Developmental Psych Test 1(ch.1-6)
infant/toddler intelligence test
Bayley scales- cognitive, language, motor, social-emotional, adaptive behavior HOME- home observation measurement of the environment IQ-used to find out if individual is ahead behind or average
limitations on correlational research
Does NOT reveal cause-and-effect
Factors that can worsen Teratogen
Dose Heredity Other negative influences Age
Incomplete dominance
a pattern of inheritance in which both alleles are expressed in the phenotype, resulting in a combined trait, or one that is intermediate between the two
discontinuous development
a process in which new ways of understanding and responding to the world emerge at specific terms
Depth perception
ability to judge the distance of objects from one another
self-regulation
adjusting to own state of emotional intensity, requires effortful control, grows over first year with brain development;
Adoption
adults who are infertile, likely to pass a genetic diseases. 3 pathways to adoption are domestic adoption form the public welfare system, through private agencies and intermediaries and international adoption
Lifespan perspective: Multidimensional
affected by biological, psychological, and social forces
habituation
agradual reduction in the strength of a response due to repetitive stimulation
Sensorimotor stage
first 2 years of life; infants and toddlers "think" with their eyes, ears, hands, and other sensorimotor equipment.
Psychosocial stages
first year: trust vs. mistrust, child needs responsiveness toddlerhood: autonomy vs. shame/doubt, child needs suitable guidance and reasonable choices
Vygotsky's Sociocultural theory:
focuses on how culture- values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group-is transmitted into the next generation. Social interaction is necessary for children to acquire the ways of thinking and behaving that make up a community's culture. all about environmental interactions
Genotype
gene info you inherit, not directly observable
reproductive choices
genetic counseling, donor insemination and in Vitro fertilization, surrogate motherhood, postmenopausal-assisted childbirth ALL EXTREMELY CONTROVERSIAL
categorization
grouping similar objects and events into single representations
Stability
individuals high or low in a characteristic remain so at later ages, early experiences may have a lifelong impact
sensory register
info enters, sights and sounds are represented directly and stored briefly
Passive gene-environment correlation
the child has no control, parents provide environments influenced by their own heredity.
clinical/case study method
Brings together a wide range of information on one person. Includes the usage of interviews, observations, and test scores
umbilical cord
connects placenta to developing organism; contains one large vein that delivers blood loaded with nutrients and two arteries that remove waste
executive functioning
diverse cognitive operations and strategies that enable us to achieve our goals in cognitively challenging situations
Longitudinal design and limitation
investigator studies the same group of participants repeatedly at different ages. - participants dropout, practice effects, and cohorts effect-born in the same time period
psychometric definition of intelligence
involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, and learn quickly and from experiences. more than "book learning" and "test taking smarts"; reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending
assimilation
use current scheme to interpret external world
cephalocaudal trend
"Head to tail; Lower part of the body grows later than the head
proximodistal trend
"Near to far" growth proceeds from center of the body outward
recovery
(after habituation) a new stimulus; a change in the environment, causes responsiveness to return to a high level, an increase
3 aspects of personality
-id: unconscious present at birth, largest portion of mind, source of basic biological needs and desires -ego: the conscious, rational part of personality, emerges in early infancy to redirect id's impulses so they are discharged in acceptable ways -superego, or conscience: develops as parents insist that children conform to the values of society. Now the ego faces the increasingly complex task of reconciling the demands of the id, the external world, and conscience.
sequential design and limitation
conduct similar cross-sectional and longitudinal studies called sequences. ex. studying same ages at different times/different ages at the same time may have same problems and cross-sectional and longitudinal
Mesosystem
consists of connections between microsystems.
Exosystem
consists of links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual's immediate context
difference between correlation and causation
correlation doesn't automatically mean A caused B. causation means that one event is the result of another event
accommodation
create new schemes or adjust old ones after noticing that our current ways of thinking do not capture the environment completely
goodness of fit model
describes how temperament and environment together can produce favorable outcomes. involves creating child-rearing enviro that recognize each child's temperament while encouraging more adaptive functioning
Lifespan perspective: History-graded influences
development is profoundly affected by forces unique to specific historical period. History-graded influences explain why people born around the same time tend to be alike in way that set them apart from people born at different times
Epigenesis
development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the environment. genes affect behavior and experiences . experiences and behavior also affect gene expression
Growth pattern: cephalocaudal trend and proximodistal trend
different parts of the body grow at different rates. head developing more rapidly than body vs. growth from center of body outward
Phenotypes
directly observable characteristics
behavioral genetics
field devoted to uncovering the contributions of nature and nurture to this diversity in human traits and abilities
Fetus: third trimester
final trimester: age of viability, it can now survive. antibodies from mother are transmitted to protect against diseases. fetus rotates upside down as birth is about to take place
mirror neurons
fire identically when a primate hears or sees an action and when it carries out that action on its own
cross sectional design and limitation
groups of people differing in age are studied at the same point in time. -does not permit study of individual development trends. age difference maybe be distorted because of cohort effects
Nature (nature v. nurture)
hereditary info we receive from our parents are the moment of conception
blastocyst
hollow fluid-filled ball; forms structures that will feed and protect the developing organism
mental representation
internal depictions of information that the mind can manipulate; most powerful mental representations are 2 kinds: images and concepts permits deferred imitation: ability to remember and copy behaviors of models not present; and make-believe play: acting out everyday and imaginary activities
correlational design
investigator obtains info on participant without altering experiences
Lifespan perspective: Multidirectional
joint expression of growth and decline within each domain of development.
Fetus: second trimester
large enough that mother can feel movements; organs are well developed; vernix protects skin from chapping caused by amniotic fluid; lanugo is hair that helps attach vernix. Fetus born at this time CANNOT survive
long term memory store
largest storage area; our permanent knowledge base which is unlimited
Period of the zygote
lasts about 2 weeks, one celled zygot multiplies and forms a blastocyst; blastocyst burrows deep into the uterine lining, forms. Structures that feed and protect the developing organism begin to form- amnion, chorion, yolk sac, placenta, and umbilical cord. At the end, the developing organism has found food and shelter
Period of the embryo
lasts from implantation through the 8th week; most rapid changes. a primitive brain and spinal cord appear. heart, muscles, ribs, backbone, and digestive tract begin to develop(all formed from 3 layers of embryonic disk). sense of touch begins to develop and the embryo can move
Chronosystem
life changes can be imposed externally, or, alternatively, can arise from within since individuals select, modify, and create many of their own settings and experiences.
Heritability Estimates
measure the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors.
placenta
membrane developed when Villi, blood vessels, burrow into uterine wall; this brings the embryo's and mother's blood together but prevents them to mix; and permits food and oxygen to reach and waste to be carried out
milestone in brain development
neurons and synopses are over produced, then cell death and synaptic pruning sculpts away access building material to form the mature brain; a process jointly influenced by genetically programmed events in the child's experiences. the resulting "sculpture" is a set of interconnected regions, each with a specific function
synaptic pruning
neurons that are seldom stimulated lose their synapses in a process that returns neurons not needed at the moment to an uncommitted state so they can support future development
Lifespan perspective: lifelong
no age period is supreme on its impact on life course, events during each major period can have equally powerful effect on future. In each period, change occurs in 3 broad domains: physical, cognitive, and emotional;/social. THEY OVERLAP
Factors involved for healthy prenatal development
nutrition, emotional stress, maternal age Rh factor incompatibility
Experience-dependent brain growth(EDG)
occurs throughout life; consists of additional growth and refinement of established brain structures as a result of specific learning experiences that very widely across individuals and cultures
Lifespan perspective: highly plastic
open to change through new experiences
Plasticity
open to changes in response to influential experiences
Theory
orderly, integrated set of statements that describe and predict behaviors
gene-environment correlation
our genes influence the environment to which we are exposed; change with age
trophoblast
outer cells of blastocyst; forms protective covering and nourishment
Macrosystem
outermost, consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources.
Psychoanalytic Perspective
people move through stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved determines the persons ability to learn, get along with others, and cope with anxiety.
preterm vs. small for date babies
preterm are born several weeks or more before due small for date are below their expected weight considering length of pregnancy, some are full term, usually have serious problems
yolk sac
produces blood cells until liver, spleen, and bone marrow are mature enough to take over
circular reaction
provides a special means of adapting their first schemes. it involves stumbling on to new experiences cause by the baby's own motor activity. The reaction is "circular" because, as the baby tries to repeat the event again and again, a sensorimotor response that first occurred by chance strengthens into a new scheme
reactivity
quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention, and motor activity
fraternal (dizygotic) twins
release and fertilization of two ova. Factors: age, ethnicity, nutrition, family history, fertility drugs and in verto fertilization,
Self referencing
relying on other's emotional reactions to appraise situation; used to teach how to react
Medical intervention for preterm babies
respirator, feeding tube, and intravenous medication
Identical (monozygotic) twins
same genetic make up Factors: temp changes, oxygen levels, late fertilization, usually born early
infant-directed speech
simplified form of language well suited for young infant to learn
Continuous v. discontinuous development
smooth continuous development where individuals gradually add more of the same types of skills VS. discontinuous stages of development where people can change a lot as they step up to the next step and then change very little for a while.
Schemes
specific psychological structures- organized ways of making sense of experience- change through age; two processes accountable for change in schemes : adaptation and organization
zygote
sperm + ovum unite at conception
Conception
sperm and ovum unite to form a new individual. 38 weeks of pregnancy is divided into 3 equal terms
temperament
stable individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation
attachment
strong affectionate tie we have with special people that lead us to feel pleasure when we interact with them and to become comforted by their nearness in times of stress
Human Development (as a field)
study devoted to understanding the consistency and change throughout the lifespan
chorion
surrounds amnion, villi, blood vessels, emerge
Nonorganic failure to thrive
symptoms are similar to malnutrition, non-biological cause, can be corrected if treated early (may need love/emotion; tactile stimulation), physical component usually fine
ways to soothe a crying baby
talk softly or play rhythmic sounds offer pacifier, sucking helps baby control arousal message baby's body lift and rock or walk with baby take baby for short car ride or walk or swing- helps lull the baby to sleep combine methods let baby cry for short period of time
niche picking
tendency to actively choose environments that complement our heredity, explains why identical twins rear apart during childhood, and later reunite, surprised to have similar interests
working memory
the number of items that can briefly be held in mind while also engaging in some effort to monitor or manipulate those items
Canalization
the tendency of heredity to restrict the development of some characteristics to just one of few outcomes. A behavior that is strongly canalized develops similarly in a wide rage of environments; only strong environmental forces can change it EX: perceptual and motor development are strongly canalized. intelligence and personality are less strongly canalized
stable vs. plastic development
theorists who emphasize stability stress the importance of heredity, early experiences establish a life long pattern of behavior. VS. theorist who see development as having substantial plasticity, open to changes
New born sense
touch, smell, taste, hearing, seeing
amnion
trophoblast multiplies fast and creates membrane
Dominant-recessive inheritance
two alleles but only the dominant affects the characteristics. recessive has no effect. If parents gene make up is known, we can predict the percentage of children in the family that will display or carry a trait
object permanence
understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight
Right side of brain
verbal abilities/positive emotions
Ecosystems (ecological systems) theory
views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment
Marasmus
wasted condition of the body caused by a diet low in all essential neutrients. usually appears in first year of life when babys mother is too malnourished to produces enough breast milk and bottle feeding is also inadequate
short term memory store
we retain attended-to info briefly so we can actively "work" on it to reach goals
X- linked inheritance
when a harmful allele is carried on the X chromosome. Males are more likely to be affected because their sex chromosomes do not match(XY) EX. Hemophilia
cognitive equilibrium
when children are not changing much, they assimilate more than they accommodate; steady comfortable stage
Microsystem
innermost, consists of activities and interaction patterns in the persons immediate surroundings, family, school, neighborhood
embryonic disk
inside cells of blastocyst; will become new organism 3 layers of cells: Ectoderm- becomes the nervous system and skin Mesoderm- will develop muscles, skeleton, circulatory system and other internal organs Endoderm- will become digestive system, lungs, urinary tract, and glands
female chromosomes
23rd set = XX
male chromosomes
23rd set = XY
Kwashiorkor
caused by unbalanced diet very low in protein.
General research design
correlational and experimental
Left side of brain
spatial abilities/negative emotions
Experience-expectant brain growth(EEG)
young children "expect" to encounter experiences. young brain's rapidly developing organization, which depends on ordinary experiences; opportunities to explore the environment, interact with people, hearing languages and other sounds occurs early and naturally
Lifespan perspective
1. Lifelong 2. Multidimensional and multidirectional 3. highly plastic 4. Affected by multiple interacting forces
3 basic issues of human growth and development
1. continuous v. discontinuous 2. one course of development v. many 3. nature v. nurture
strange situations
1. parent and child are alone in room 2. child explores without parental participation 3. stranger enters room, talks to parent, approaches child 4.parent quietly leaves room 5. parent then returns and comforts child
infant vision
2 months: focus on objects 4 months: color vision 6 months: visual acuity( discrimination) 4 years: 20/20
Stages of child birth
3 Stages: 1. dilation and effacement of the cervix: contractions of the uterus causing cervix to widen and thin to nothing forming clear channel for uterus vagina 2.delivery of the baby: with each contraction, the mother pushes forcing the baby down and out 3. delivery of the placenta: few final pushes separates placenta from wall of uterus
information processing
3 parts of the mental system for processing: the sensory register, short term memory store, and long term memory store. As information goes through each, we use mental strategies to transform it, increasing the chances that we will retain, use info efficiently and think flexibly; adapting the info
pictorial depth cues
3-4 months strengthening at 5-7 months; babies display sensitivity to 3D and illusions.
Motion
3-4 week; first depth cue to which infants are sensitive. babies blink eyes defensively
Period of the fetus
9th week until birth, divided into 3 trimesters: first trimester(end of 3rd month):muscles, organs, and nervous system become organized and connected. new behavioral capacities appear(kicking, sucking thumb, breathing) genitals are well formed and sex is seen
Resilience
Ability to adapt effectively in the face of threats to development. Factors in resilience: -personal characteristics -warm parental relationships -social support outside of family -community resources and opportunities
experimental design
Allows cause-and-effect statements. Stronger b/c you can rule out individual differences through random assignment
Independent variable
Changed or manipulated by experimenter, expected to cause changes in another variable.
Self reports: clinical interviews/structured interviews
Clinical: flexible, conversational style Structured: each person is asked the same set of questions, in the same way(includes tests and questionnaires)
self-conscious emotions
EX: shame, embarrassment, guilt, envy, pride; emerge middle of 2nd year, children become aware of self as separate and unique, require adult instruction about when to feel these emotions
Environmental Influences affecting development
Family/ extended families, SES , poverty, affluence, outside the family, culture
Medical interventions for normal childbirth
Fetal monitoring- checks heart rate during labor Labor and delivery medication (can lower the APGRA score)- analgesics for pain and to relac, anesthetics for stronger pain and blocks sensation, epidural analgesia strong pain killer shot into back but prolongs labor cesarean delivery- surgical birth
Difference between Erikson's and Freud's theories
Freud's Theory emphasized the importance of the basic needs and biological forces. Erikson's Theory is based upon social and environmental factors and also expands his theory into adulthood, while Freud's theory ends at an earlier period.
environmental influences on gene expression
Gene-environment interaction- it effects responsiveness to particular environments Canalization- it restricts the development of certain behaviors Gene-environment correlation: viewed as driven by genetics, children's genetic makeup causes them to receive, evoke, or seek experiences that actualize their hereditary tendencies
Basic emotions: Happiness, Anger/Sadness, Fear
Happiness- Smile: from birth; Social smile: 6-10 weeks; Laugh: 3-4 months Anger- General distress: from birth; Anger: 4-6 months Fear- First fears: 2nd half of first year; Stranger anxiety: 8-12 months
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory-
In addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills that make the individual and active, contributing member of society
brain plasticity
In infants and young children, parts of brain are not yet specialized. Recover better from brain injury because there is this. Language recovers better than spatial skills. Still have some problems with complex mental skills. Older children, even adults, have this, but not as much as younger children.
IQ score
Intelligence quotient: measurements against typical performance for age,
studying developmental designs
Longitudinal design, Cross-sectional design, Sequential design
dependent variable
Measured, but not manipulated, by experimenter. Expected to be influenced by the independent variable.
imitation
Mimic behaviors as seen. Could be a reflex or voluntary. It is a powerful means of learning and helps facilitate positive relationships
systematic observation: naturalistic/structured observation
Naturalistic: go into the field and record Structured: investigator sets up a lab where conditions are same for all
Periods of prenatal development
Period of the zygote, period of the embryo, period of the fetus
types of attachment and factors
Secure: baby uses parent as secure base Avoidant: unresponsive to parent when present, Resistant: before separation, infant seeks closeness, when parent leave, very distressed; when return, they combing clinginess with angry resistive behavior and can continue to cry disorganized/disoriented: at reunion, infant shows confused, dazed facial expressions
Emotions of others
Social referencing: by 1 year, actively seeking emotional info from trusted person or uncertain situation Emotional contagion: early infancy, infants respond in kind to others' emotions through a built-in automatic process Recognize others facial expressions: 4-5 months
organization
a process that takes place internally, apart from direct contact with environment. Once children form new schemes, they rearrange them, linking them with other schemes to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system
strength/ weaknesses of the psychoanalytic perspective
Strength: its emphasis on the individual's unique life history as worthy of study and understanding. Has also inspired research on many aspects of emotional and social development Weaknesses: no longer the main human dev. research. psychoanalytic theorists have become isolated from the rest of the field because they were so strongly committed to in-depth study of individual that they failed to consider other methods. Very difficult or impossible to test
research methods
Systematic observations, self-reports, clinical/case study method
Newborn sense and when they develop
Touch: helps stimulate physical growth and emotional development, at birth infants are highly sensitive to pain Taste and smell: at 4 months baby's prefer salty taste to plain water which prepares them for solid foods. at 4 days babies prefer the smell of their mothers breast Hearing: at birth new borns prefer complex sounds pure to tone. at only a few days old baby can tell the difference in sound pattern. Vision: lease developed, newborns cant focus eyes well eyes are weak, four months for color vision to come. 4 years they have 20/20
APGAR scale
Used to asses the newborns physical condition quickly; with a rating of 0,1,2 on each of 5 characteristics: 1.heart rate 2.repertory effort 3.reflex irritability(sneezing coughing, and grimacing) 4.muscle tone 5.color is made at 1 minute and then 5 minutes after birth(because some have trouble at first but then do well after a few minutes) APGAR score of 7 or better indicates good condition; score of 4-6 baby needs assistance in vital signs and breathing; 3 or below, the infant is in serious danger
Gene Factors
X: large chromosome Y: short, carries little gene info
continuous development
a process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills that were there to begin with
Anxiety
an emotion characterized by feelings of tension, worried thoughts and physical changes like increased blood pressure.
underextention
an error when young children learn words and sometimes apply them too narrowly EX: "bear" for worm and tattered bear toy
stranger anxiety
anger and fear increase in second half of first year as infants' cognitive and motor capacities improve
teratogens
any environmental agent that causes damage during prenatal period. EX: prescription/nonprescription drugs, illegal drugs, tobacco, alcohol, radiation, environment pollution, infectious disease embryonic period is when teratogens highly impact
overextention
applying a work to a wider collection of objects and events than is appropriate EX: "car" for busses, trucks..
active gene-environment correlation
as children extend their experiences beyond immediate family and are given more freedom to make choices, they actively seek environments that fit with their genetic tendencies
Parietal Lobe
associated with movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli
Temporal Lobe
associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech
Frontal Lobe
associated with reasoning, planning, parts of speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving
Occipital Lobe
associated with visual processing
information processing improvements
attention: ability to shift focus improves memory: retention intervals increase; recall, remembering something not present; appears in first year excellent in second categorization: grouping similar objects; first year- perceptual categorization, second year- conceptual
New born reflexes
automatic response to stimulation eye blink: shine light or clap near head, infant closes eyes quick; protects infant from strong stimulation rooting: stroke cheek near mouth,helps baby find nipple sucking: place finger in baby's mouth, permits feeding Moro: hold baby horizontally on back and let head drop slightly or make sudden loud sound against surface supporting baby, in evolutionary past, this may have helped infant cling to mother Palmar grasp: place finger in infants hand and press palm, prepares infant for voluntary grasping tonic neck: turn head to one side while infant lays on back, prepares for reaching stepping: hold infant under arms and permit bare feet to touch flat surface, prepares for walking Babinski: stroke sole of foot from toe toward heel, unknown
Gene- environment interaction
because of genetic makeup, individuals differ in their responsiveness to qualities of the environment. people have unique genetically influenced reactions to particular experiences.
implantation
between the 7th and 9th day, the blastocyst burrows deep into the uterine lining, forms. Structures that feed and protect the developing organism begin to form
Lifespan perspective: development is influenced by multiple, interacting forces
biological, historical, social, and cultural forces influence development; organized into 3 categories that work together: Age-grade, History-grade, Non-normative- grade
core knowledge perspective
born with innate, special-purpose knowledge systems; core domain of thought. Each core domain allows quick grasp of related information
Adaptation
building schemes through direct interaction with the environment; consists of two complementary activities- assimilation and accommodation
fetal alcohol syndrome
caused by prenatal heavy alcohol exposure; distinguished by: 1. slow physical growth 2. a pattern of three facial abnormalities(short eyelid opening, thin upper lip, smooth or flat philtrum) 3. brain injury
evocative gene-environment correlation
children evoke responses that are influence by the child's heredity and these responses strengthen the child's original style.
Piaget's theories
children move through four stages between infancy and adolescence. During these stages, all aspects of cognition develop in an integrated fashion, changing in a similar way at about the same time.
Learning capacities
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, habituation, imitation
genetic counseling
communication process to help couples asses their chances of giving birth to a baby with hereditary disorder and choose the best course of action in views of risk and family goals
Kinship studies
compare the characteristics of family members resulting in heritability estimates; most common studies identical twins
Nurture (nature v. nurture)
complex forces of the physical and social world that influence our biological makeup and psychological experiences before/after birth
Behaviorism
directly observable events- stimuli and responses- are the focus of study classical conditioning: environment is the supreme force in dev. and adults can mold children's behavior by carefully controlling stimulus-response associations operant conditioning: frequency of a behavior can be increased by following it with reinforcers and decreased by punishment
disequilibrium(cognitive discomfort)
during rapid cognitive change, children realize that new info doesn't match their current schemes, so they shift from assimilation toward accommodation. After modifying schemes, they move back toward assimilation
types of temperaments and its stability
easy child: 40%, regular routines, generally cheerful and adaptful difficult child: 10%, irregular routines, slow adaptability, reacts negatively and intensely slow-to-warm-up child: 15%, inactive, shows mild low key reactions negative in mood, adjust slowly unclassified: 35% Develops with age, low to moderate stability, better indicator after age 3
neural tube
ectoderm folds to form spinal cord
binocular depth cues
emerge 2-3 months ; our 2 eyes have slightly different views of the visual field. the brain blends these two images resulting in perception of depth.
effortful control
emotional self-regulation requires voluntary, effortful management of emotions
Freud's Psychosexual theory-
emphasize how parents manage their child's sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development, moves through 5 stages during which 3 portions of the personality become integrated -oral -anal -phallic -latency -genital
Social learning
emphasizes modeling, also known as imitation or observational learning as a powerful source of development. "what we think about ourselves/what people think about us.
amniotic fluid
encloses the developing organism keeping the temperature constant and provides cushion
Lifespan perspective: Age-Grade influences
events strongly related to age and therefore fairly predictable in when they occur and how long they last
Lifespan perspective: Non-normative influences
events that are irregular: they happen to just one person or a few people and do not follow a predictable timetable.