Comm 1301 Exam 2
historical eras of public relations
-Publicity Era (1800s)—Also known as the "public be damned" era, represents a time when not all publicity might be true. The publicity model is still used today in entertainment, sports, and marketing. -Information Era (Early 1900s)—Considered the "Golden Era" of Public Relations, this was a time of more information and increased honesty for businesses, nonprofits, government agencies, and organizations. -Advocacy Era (Mid 1900s)—Attempts to change behavior and alter attitudes toward certain topics, advocacy is still used today by businesses, movements, and causes having to do with public health, human rights, and welfare. -Relationship Era (Late 1900s)—The contemporary era focuses on two-way communication, resolving conflict and building relationships between companies and employees (Bernabo, Chapter 13.2 History: Public Relations Timeline).
who may apply for a low-power FM radio license
100-watt radio stations whose signal extends only a few miles. Licenses are available for nonprofit, educational or public safety organizations.
amount of time spent/day watching commercials
5 hours of tv a day. and a quarter of that is watching tv so 1.25 hours more than one less than 2
What source for news people watch most, second, third and fourth
57 percent, watch television news. That includes cable news, local news, and network nightly news. Thirty-eight percent often get their news online. That includes social media, websites, and apps. Twenty-five percent of respondents got their news from radio while the lowest percentage, 20 percent, read print newspapers.
state of newspaper advertising ten years ago and reason for recent increase
A precipitous drop in newspaper advertising occurred approximately ten years ago, primarily fueled by the competition from the internet that dealt a death blow to classified advertising revenue. Industry observers in 2017 predict another fall is coming, as print advertising continues to decline. However, major national newspapers like the New York Times and the Washington Post are enjoying a post-election uptick in sales, primarily in their digital products. (Fox News, MSNBC, and CNN were all projected to realize a nearly 30 percent increase in profit in 2016).22 The pace at which some newspapers have tried to adapt to falling ad revenues, the inability to engage younger readers, and transition to digital platforms has been called glacial.23 Digital advertisers are flocking more to Facebook and Google, which draws money directly away from newspapers.24
stonewall
A public relations tactic where the organization refuses to speak with news media.
be able to identify the most popular radio formats
A radio format is a consistent programming formula for the content broadcast over a radio station. On radio, such formats have a recognizable sound and personality. In general, we can talk about music radio, all-news radio, sports radio, or talk radio, but more specifically we can talk about a wide variety of specialty formats that define most radio stations today
product placement
Advertisers pay to have their product included in a scene or mentioned in dialogue.
advertising
Advertising is communication designed to promote the sale of products or services.
percentage of movie goers who could recall ads
And one last medium—advertising before a movie begins is surprisingly effective. Exit polls have shown that 80 percent of moviegoers could recall an ad they had seen before the movie. That figure is believed to be 4 to 6 times the number who can recall television commercials.
constituents
Another name for audiences, or publics, targeted by public relations' efforts.
brand ambassadors
Brand ambassadors are individuals who facilitate work-of-mouth dissemination of a product or service
how digital and citizen journalists make news more democratic
Citizen journalism, which exists outside mainstream media institutions, has allowed the audience for the news to employ press tools to inform one another. New media technology, from social networking and media-sharing websites to the virtual omnipresence of cellular telephones, have made citizen journalism available to people everywhere.
what may be included in a social media news release
Entry-level PR practitioners may find themselves crafting social media news releases where a narrative style is traditionally used to interest readers or pitch the story idea to media outlets. Generally, the news release template may include images, audio and video (such as a YouTube clip), links to relevant websites in addition to the more standard components such as contact information
role of gatekeeper and how it has changed
Gatekeepers are the media employees who make decisions every day about what is included in the news and what is excluded. They are journalists or editors who are responsible for filtering information before it's disseminated. It includes managers, reporters, social media managers, and even videographers. Their reputations relied on their news judgment and the choices they made. And it was once an influential position to be in. That's changed. As a Salon writer points out, now we are all gatekeepers. Blog posts, social media posts, and nontraditional news outlets no longer have an editorial process in place to vet news, make sure facts are verified, and watch for biases in coverage. It's not that the traditional gatekeepers were infallible; it's that now there is so much information, coming at us so quickly and some people repost or retweet without checking for accuracy.
what technology challenged television news' popularity
Linear newscasts eventually appearing on television, too, were and are threatened by the immediacy of the internet as a news source.
censorship
Practice of controlling access to information or media products.
Radio Act of 1927
Previously, it had been the province of Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover to regulate broadcasting, although he was not allowed to deny broadcasting licenses to anyone who wanted one. Consequently, there were too many stations trying to be heard over too few frequencies. The Radio Act of 1927 transferred most of the responsibility for regulating broadcasting to the newly created Federal Radio Commission (FRC). The act barely mentioned radio networks and the Commission was not granted any official power of censorship, although programming could not include "obscene, indecent, or profane language." However, it did include a key phrase about broadcasters operating in the "public interest, convenience, and necessity," that requires broadcasting serve the public good
integrated marketing communication
Public relations and advertising departments are combined into one unit to facilitate seamless communication around a brand or image.
why a news article may be considered more valuable than an advertisement
Public relations practitioners often pitch story ideas to news media. This is considered "free media" and may be regarded as more valuable than a paid advertisement because the reporter ostensibly uses an objective approach to gathering and writing news while putting the story together that in a most rudimentary way includes telling both sides of story. The terms may seem counter-intuitive, but if a reporter writes a story that creates a positive impression for the organization it is presumably more valuable to that organization. Audiences may not use the same type of filters or critical thinking when consuming a news story versus seeing an ad with the same information.8
public relations
Strategic efforts designed to shape opinions about an organization, institution or person that are mutually beneficial relationships.
streaming music revenue split for record labels and artists
Streaming revenue: Record labels keep almost 60 percent of the streaming platforms earning, sending 15 percent to songwriters and music publishers (Wong, 2016).24 Taylor Swift pulled her music from the digital streaming service Spotify to protest the meager amount they were paid for people listening to their music.25 She released her music to Spotify in June, 2017.
top three social media sources for news
The top three most-used social media websites for news were Reddit, Facebook and Twitter. Seventy percent of Reddit users reported getting news there; compared to 66 percent of Facebook users and 59 percent of Twitter users.12
news
a recent event or activity. Also could be new information
programmatic advertising
ads that computers and algorithms determine might interest the viewer
fake news
false content designed to resemble actual news
muckrakers
investigative journalists in the early 1900s who exposed corruption and social problems
citizen journalists
people outside the mainstream media who use digital tools to gather and distribute their own news via the internet
underwriting
On-air announcements in public radio programming acknowledging the monetary support provided by businesses and foundations.
advertorial
A combination of advertisement and opinion/editorial content. Purchased by advertiser and designed to blend into surrounding editorial content
freeium
A combination of the words "free" and "premium" it's a pricing approach that gives a consumer some of the basic services or content for free and requires a payment for additional services or content.
what problems made newspapers' response to internet competition worse
As noted in Chapter 3 Text, now the newspaper industry is reverting back to that older model pre-Penny Press in which subscribers need to pay more for access to the information, as newspapers cannot afford to provide free content on the internet. Advertising revenue is falling; newspapers not only have to compete with television, a long-time struggle, but the internet, too.
tweens and teens, adults and AM/FM use
More specific to assessing potential impact on impressionable youth, a large survey dividing "tweens" (8- to 12-year olds) and teens (13- to 18-year olds) found their music use per day nearly comparable: Tweens reported spending 30 minutes/day with their iPod, 20 minutes with radio, and four minutes with a CD player. Teens reported spending 36 minutes with their iPod, 27 minutes with radio, and five minutes with a CD player.12 The age groups were asked to detail their media use the previous day. In sum, teens (30 percent) reported that listening to music was their favorite activity where only ten percent of tweens listed listening to music as a favorite pastime,13 displaying how the importance of music increases the older a child becomes. In a different study, a sample of Americans ages 13 and older who completed a 24-hour audio listening diary during 2016 reported that they spent an average of four hours each day consuming audio, with close to half of that time (44 percent) spent with broadcast radio (AM/FM):14 Of that, they spent three hours and a quarter listening to music (87 percent listen to music in an average day). Breaking the statistics down further for audio use: 67 percent listen to AM/FM radio, 18 percent listen to owned music (CDs, digital music), 17 percent use streaming audio (Pandora, Spotify), seven percent listen to SiriusXM, five percent watch TV music channels, eight percent watch YouTube, and one percent use other sources.15
trend for music sales among CDs/digital downloads/music that is streamed
-67 percent listen to AM/FM radio, -18 percent listen to owned music (CDs, digital music), -17 percent use streaming audio (Pandora, Spotify), -seven percent listen to SiriusXM, -five percent watch TV music channels, -eight percent watch YouTube, and -one percent use other sources The nearly 20-year depression in music retailing is reversing. The global market of music sales hasn't improved since 1998 when "people were listening to Britney Spears on CDs."29 Now it's up 3.2 percent and while the sale of CDs and digital downloads continues to fall, streaming services like Spotify and Apple Music are the stars of the show, growing 45 percent in 2015. Streaming is the salvation for music companies. The Recording Industry Association of America reports that streaming sales rose 57 percent in the first half of 2016. Forty million people pay for subscriptions to Spotify; 17 million pay for Apple Music.30
how many of top ten U.S. advertisers are telecom/electronics/smartphone, 4
1. Procter & Gamble $4.3 billion 2. AT&T $3.9 billion 3. General Motors, Co. $3.5 billion 4. Comcast Corp.. $3.4 billion 5. Verizon Communications $2.7 billion 6. Ford Motor Co. $2.7 billion 7. American Express Co. $2.3 billion 8. Fiat Chrysler Automobiles $2.2 billion 9. Amazon $2.2 billion 10. Samsung Electronics
advantages of podcasts
A growing minority of Americans are listening to podcasts, according to survey data from Edison Research. Since data was collected in 2008, the share of Americans age 12 or older who report that they have listened to a podcast in the last month has almost doubled—from 12 percent to 21 percent. And if the question is changed to, "Have you ever listened to a podcast?" the percentage goes up to 36 percent. Most report they prefer to listen to podcasts on a mobile device rather than a computer. While growth seems slow but steady, media organizations are working to monetize listeners. This may fill a niche as an on-demand program, which may feature music, commentary, or educational content that is difficult to find on terrestrial radio stations with the added bonus of being available in a portable option.64 In 2015, NPR shared a study indicating nearly 33 percent of its podcast listeners were people of color. Public radio has wrestled with trying to reach more diverse audiences, particularly African American, Latino, and Asian American. Podcasts appeal to younger, more digitally-competent listeners who happen to be more diverse, too. NPR boasts some of the more popular podcasts, such as Serial and Invisibilia, which was downloaded 33 million times in the two months it aired.65 Another advantage to podcasts? They are "cheaper and more flexible to make than typical broadcast programs. This lowers the barrier for entry into public radio, which in turn allows for more diverse voices."66
radio format
A radio format is a consistent programming formula for the content broadcast over a radio station. On radio, such formats have a recognizable sound and personality. In general, we can talk about music radio, all-news radio, sports radio, or talk radio, but more specifically we can talk about a wide variety of specialty formats that define most radio stations today
how digitization changed and why recording artists may no longer need a recording contract
As for the tension that may exist between a record label and a recording artist, "It's a classic example of art and commerce colliding and nobody wins," says Los Angeles disc jockey Nic Harcourt.28 The quote is from the 2004 PBS Frontline documentary The Way the Music Died where the decline in the recording industry is examined, focusing on the collision of artists vs. economic interests of record labels. It documents the journey of a new "super group" made up of former members of Guns & Roses and the Stone Temple Pilots and singer-songwriter Sarah Hudson as they all look for success in the industry. Reasons for the conflict? The impact of MTV, illegal music downloading along with conglomeration of the music industry as well as radio stations.
how the newspaper economic model is changing
As noted in Chapter 3 Text, now the newspaper industry is reverting back to that older model pre-Penny Press in which subscribers need to pay more for access to the information, as newspapers cannot afford to provide free content on the internet. Advertising revenue is falling; newspapers not only have to compete with television, a long-time struggle, but the internet, too.
social media demands for PR practitioners
As we see with other traditional media professions, the onslaught of social media revolutionizes the playing field. Social media consist of websites and other online means of communication that allows users to create and share content while connecting with other online users.39 It is the latest generation of technology that fits the mass communication definition—using technology to reach large groups of people. One of the advantages is that social media instantly offer PR practitioners more two-way communication options. It also requires that PR practitioners must be able to constantly engage with their publics, be current in new technologies, balance social media with traditional media releases and news, and change their definitions of a successful PR campaign.40
know consequences of copyright infringement
As you likely already know, music is protected by copyright. Unauthorized downloading or uploading of music is considered copyright infringement even if it is not done to make money (i.e., sell it). People who make unauthorized copies of music recordings (any format) may face civil and criminal liability with jail time of up to five years and fines up to $250,000. It sounds almost trite, but music recordings may not be copied or distributed without the permission of the owner of the copyright.
copyright infringement
As you likely already know, music is protected by copyright. Unauthorized downloading or uploading of music is considered copyright infringement even if it is not done to make money.
publics
Audiences target by public relations' efforts.
24 hour news cycle and its effect on news product
CNN begins broadcasting. With the availability of cable news beginning in the 1980s, a 24-hour news cycle was born. CNN, for example, was initially organized in 30-minute chunks. Viewers really weren't intended to watch longer than that so much of the news was repeated through the day. In spite of that, it morphed into a beast that had to be fed something new every 30 minutes. A news cycle is driven by deadlines; newspapers typically print their daily paper overnight; local television news has early morning, noon, late afternoon, and evening newscasts. Blogs can be updated at any moment as can radio. Cable news and internet outlets can post something newsworthy as quickly as it can be verified and typed.17 News critics say the rush to make a deadline and have something fresh damages the news product. Information may not be verified; broadcast reporters may quote a newspaper's story instead of doing their own reporting and errors occur.
what did the PMRC want record companies to do and what record companies did
ChaptersChapter 5C. Regulation Music Regulation Musical artists Prince and Twisted Sister found themselves among 13 other artists on the Parents Music Resource Center (PRMC)'s list of the "filthy fifteen"—music they found objectionable for young listeners because of the themes of sex and violence as well as the occult and substance use. Specifically, it was Prince's "Darling Nikki" and Twisted Sister's "We're Not Going to Take It" that landed on the list.16 In 1985, the PMRC and the National Parent Teacher Association (National PTA) along with the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) reached an agreement that certain recordings with those topics would be identified by a sticker on the album cover.
Know statistics of music use among internet users
Consumer research showed 16 percent of a sample of the British millennial generation has a music streaming subscription, compared to just 6 percent of Generation Xers and 3 percent of their parents' generation, the baby boomers. Seven in ten internet users between the ages of 16 and 64 in four continents actively seek out music: they buy CDs, vinyl, and digital downloads; listen on streaming services and watch music videos. Almost half of all internet users in the sample have paid for music in the last six months of the survey.10
know the types of stealth ads
Consumers are smart; they know how to avoid commercials. Advertisers try to be smarter by disguising their advertising messages in ways that don't immediately shout "this is an ad. Get your defenses up." Those stealth ad techniques include infomercials, product placements, and advertorial. Is anyone really fooled by infomercials? The typically 30-minute program is designed to resemble a newscast, a home shopping program or a talk show (with live audience). Infomercials are scheduled in what are called fringe times of late night to early morning and include demonstrations of the products or testimonials of its effectiveness as well as a quick way to order with a toll-free number.49 An advertorial is a paid advertisement that typically is in print—newspapers, magazines or online—designed to look like an editorial column but really is promoting the product or service. The advertorial isn't a hard sales pitch; it is trying to connect with readers using a different approach.50 Sometimes now it's called native advertising, because it's intended to match the style of the editorial content so it's seamless.51 Reportedly, readers do respond well. When Virgin Mobile ran an advertorial on the Buzzfeed website, people that read the story were nearly 25 percent more likely to have a favorable opinion about Virgin Mobile than people who did not read it.52
Ivy Lee's principles
He believed that public relations practitioners should provide the truth about a company's actions in a timely fashion to the press and the public. He was convinced that the press and public would make good decisions about a company when they were given the accurate information. At that time, John D. Rockefeller, Jr., who was considered to be the richest man in the world, hired Ivy Lee to rehabilitate his poor public image from a monopolistic oil baron to a loved philanthropist.
BP's PR missteps,
How they approached the disaster has become a case study of how not to handle such a crisis. First, BP was slow to acknowledge the problem. Its CEO admitted in an ABC television interview that he was out of the loop about how decisions were made on the rigs, and, besides, another company actually was responsible for rig operations.28 Picture of A sign on the front lawn of a home on June 5, 2010 in Grand Isle, LA. The BP oil spill that began April 20th, 2010, has resulted in oil washing up on the shores of Louisiana. Katherine Welles / Shutterstock.com He, as the face of the company, instead needed to be seen as calm, in charge, and knowledgeable about all aspects of the business as the success of the reality program Undercover Boss has shown us. Instead, the company needed to show they empathized with those affected by the spill—the families of those who were killed and the people whose businesses were threatened as oil washed up on shore over a multistate area.29 To add insult to injury, BP wasn't often in the media, with scant Facebook updates each day. When it was mentioned it was news that contributed more to their negative impression, such as when it was reported they were offering $5,000 to potential plaintiffs if they agreed not to sue.
payola
Illegal payments or gifts that record companies may provide as bribes to radio on-air announcers in exchange for getting more air time for their company's records.
stonewalling as a PR strategy
In 1906, Lee was advising a group of anthracite coal-mine operators who had angered the press with what the press and the miners saw as arrogant attitudes about a labor dispute. Lee managed to convince the mine operators to answer the press's questions, rather than stonewall or refuse to provide information.15
what was the outcome of the lawsuit against the Pacifica Foundation
In 1973, a father complained to the FCC when his son heard George Carlin's routine "Filthy Words" on WBAI, an FM radio station in New York City. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled the routine was "indecent but not obscene," and upheld the power of the FCC to regulate indecent speech broadcast over the air, specifically to prohibit such broadcasts during hours when children were likely to be among the audience (in this case, the broadcast was in the afternoon). However, the Court also makes it clear that while the government can constitutionally regulate indecent speech in the broadcast media, it does not have the power to enforce a total ban on such speech
origin of inverted pyramid format of reporting
It's been called the underlying structure for one of the most influential news writing styles of the 1900s—the inverted pyramid. It started with the invention of the telegraph in 1845, and the technology drove the writing style. The telegraph relied on wires to transmit Morse code signals (named after the inventor of the telegraph, Morse). News was relayed by telegraph during the Civil War, but it was expensive—a penny a character. Newspapers wanted to send news as economically as possible, reportedly spending hundreds of thousands of dollars to cover the Civil War. So, they developed a shorter style of writing where the most important parts of the story were transmitted first. Smaller details are included as the story trails off into less important facts. Some historians believe the style was developed so that if telegraph lines were cut during the transmission the most critical part of the story would have arrived.
social media policy for negative comments
Many organizations have policies that prohibit them from removing negative social media posts. Why? Because if all of the comments posted are glowing, positive reports visitors will be left wondering if you have deleted the negative posts, anyway. Instead, it's recommended that someone in the organization respond to the post, ideally in private. Others suggest asking the poster to remove it themselves.
effectiveness of subliminal adveritising/repetition/word-of-mouth advertising
Marketer James Vicary claimed in 1957 that he had inserted split-second images (1/30000th of a second) along side the frames of a movie,21 encouraging moviegoers to buy popcorn and Coke at the concession stand. Technically, his messages—"Drink Coca-Cola" and "Hungry? Eat Popcorn"—would have passed by too quickly to be discernible. In spite of that, he claimed sales of popcorn increased 18 percent and Coke increased nearly 58 percent for that audience. The problem was researchers couldn't replicate the results. 2 In order to be subliminal, a message can't be seen; but it is supposed to work by influencing your unconscious mind.
relationship between radio and the music industry
Music was a relatively inexpensive alternative for programming and could carve out niches of audiences based on their musical preferences that were attractive to advertisers. This created a symbiotic relationship between radio stations and the music industry. Both benefitted from the switch to recorded music. Radio stations received free music with which to fill their airtime and record companies received what amounted to free advertising for its product. But the relationship was ripe for exploitation.
why radio is so attractive to advertisers
Music was a relatively inexpensive alternative for programming and could carve out niches of audiences based on their musical preferences that were attractive to advertisers. This created a symbiotic relationship between radio stations and the music industry. Both benefitted from the switch to recorded music. Radio stations received free music with which to fill their airtime and record companies received what amounted to free advertising for its product. But the relationship was ripe for exploitation.
news literacy
News literacy is defined as the use of critical thinking skills to determine the reliability and credibility of news, regardless of delivery medium (print, television, or internet).26 In this section, a list of topics that reflect a changing news environment fall under the umbrella of news literacy or the ability to discern what is news and what isn't as well as its impact.
how social media has changed PR practitioners' relationship to journalists
One of the advantages is that social media instantly offer PR practitioners more two-way communication options. It also requires that PR practitioners must be able to constantly engage with their publics, be current in new technologies, balance social media with traditional media releases and news, and change their definitions of a successful PR campaign.40 Organizations may now bypass traditional journalists as gatekeepers to whom they had to pitch their ideas to receive coverage. As an example, many organizations create their own blogs on their websites where they include stories about what they want to promote and brag on their successes.41 And, they may also target niche audiences or publics.
news hole
One of the economic drivers of news coverage is the ability to sell the time or space to advertisers. Broadcast news programs have a fixed or standard news hole for each broadcast—roughly eight minutes of commercials for a 30-minute broadcast. The size of newspapers can be adjusted based on how many ads they have to place in it; technically, the ads are formatted or laid out first and then the news is copied and pasted in the holes— that's where the term news hole originated. You may have noticed Sunday editions are huge while Monday's paper is likely the smallest or thinnest of the week. As you know, content on the internet doesn't have such limitations; news can be layered several pages deep with hyperlinks to older, related news stories and other items that may interest the reader.
difference in one-way and two-way communication
One-way communication would start with the organization that sends messages to its audience/constituents or "publics." There is no feedback mechanism. The organization doesn't listen or consider what the audience is saying; and, as a result, they do not change their message or adjust to public sentiment. The organization doesn't listen or consider what the audience is saying; and, as a result, they do not change their message or adjust to public sentiment. End result? Their constituents or publics will be less likely to have a positive feeling about the organization Two-way communication means there is a feedback loop, where the audience has ample opportunity to post comments on twitter, as an example, and the company would respond and perhaps adjust their policies or provide clarifying information.
length of television news sound bites and why it's important
Over time, television news sound bites—the recorded quotes/responses to reporter questions embedded in a news story—have gotten shorter. In the 1970s, network reporters would introduce a presidential statement and let it run—no editing—for several minutes. Now, sound bites may be as brief as five to seven seconds; interviewers are edited to capture the best part of an interview.19 An entire reporter story that is two minutes is considered to be long. Why clock the sound bites? The belief is that longer stories contain better journalism. It's hard to tell a complex story in a minute and 20 seconds.
is payola legal
Payola is the illegal practice of providing secret payment or other inducements by record companies to get commercial radio stations to play particular songs. Since some radio stations reported spins of the newest and most popular songs to industry publications that compiled hit lists, the number of times a song is played is a key factor in determining the perceived popularity of a song.
difference between PR and advertising
Public relations practitioners' goal is for their client to be mentioned in free media, or, stated another way, PR practitioners do not pay for media coverage. This is the key difference between public relations and advertising. Advertising is the opposite: paid ad space or ad time to promote a product or business. There is a well-known adage that says, "Advertising is what you pay for, publicity is what you pray for." This saying evolved from something written by Helen Woodward in 1938, "Advertising is what you pay for; publicity is what your public relations man gets out in newspapers, magazines, and radio for nothing."
how radio adapted to the arrival of television
Radio was forced to change as television became more and more popular, replacing in-home radio listening with television programs and formats and even the popular actors from radio. When television became the dominant media in the 1950s, its programming schedule was basically adapted from what had been happening in radio. Meanwhile, radio stations started moving away from dramatic programming, comedy shows, and live music, to primarily playing recorded music. But whereas a city would have the big three broadcast television networks (CBS, NBC, and ABC), it could have more than a dozen radio stations, all competing with each other
what was the first electronic mass medium that people could use at home
Radio was the first electronic mass medium.
best practices
Set of procedures that are generally accepted as being the most effective.
small-town pastoralism, individualism, moderatism, and social order)
Small-town pastoralism romanticizes the rural lifestyle and values where there is a strong sense of community and close social ties. These residents are held up as good people in news stories. In comparison, urban areas are crowded, full of crime, and unfriendly people. "Big Government, Big Labor, and Big Business"30 are feared because they are a threat to individualism that is found freely in small towns. Individualism is featured in news stories where a rugged individual overcomes adversity. They may be heroic, conquering nature to save people during a natural disaster. The individual is a self-made, pull yourself up by your boot straps type of person. In a news story, they may have overcome an impoverished background, succeeding despite impossible odds because of a strong work ethic. See a CBS television news story as an example of individualism: Moderatism is an approach that avoids the extremes of anything. Those people that exhibit extreme behavior on the edges are shunned. For example, in an academic setting, straight-A students are called curve-wreckers while students at the other end of the grading scale are judged negatively or called slackers. People who are viewed as consuming too many things—compulsive shoppers perhaps—are portrayed as deviant in news stories just the same as those who condemn possessions and live a Spartan life off the grid. It's the people in the middle—the moderates—who escape that societal judgment or criticism.
advantage and disadvantage of user-generated social media advertising
Social media makes use of user-generated video, such as Neistat's as a calculated risk. User-generated video is created when advertisers ask viewers or social media users to create their own ads for the company. Another user-generated video technique that made the top ten influential social media campaigns was #MBPhotopass. Mercedes Benz identified "social influencers" tell their story while using their vehicles. The group of influencers also included journalists, photographers, and employees of Mercedes Benz. They were given access to the company's Instagram for a specific amount of time. They then drove the cars around to tell a story while taking pictures and uploading the images to the Mercedes Benz Instagram account. This guarantees content is refreshed periodically, and the influencers likely brought their followers to the content they created. Instagram generated almost 200 million impressions, 2.3 million likes and comments as well as content the company continues to use.60
percentage of news coverage that originates from PR
Some research indicates the percentage may be as high as 80 percent—stated another way, 80 percent of news coverage is influenced by public relations.6 A study of local news outlets in Baltimore in 2009 showed that 84 percent of reporting in a seven-day week originated with public relations pitches.
Repetition
That campaign began in 1993. Ten years later, according to the California Milk Processing Board, the campaign had a awareness rate of 97 percent in California.42 Nearly 25 year later, it's one of the most familiar advertising slogans or catch phrases.43 Another slogan which has been used nearly 30 years is Nike's Just Do It. How many times did an audience member have to see the advertising before it motivated them to purchase shoes or apparel? Experts cannot agree on a magic number; it may be three or seven or a number between 6 and 20. What experts do agree on, however, is the more an ad or slogan is repeated, the more effective it is.44 Repetition keeps a brand or product in front of the consumer; leave them more familiar with the product. One of the drawbacks happens, however, when the consumer becomes tired of the ad and then tunes it out or actively avoids it. Repetition doesn't necessarily have to mean repeating the same ad over and over. Repetition may be used to place the product or brand in many different places, such as ads on radio, television, or using product placement in a film.
origin of the Associated Press
The Associated Press, one of the earliest "wire services," is a collective of broadcast, digital, and print news gathering outlets and reporters that also made good economic sense. Newspapers didn't have to send reporters to cover the entire country—reporters who were essentially local reporters could send their stories to the Associated Press who would in turn distribute them to their network of papers. For example, if a reporter is covering the Texas legislative session, he or she can write a news story on the day's events which is then distributed to other news organizations in Texas who might be interested in including the story in their newspaper. The Associated Press needed stories that were concise and opinion-free. The creation of these objective stories was a marked departure from the Partisan Press newspapers of the era, but it made the news product more commercially viable and less likely to offend political factions. Objective stories could be used by almost any newspaper and could be sold to a nationwide audience.14
Communications Act of 1934
The FRC became the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in 1934, with power to regulate all means of interstate telephone, telegraph, and radio communication. The stated purposes of the act were: "regulating interstate and foreign commerce in communication by wire and radio so as to make available, so far as possible, to all the people of the United States, a rapid, efficient, nationwide, and worldwide wire and radio communication service with adequate facilities at reasonable charges, for the purpose of national defense, and for the purpose of securing a more effective execution of policy by centralizing authority theretofore granted by law to several agencies."42 The act established a legal base for regulating wired and wireless communications on a national basis
why broadcast and print media are regulated differently under the First Amendment
The First Amendment had established a hands-off policy for the federal government with regards to the print media of books, newspapers, and magazines. However, broadcast media created a new set of problems, beginning with the simple fact that as radio exploded as a medium, the number of companies wanting to broadcast far exceeded the number of frequencies available. Because of this problem of spectrum scarcity, national legislation was required to impose order The federal government issues broadcasting licenses since broadcasting requires use of specific frequencies on the electromagnetic spectrum, which is limited.
the reputation of public relations and what PRSA does to address it
The Public Relations Society of America is the largest organization of public relations professionals. It works to set standards for PR professionals and provide training and accreditation as well as a code of ethics for its members to follow. More than 10,000 college students are members of the Public Relations Student Society of America (PRSSA). PRSA tries to combat the poor public image the industry often has (accused of providing "spin" or "hype" for clients) by providing a professional code of ethics and profession standards. The Code includes ethical principles and guidelines: "advocacy, honesty, loyalty, professional development, and objectivity."36 PRSA also offers training for accreditation in the profession (APR).
reason for creation of public radio and how it is funded
The audio side of public media in the United States consists of National Public Radio network and its member stations using radio waves, computers, and smart phones to deliver news and other programming.52 NPR has a different revenue stream than commercial radio stations; revenue comes from individual giving ("from donors like you") and underwriting, which is the funding business and foundations provide for on-air mentions. While these announcements are not commercials in the strict sense, the rules on what may be said have loosened over time. Public radio stations may also receive college and university support as well as grants from the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB).
know history of censorship with radio and television broadcasting
The censorship of music is the practice of restricting free access to musical works. Such censorship can be based on moral, political, religious, or military reasons, and it can take the form of everything from a complete government enforced legal prohibition to private, voluntary removal of content when a song is performed in public. Political censorship is not common in most democratic societies, while more authoritarian governments routinely censor music considered critical of the government or the military (Bernabo, Chapter 8:7 Law: Copyright and Censorship). Censorship by radio and television broadcasters by refusing to play certain songs on the air or by having songs edited to allow airplay are the most common forms.
spectrum scarcity
The electromagnetic spectrum, on which radio waves travel, is a limited resource, so it must be managed fairly so that everyone may benefit from it.
how the industrial revolution was critical to advertising
The industrial revolution changed all of this by mass producing goods. The buyer no longer knew the seller. The seller, or manufacturer, needed to explain the product because it was no longer a face-to-face transaction.
number of music conglomerates that control the majority of the recording industry
The number of record labels has diminished to the point where the remaining "big three" conglomerates are Universal Music, Sony Music, and Warner Music. However, combined the three conglomerates own 73 percent of the market, representing a significant portion of the industry.
PR's origins in press agentry and publicity
The public relations profession finds part of its origins in a more discredited press agentry and publicity professions in the 1800s which often meant using less-than-truthful methods to promote their clients. Think of the outlandish claims made by P.T. Barnum who advertised such oddities as the oldest woman in the world as part of his traveling exhibitions. He claimed the woman was 161 years old. While it's reported she did appear as if she may indeed be that age, it is more likely that she was 85 when she died.19
relationship between age and news source
There's a negative relationship between age and source of news; older respondents watched television news the most, while younger viewers sought news online. Radio listeners were about even across age categories after the age of 30; print newspaper readers were in the majority in the 64 years of age and older category. Just five percent of 18-29 year olds said they sought out news in print newspapers.8
Telecommunications Act of 1996
This was the first significant overhaul of U.S. telecommunications laws, marking the first time the internet was included under the definition of broadcasting and spectrum allotment. The primary goal of the legislation was to deregulate the converging broadcasting and telecommunications markets. The most controversial aspect of the act was Title II, "Cable Services," which allowed for media cross-ownership as the era of media convergence began in earnest
Percentage of people that listen to radio in their car
Traditional AM/FM radio is the most common form of in-car listening—63 percent of a sample naming that as their most frequent in-car choice. Twelve percent of the sample said they listen to satellite radio, followed by 8 percent who named online radio. These results are according to survey data from Edison Research with a sample of Americans age 12 or older.46
technology for satellite radio and its economic model
Traveling long distances in a car, listening to terrestrial radio stations, you will need to change your radio station every few miles or so, because the wavelengths don't travel with you and have a limited range. Satellite radio, however, is a signal from outer space, more than 22,000 miles above the earth. It broadcasts from a satellite, in geosynchronous orbit. Because the economic model requires a specialized receiver, it is funded by subscribers, not advertising. This feature helps it to compete with the traditional forms of radio and provides mostly what a clear signal provides best—high quality music. Satellite radio works similarly to cable television. You cannot access local channels or stations but you may receive many channels offering greater variety, after purchasing a receiver and paying subscription fees. Moreover, similar to satellite television or cable, a ground station transmits a signal to the satellite which in turn bounces the signal back to receivers on the ground. The receivers unscramble the data signal.62
the effectiveness of brand strategies of repetition/stealth ads/celebrity endorsements/testimonials
What experts do agree on, however, is the more an ad or slogan is repeated, the more effective it is.44 Repetition keeps a brand or product in front of the consumer; leave them more familiar with the product. One of the drawbacks happens, however, when the consumer becomes tired of the ad and then tunes it out or actively avoids it. Repetition doesn't necessarily have to mean repeating the same ad over and over. Repetition may be used to place the product or brand in many different places, such as ads on radio, television, or using product placement in a film. SUBMIT Celebrity endorsements or testimonial advertising uses the celebrity's fame to help sell a product or service.46 The advertiser is counting on the cache, expertise or attractiveness, to mention just a few variables, to rub off on their product. Their product looks more enticing while the aura of the celebrity surrounds it. Women's cologne is one example where music artists have many different types of cologne under their brand name.
relation between watching late night talk shows and learning about political news
When John Stewart was still hosting the Daily Show on Comedy Central, researchers made a stir by finding that young viewers (who were old enough to vote) were reporting they were learning political news about the election from late-night comedy shows.27 More recently, six percent of 18-29 year olds named late night comedy programs as the most helpful source for learning about the 2016 presidential campaign. That percentage dropped to four percent for 30-49 year olds, two percent for 50-64 year olds, and one percent for those respondents older than 65.28
know what each piece of regulation did: Radio Act of 1912
When the R.M.S. Titanic struck an iceberg and sank in the northern Atlantic, the S.S. Californian was the closest ship. However, 10 minutes before Titanic hit the iceberg, the Californian's only radio operator had shut down his set and gone to bed. In the wake of the disaster, a bill mandating all seagoing vessels continuously monitor distress frequencies was proposed. By the time the Radio Act of 1912 was passed, it required all radio stations in the United States to be licensed by the federal government. More importantly, the act set a precedent for federal legislation of wireless communications, which eventually would come to be known as broadcasting
state of public's trust in news
While it may seem counterintuitive given the interest in news, Americans report that they have less trust and confidence in the mass media—newspapers, television and radio—than at any point in Gallup's poll history. The level measured in 2016 fell eight percentage points since the previous year to 32 percent of respondents indicating they either had a great deal or a fair amount of trust in the media (combining the two highest categories).
buzz advertising's relation to theory
While trust in advertising declines, people do trust "their own experiences and the words of others."57 This is called buzz advertising or word-of-mouth advertising. To place this phenomenon in a theoretical frame, it is similar to the two-step flow theory, where the media messages reach an opinion leader (or influential person or brand ambassador) who in turn shares the message with other people in their various social groups.
Gans' categories of journalists' values (ethnocentrism, altruistic democracy, capitalism,
Years ago, researcher Herbert Gans studied journalists and identified what he labeled enduring values that drove the way the journalists told news stories. Categories included here are ethnocentrism, altruistic democracy, capitalism, small-town pastoralism, individualism, moderatism, and social order. If one is ethnocentric, they believe their culture is better than the culture of others. It's a belief that the American way of life is best when covering international stories. Other countries are judged and compared to the United States. If one is altruistic, they are selfless and put others before themselves. Altruistic democracy refers to public officials who are honest, selfless, and dedicated to serving the public. News stories with this value cover issues like freedom of the press and violations of civil liberties. The governments of other countries are questionable if they are not also democracies. Journalists are also committed to capitalism and the U.S. economic system that allows business owners to prosper. Small business owners or family-run businesses are the ideal, and economic growth is good unless it causes pollution or results in the loss of jobs.
How mutually-beneficial relationships work
mutually beneficial relationships are those interactions that benefit both the organization and its stakeholders. For example, a car manufacturing plant may offer college scholarships to children of their employees. This benefits those families, obviously, but it also adds to a positive image the plant's management may be trying to create or maintain.
"shareability"
qualities of a news story that make it likely to be passed along to others on social media
the advantages and disadvantages of each medium (television, radio, newspaper, magazine, internet, social media, movie theater)
tab duplicated
consensible nature of news
tendency for journalists to all cover a story the same way
John Oliver effect
the ability of the HBO host to create a viral movement based on urging viewers to act on stories he reports
who Edward Bernays' questionable clients were
tobacco companies. Torches of freedom campaign.
