Criminal Investigation-A method for reconstructing the past

agent provocateur

In connection with sports such as horse-racing or boxing to control "fixing" the outcome of an event; or to deal with the crime on the waterfront

What is a polygraph?

It's a lie detector test-mechanical device designed to ascertain whether a subject is telling the truth.

What is cognitive interviews?

It's an effectiveness memory retrieval technique.

What is lineup?

It's for the purpose of having the perpetrator correctly identified by those who witnessed the crime.

What are some of the principle aspects of interviewing?

It's purpose is to exchange information, seeking facts, be intuitive, alert, and skillful, passive information-recorder, discretion & asking questions (who, what, when, where, why & how).

What is it meant by psychological profiling?

It's the purpose to recognize and interpret visible contextual evidence at the scene as indictive of the personality type of the perpetrator. It is the most important investigative technique against person where motive is lacking and there is sufficient data to recognize the presence at the crime scene.

Forensic Medicine

deals with the legal aspects of health care & referred to as legal medicine or medical jurisprudence. The branch of medicine offering training in the study of diseases and trauma (their causes and consequences) is pathology).

Narco-terrorism

terrorism associated with trade in illicit drugs.

Expert Testimony (ET)

testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields. i.e., a) Evidence Technician or investigator who develop the latent impression b) File supervisor or detective who vouch for the authenticity of known fingerprint record used to identify the defendant. c) Expert (a latent print examiner)

prima facie

on first view; on the face of it; an obvious fact

Identify different types of informant?

1) Volunteer information 2) Expect some form of payment 3) Anonymous, furnishes info via telephone/mail. 4) Some are generalist/specialist.

WMD

(Weapons of Mass Destruction) nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons intended to kill or harm on a large scale

What are some of the common forensic clue materials found at a crime scene?

-A shoe impression left at a burglar on breaking into a house -In an assault with a knife, the victim's blood can drop on the shoes or spurt on the criminal's clothing -handwriting, teeth marks, finger, palm, foot ad even ear prints; wearing apparel (glove, shoe, heel impressions; or traces of distinctive weave in cloth or stitching pattern made by a sewing machine.

What is the role of the forensic pathology?

-Establish the cause and manner of death-natural, suicide, accident or homicide -Establish the time of death -Indicate the type of instrument used to commit the homicide -Establish the identity of the victim -Determine the age of the victim -Determine sex, height, weight, age of mutilated or decomposed bodies and skeletons -Determine virginity, defloration, pregnancy and delivery or sodomy.

How should physical evidence be transmitted to the crime lab?

-In person for legal and scientific reasons -In case it's not possible, U.S. Postal Service, UPS or Fed Ex by proper packing, wrapping and sealing.

What is the purpose of crime scene sketches?

-Includes only essential details -Indicates distances or spatial relationships between items of evidence, indoors or out. -Two kinds: rough/finished.

What is the difference between organic and inorganic?

-Organic substance is the one that contains carbon: Petroleum products, gunpowder and gunshot residue, controlled substances & other drugs: heroin, morphine, cocaine, marijuana -Inorganic-All other substances: dirt, gunpowder & gunshot residue, hair, poisons, paint, glass.

What are some of the methods of recording the situation, conditions, and physical evidence found at the crime scene?

-Some investigators use tape, digital recorder, or cell phone camera for dictating or photographing observation and other info. _Writing official report of the day's activities -Details that the criminalist can use for reconstructing the crime or developing associative evidence will be avail. -As the investigation progresses and the suspect or witness makes statements, some aspects of the crime scene that did not initially appear significant can become important. A record made before anything was disturbed will permit such reevaluation. -Defense attorney will be curious about where the evidence was found -The effectiveness of courtroom testimony

What are some of the purposes for conducting a crime scene search?

-To develop associative evidence: to find evidence that could link a suspect to a crime or the victim. -Probative strength can range from an intimation of who may have been involved up to actual proof of something (as when a fingerprint is developed at the scene). -Nothing at the crime scene should be touched or stepped on.

What are the 10 types of evidence examination conducted by FBI?

1) Abrasives 2) Ink 3)Adhesives 4)Latent Prints 5) Anthropology 6) Lubricants 7) Arson 8) Audio 9) Missing Persons 10) Bank Security Dyes

Horowitz identifies five social psychological concepts as to why a person confesses. What are they?

1) Accusation 2) Available evidence 3) Friendly and hostile forces 4) guilt feelings 5) confession as way out 6) Anxiety Waiting 7) Physical condition: The Wickersham Commission revealed in 1931 that 3rd degree which define as extraction of confessions through police brutality.

What is the difference between Interrogation and Interviewing?

1) Applies to a suspect's family, friend's or associate 2) Applies to victims or eyewitnesses

What are the potential problems and precautions investigator must consider when working with informants?

1) Corruption, testimony of the informant frequently form the basis for an arrest & conviction. 2) Disclose of a source of information

2 Major branches of forensic science

1) Criminalistics 2) Forensic medicine

Criminalistics and forensic medicine are two major branches of forensic science. List at least 5 types of examinations:

1) Drug Analysis/Toxicology (Criminalistics) 2) Anthropology (Forensic) 3) Firearms and Toolmarks (Criminalistics) 4) Forensic Biology/DNA (Criminalistics) 5) Trace Evidence (Criminalistics)

What are the kind of emergency situations involving a warrantless search is lawful?

1) Involving someone attempt or opportunity to carry off or destroy evidence. To support this contention, belief must meet the standard of probable cause. 2) Involving threats to safety or life. In these cases, a lower level of proof-reasonable suspicion-is acceptable.

What are some of the issues related to eyewitness evidence?

1) Most people have strong convictions on what they see in their own eyes (perception and memory) 2) Eyewitness can be mistaken due environmental conditions and personal factors. 3) Contradictions

What are the possibilities for blood are presented?

1) No test other than normal visual observation-tracking a trail of blood is required 2) Significant investigative results are provided when the blood stain can be analyzed for DNA

What are the tests court use to determine the victim of entrapment?

1) Objective test-focuses on the actions of the police 2) Subjective test-focuses on suspect's predisposition to commit crime.

What are fingerprint exemplars?

1) Police fingerprint files 2) a set of prints taken from a suspect who has no arrest or fingerprint record 3)a set of prints taken from each person who frequents the area in which the latent print was found.

What are some of the factors that might influence an individual's identification?

1) Procedures during lineups 2) Witness stress or pressure 3) Racial bias 4) Lighting during crime 5) Time between act and identfication

What are the reason for making crime scene search?

1) Recognize evidence from which a psychological profile may be developed or motive may be determined (i.e., why the crime was committed). 2) Identify an object used or purpose of which is not readily apparent or is foreign to the scene 3) Recognize a perpetrator's modus operandi (M.O.).

What are the kinds of photographs taken at crime scenes?

1) Record the overall scene-the approach to the premise used by the criminal; point of entrance, pathway, various rooms the criminal entered, location of any physical evidence 2) Record details needed by the criminalist to reconstruct the crime or establish an identity.

What are the four perspectives that traditionally define the reasons and methodology of surveillance?

1) Result of the "Private eye-divorce cases (one on one is feasible 2) Street smart-learn from tailing professional criminals 3) derives from the experience of investigators surveilling espionage agents who have been trained to detect and lose anyone thought to be following them.

What are the following stages in a witness observing and recalling?

1) Sensory input: information is encountered thru visual observation or other senses 2) Memory: The storage and retention of what was observed and encoded 3) Retrieval: The recovery through search of memory and its communication to others.

What is reliability of eyewitness identifications?

1) Signed confession 2) identification of the defendant

What are some of the reasons a person will not confess?

1) Some suffer no pangs of conscience and have no need to relieve guilty feelings 2) Some are fearful of the consequences if they betray their accomplices 3) Some learned (having been through the mill) that only by talking do they dig their own grave. 4) Under Miranda, it would require unusual set of circumstances for attorney to fail to advise a client to remain silent.

What are the kinds of surveillance?

1) Stationary/Fixed-parked van or a room facing the subject's residence or workplace or posing as a street vendor or utility worker & conducted openly-uniformed officer in front of a bank before business hours start 2) Moving-surveil ant moves about in (vehicle/automobile, bicycle or helicopter) order to follow the subject. 3) Electronic or technical-eavesdropping device (wiretaps, pen registers, beepers and automobile GPS trackers and assorted visual and infrared optical device

What are the primary objective of surveillance?

1) To locate suspect 2) To obtain detailed info about the nature & scope of an individual's activities 3) To prevent the commission of crimes such as arson or robbery 4) To apprehend immediately those who commit a crime while under surveillance, i.e. (burglary).

What are some preliminary questions that should be used to determine if the suspect is rational and in touch with reality?

1) What is your full name 2) Where are you now 3) what time is it 4) where do you live 5) do you have a job 6) what day is it 7) where do you work 8) do you know my name 9) do you know my occupation

Upon arrival to the crime scene, the investigator must note the following details?

1) Who mad notifications; the time of arrival and how long it took to respond 2) Weather conditions 3) The names of persons at the scene; the names of those who already went through the scene or any part of it 4) The facts of the case as the first officer(s) at the scene 5) Actions on the taking responsibility for the crime scene from the uniformed officer who was in charge up to that point

In addition to crime scene, there are several other possible sources of physical evidence. What are they?

1) clothing and body of the victim 2) suspect: body, clothing, weapon, automobile, house garage, other area of article under his/her control 3) Electronic evidence 4) Receipts or bills 5) Photographs suspect or victim may have taken

What scientific instruments are most value in conducting forensic examinations?

1) destructive-consumes the sample during analysis 2) nondestructive-does not sample, leaving it available for further instrumental analysis or for presentation as evidence in court.

Criminalistics is the branch of forensic science concerned with the recording, scientific examination, and interpretation of minute details, directed towards what ends?

1) to identify a substance, object or instrument. 2) to establish a connection between physical evidence, the victim, the suspect & potential crime scenes. 3) to reconstruct how crime was committed & what happened at the time it was being committed. 4) to protect the innocent by developing evidence that may exonerate a suspect. 5) To provide expert testimony in court.

What are Behavioral Analysis Interviews are based on?

3 levels of communication: 1) Verbal channel 2) Paralinguistic channel 3) Nonverbal channel

In addition to a visual description of the perpetrator, victims, and witnesses may provide other info based upon what senses?

5 senses: Hearing, Sight, Smell, Touch, & Taste

What is the current legal status of wiretapping in the U.S.?

A 1928 Supreme Court decision constitute unlawful search and seizure of messages passing over telephone wires and there did not come under the constitutional protect of the 4th Amendment.

Postmortem lividity

A bluish-purple color that develops after death in the undermost parts of the body-those which have been facing downward (also called livor mortis).

Cyanoacrylate fuming

A method of recovering latent fingerprints

What is meant by associative evidence?

A nonlegal term describes the aspect of laboratory work involving concept of identity, i.e.-linking a subject to the crime scene or victim-such as fingerprint.

American Law Institute Test

A person is not responsible for criminal conduct if at the time of such conduct as a result of a mental disease or defect he/she lacks substantial capacity to appreciate the wrongfulness of his/her conduct or to conform his/her conduct to the requirement of the law.

What are some of the reasons that individuals refuse to cooperate in an interview?

A person may be concerned over loss of pay through court continuances, harbor a fear of the police, dread the offender's retaliation & have info but are unaware of its usefulness to the police.

When a CODIS "hit"?

A potential match between two or more DNA profiles.

What is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) technology and how is it used in criminal investigations?

A relative newcomer to serving the needs of law enforcement and the technology could help identify males involved in sexual assault cases.

M'Naghten Rule

A rule for determining insanity, which asks whether the defendant knew what he or she was doing or whether the defendant knew that what he or she was doing was wrong.

What are the attributes of an effective interrogator?

A talent for good analytical thinking, ability to read body language and the knowledge and experience needed to recognize signs of lying.

Identification

A term in criminalistics that describes the classification process by which an entity is placed in a predefined, limited or restricted class. i.e., if the entity is a packet of white powder, the crime lab report on such evidence seized in narcotics might read "The powered substance submitted in Case 23 contains heroin."

Multilocus Probe Test

A test in which one probe simultaneously binds many DNA fragments from different chromosomes.

Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)

A test used to detect the level of metal residue (barium and antimony) left on the skin from the primer of a gun cartridge.

What are the serious hazard to health of those in charge with collecting physical evidence at scenes of violent crimes?

AIDS and Hepatitis C

res gestae

All of the things done or words spoken in the course of a transaction or event; a record of what was said or done in the first moments of an investigation.

Proactive Investigation

An investigation taken in anticipation of the commission of a crime in order to prevent it or to apprehend the offender.

What is the primary function of forensic hypnosis?

An investigative tool & is used with the victim or a witness. Also, it is not recommended for use with a suspect.

What is it meant by modus operandi (M.O.)?

An offender's pattern of operation (method of preparing for and committing a crime). ex: the use of a push drill to make a hole in the top sash of the bottom half of a window (to insert a wire and open the catch) is viewed as the M.O.

When a suspect denies committing the crime, the investigator should pursue the line of questioning that focuses on information that can be verified. What are some of the types of questions?

Asking his/her whereabouts at the time, Who he/she was with at the time, what he/she was doing at the time, whether there was anyone who had an opportunity to observe him/her at the time and who they are

BIOS

Basic Input/ Output System. A computer's firmware used to manipulate different settings such as the date and time, boot drive, and access password.

Daubert Test?

Be grounded in knowledge, have a valid scientific connect, be supported in scientific journal publications

BAI

Behavior Analysis Interview

per se rule

By itself, alone; an automatic rule of exclusion.

MacDonnell addresses the interpretation of bloodstain patterns. How can these patterns be used?

By testifying that the blood pattern on the defendant's clothing could not have resulted as described-that is, from mere contact with the victim of a beating or stabbing.

Cybercrime falls under 3 catergories:

Cases in which technology is integral to commission of a crime (electronic fraud, money laundering, child pornography, used for identity theft, computer sabotage, theft of privilege info, data and image storage and Internet and cellular communication.

Why is changing technology important & how will these changes affect the future?

Cause we are forced to rely on technicians to install, repair to serve as backup in our homes and workplace.

Common types of Cybercrimes:

Child pornography and exploritation, Econic related fraud, electronic stalking and harassment, extortion, gambling, identify theft, illegal drug activity, mail & wire fraud, money laundering.

CAD

Computer Aided Design. The use of computers in converting the initial idea for a product into a detailed engineering design.

Why is the setting of an interrogation important?

Due to barriers to communication are minimized. a) the amount of private and time b) the room arrangement c) tone se by the investigator can significantly influence the conduct and progress

What is the definition of crime scenes?

Encompasses all areas over which the actors-victims, criminals and eyewitness-move during the commission of a crime. Usually defined in a limited size.

demonstrative evidence

Evidence that is not based on witness testimony but it's a form of a representation of an object that demonstrates information relevant to the crime, such as charts, drawings, maps, X-rays, and photographs; includes real evidence involved in the crime.

What is CODIS and how is it useful?

FBI Laboratory's Combined DNA Index System blends forensic science and computer technology to create an effective tool for solving violent crimes.

What is a common mistake an investigator makes when conducting interviews?

Failing to heed the importance of recording details, carelessness, preconceived notions, time constraints or misperceptions.

What are the requirements of both scientist and lawyer must keep in mind?

Improperly collected or preserved evidence

What are the types of night vision technology?

Infrared-detects heat variations Image intensification-uses a tube to gather existing light and amplify thousands of times to create a fluorescent green image.

Reactive investigation

Investigation of a crime after it has been committed.

What is cybercrime?

Involves a broad range of criminal activity using computers and other forms of information technology. Closely related to cyber-terrorism, in which FBI maintains cyber investigation.

Concept of Diminished Responsibility

Involves mental impairment to the extent that it prevented the individual from acting with premeditation and deliberation.

What is electronic fraud?

Involves stolen or forged credit cards

Explain "stop and frisk" as police technique?

Is a procedure where a police officer may search an individual who is believed to be carrying a weapon based on observation, experience, and suspicion.

What is a behavior analysis interviews (BAI)?

Is an investigative technique that seeks to capitalize on the fact that a person being questioned unwittingly emits nonverbal signals. Also, called an interview yet an interrogation & a substitute when polygraph is not available or acceptable.

What is the role of an investigator in an interrogation?

Is to get a confession in solving a crime or to gather information or statements that can contribute to building a case.

What is the amount of time on an one-on-one confrontations (show ups)?

It can not be arranged quickly. Bringing a suspect within a short time frame back to the scene or presenting a suspect to each eyewitness separately. It can be set up when: a) permission of physician in charge b) The time between the crime and confrontation is limited-to within 20 mins, preferably and some states 2 hours.

What is hypnosis used in the investigation?

It is a method of eliciting information from victims and witnesses (and sometimes suspects) who are will to be put into a sleep-like state in which they respond to questions about an event they have observed. Such details, like license plate numbers, color of a cat, race of the offender.

When a suspect is arrested when should a lineup be conducted?

It should be conducted as soon as possible after the apprehension of a suspect. 3 reasons: 1) shorter the interval between the lineup and the commission of the crime 2) an innocent person can be released quickly 3) if the suspect is released on bond before a line is held, this could delay or frustrate the process.

LEADS

Law Enforcement Agencies Data System

Procedural law

Law dealing with how the state may proceed in the trial of an alleged offender.

Substantive law

Law specifying which acts are forbidden and the punishment to be inflicted when the law is broken.

LAN

Local Area Network-a computer connecting several computers that are located close to one another, allowing them to share files and devices

What are the sources for material on the fingers produces latent fingerprints?

Natural-perspiration and residue Environmental-dust, soot, cooking oils

What constitute entrapment?

Occurs when a police officer (or an informant with official concurrence) beguiles an innocent person into committing a crime. 1) A law enforcement official (or a person cooperating with such an official). 2) for the purpose of instituting a criminal prosecution 3)Induces an individual 4) to engage in conduct that constitutes a criminal offense 5) knowingly representing such conduct is not prohibited by law or prompting the individual who otherwise is not so inclined to act.

showups

One on one confrontation with a suspect and eyewitness are brought together for identification purposes.

What is the key component of any police department's inventory of tools?

Photography

What is trace evidence?

Physical evidence found in small amounts at a crime scene.

What are some of the purpose for conducting crime scene search?

Physical evidence such as spent cartridges, food containers, or discarded cigarettes an matches documented and collected and the crime reconstructed. Excluding reporters, government officials, even superior police officers not involved in the investigation.

Semtex

Plastic explosive containing RDX and PETN

What are the common methods of recovering latent fingerprints?

Powders (dust) to chemical methods (ninhydrin/cyanoacrylate) to different kinds of exposure to a alternate light source (ultraviolet rays/laser radiation).

RTCC

Real Time Crime Center is a centralized technology center for the purpose to give field officers and detectives instant and comprehensive information to help identify patterns of crimes.

What is the recommended number of persons for a lineup and how should it be composed?

Some courts sanctioned a 3 person lineup; the U.S. Supreme court approve one comprised of 6 people, including two suspects, at least two non-suspects for each suspect, a ratio of 2:1.

Hearsay

Statements by a witness who did not see or hear the incident in question but heard about it from someone else. Hearsay is usually not admissible as evidence in court.

Proxemics

Study of physical distance individuals put between themselves and others, noting any shift from between an open posture and a protective one (as in folding the arms across the chest)

What is a loose surveillance?

Tailing his/her relatives and friends. It's always the possibility of losing the subject.

Malum Prohibitum

The act is prohibited by law but is not necessarily wrong in itself; i.e, a farmer's act in burning down his barn is not unlawful in itself but becomes so if done to defraud an insurance company.

Malum in se

The act is wrong in itself whether or not prohibited by law; e.g. the deliberate killing of another human being.

What is an Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS)

The biometric single-digit collection systems used by military and law enforcement to scan suspect images with the recorded fingerprints of individuals whose records are in a computerized system using an algorithm that has a high degree of accuracy. Created by FBI that went online in 1999.

What does Miranda v Arizona in 1996 warning establish?

The constitutional rights and procedural safeguards, including waiver of those rights that must be conveyed to a person before any interrogation may be undertaken.

Morphology

The general structure and shape (or form) of an entity, constituting in criminalistics, the details used in the study and comparison of physical evidence.

Concept of Irresistible Impulse

The individual knew the act to be wrong but was unable to resist the psychological forces driving him to commit the forbidden act.

What must be established to obtain a court order to intercept wire or oral communication?

The judge must issue an ex parte order authorizing if its determined on the basis of the facts submitted by the applicant: a) Probable cause b) Probable cause that particular communications will be obtained c)normal investigative procedures have been tried d) Probable cause that the facilities from which or place where, the wire, oral or electronic communications ar

In all states anyone arrest for a felony what documentary evidence is required?

The law require the photographing, fingerprinting and collection of DNA sample such as possession of burglar' tools.

What is a mail cover?

The most effective tool in surveillance is the Postal Inspection Service with the authority of a court order can copy the external writing or images addressed to a particular person or address to aid in an investigation.

Plea bargaining

The process whereby a suspect agrees to a lesser crime or punishment, usually in return for providing information of interest to law enforcement.

corpus delicti

The proof that a crime has been committed: 1. facts proving that a crime has been committed a) that each element of the crime be satisfied 2. body of the victim in a murder case a) that someone is responsible for inflicting injury or loss sustained.

Probative value

The quality of evidence which serves to substantiate or help prove that a particular action took place.

What must the police advise a suspect to comply with Miranda?

The right to remain silent. This means you do not have to answer any questions If you answer any questions, anything you say can be used against you in court. You have the right to legal counsel. Tis means you may secure the services of a layer of your own choosing and seek his/her advice. You may also have him or her present with you while you ae being questioned. If you cannot afford to hire a lawyer, one will be appointed to represent you before any questioning takes place, if you so wish. this will be done without any expense to you. If you decide to answer questions now without a lawyer present, you retain the right to stop answering at any time. At that time you will have the right to seek the advice of a lawyer before continuing to answer questions.

Forensic Psychiatry

The study of a criminal's mental state and probable intent, is applicable to three areas of criminal justice: law enforcement, court, and correctional system. It is more often employed in the courtroom of the criminal justice system.

Forensic Odontology

The study of teeth and bite marks to identify a body or tie a suspect to a crime.

What is the current legal status relating to the use of visual and sound enhancement devices?

The use of bifocals, field glasses or the telescope to magnify the object of a witness' vision is not a forbidden search and seizure even if they focus without his/her knowledge or consent upon what one supposes to be private indiscretions. What a person knowingly exposes to the public even in his own home or office is not a subject of the 4th Amendment protection but seeks to preserve as private even in an area accessible to the public, may be constitutionally protected.

Geospatial Analysis

The use of mapping technology to provide an array of information on the locations of specific events

What is close surveillance?

To avoid losing the subject-even risk of detection/exposure and objective to prevent an assault/crime against an individual. It's a chance of being burned or being made.

Why is neighborhood canvassing important in an investigation?

To discover the offender or unaware witness, to ensure that every person in the area is contacted and interviewed. It can be productive that someone saw or heard something that he or she did not bother to report until confronted.

UCR

Uniform Crime Report-the annual report on crime published by the FBI.

What is the best method for recording an interrogation? Why is this advisable?

Video sound recorders (tape or digital). It provides visual recording of body language and other subsurface actions. Make it possible to determine physical signs when a person is lying, such as avoiding eye contact, touching a part of his/her face, hunching his/her shoulders.

What types of physical evidence might be valuable in investigations involving firearms?

Whenever a firearm is discharged in the commission of a crime.

Ex Parte Order

a court order issued by a judge (and submitted to the appropriate federal or state judge for approval) authorizing the interception of a wire or oral communication.

algorithm

a mathematical rule to solve a problem

Portrait parle

a verbal description of a perpetrator's physical characteristics and dress provided by an eyewitness, loosely translated as "verbal picture".

Certiorari

a writ issuing from a superior court calling up the record of a proceeding in an inferior court for review

modus operandi

an offender's pattern of operation (method of preparing for and committing a crime)

Evidentiary value

anything that can be used to support the facts of a case has value in reference to the cause, i.e., a laboratory find a suspicious stain containing blood of human origin may work against a defendant on trial.

What is facial recognition?

closed-circuit viedo cameras in businesses and general community usd to capture images of speeding drivers and toll booth and red light traffic volators with high degree of accuracy. The ACLU raising possibility of such use is illegal search. The 6th Amendment grant the right to counsel at photographic displays conducted by the government for the purpose of allowing a witness to attempt an identification of the offender.

circumstantial evidence

evidence based on suggestion rather than personal knowledge or observation or indirect proof from which the fact at issued may be inferred.

direct evidence

evidence that (if true) proves an alleged fact, such as an eyewitness account of a crime or confession

a priori

known or assumed cause to a necessarily related effect; from a general law to a particular instance; valid independently of observation

a posteriori

reasoning from empirical facts or particulars (acquired through experience or experiment) to general principals; or from effects to causes

quid pro quo

something given in exchange or return for something else, i.e. plea bargaining.

Rigor mortis

stiffness of the body that sets in several hours after death

Supreme Court

the highest court in the land, composed of nine justices appointed for life by the President of the U.S.

Exemplars

the individual instances, or examples, of a concept that are stored in memory from personal experience

Waiving of rights

the willingness of an interviewee to forego civil rights, such as the right to have a lawyer, usually associated with Miranda warnings.

Testimonial Evidence

verbal statement given before the court or other judicial proceeding.