most vulnerable to learning about sex role stereotypes, but negative effects mitigated by parental/caregiver supervision

Excitation Transfer Theory

Zillmann - physiological arousal dissipates slowly; if two arousing events are separated by a short amount of time, some of the arousal caused by the first event may transfer to the second event or be misattributed to the second event