Developmental Psychology Chapter 10 Study guide

Study section Emotion Regulation

Emotion regulation also can influence whether biological and experiential factors are linked to various developmental outcomes. For example, in G × E interaction, the short version of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) is linked to increased risk of depression when individuals often experience stressful environments. A recent study of 9- to 15-year-olds who were characterized by this gene-environment combination found that they were less likely to be depressed if they were effective at emotion regulation (Ford & others, 2014). Social relationships provide the setting for the development of a rich variety of emotions (Lamb, 2015; Laible, Thompson, & Froimson, 2015; Thompson, 2014, 2015, 2016). When toddlers hear their parents quarreling, they often react with distress and inhibit their play. Well-functioning families make each other laugh and may develop a light mood to defuse conflicts. A recent study of 18- to 24-month-olds found that parents' elicitation of talk about emotions was associated with their toddlers' sharing and helping (Brownell & others, 2013). In another recent study of 10- to 12-year-olds, mothers of more anxious children were more likely to engage in psychologically controlling behavior intended to manipulate the children's emotional state, showed less warmth and interest in the children, and elaborated less during conversations about an emotionally negative event (Brumariu & Kerns, 2015). Biological evolution has endowed human beings with the capacity to be emotional, but cultural embeddedness and relationships with others provide diversity in emotional experiences (Chen, Fu, & Zhao, 2015; Chen & Schmidt, 2015; Cole & Tan, 2015; Ford & Mauss, 2015; Laible, Thompson, & Froimson, 2015). Emotional development and coping with stress are influenced by whether caregivers have maltreated or neglected children and whether children's caregivers are depressed or not (Hostinar & Gunnar, 2013). When infants become stressed, they show better biological recovery from the stressors when their caregivers engage in sensitive caregiving

Study section Emotion Regulation and Coping

infant gradually develop an ability to inhibit, or minimize, the intensity and duration of emotional reactions. babies self soothe but mainly depend on caregivers to help them soothe their emotions. Later in infancy, when they become aroused, infants sometimes redirect their attention or distract themselves in order to reduce their arousal. By 2 years of age, toddlers can use language to define their feeling states and the context that is upsetting them. A toddler might say, "Feel bad. Dog scare." This type of communication may allow caregivers to help the child in regulating emotion.

Emotions are influenced by ___ foundations and a person's _____.

biological; experiences

Study the portion of Coping with Stress that is on p. 302

. As children get older, they are able to more accurately appraise a stressful situation and determine how much control they have over it. Older children generate more coping alternatives to stressful conditions and make greater use of cognitive coping strategies ex, older children are better than younger children at intentionally shifting their thoughts to a topic that is less stressful. Older children are also better at reframing, or changing their perception of a stressful situation. For example, younger children may be very disappointed that their teacher did not say hello to them when they arrived at school. Older children may reframe this type of situation and think, "She may have been busy with other things and just forgot to say hello." By 10 years of age, most children are able to use these cognitive strategies to cope with stress (Saarni & others, 2006). However, in families that have not been supportive and are characterized by turmoil or trauma, children may be so overwhelmed by stress that they do not use such strategies (Thabet & others, 2009). Disasters can especially harm children's development and produce adjustment problems (Masten & others, 2015; Scheeringa, Cobham, & McDermott, 2014). Among the outcomes for children who experience disasters are acute stress reactions, depression, panic disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder (Pfefferbaum, Newman, & Nelson, 2014). The likelihood that a child will face these problems following a disaster depends on factors such as the nature and severity of the disaster and the type of support available to the child.

Study Parenting and the Child's Temperament on p. 310.

.What are the implications of temperamental variations for parenting? Although answers to this question necessarily are speculative, these conclusions regarding the best parenting strategies to use in relation to children's temperament were reached by temperament experts Ann Sanson and Mary Rothbart (1995): Attention to and respect for individuality. One implication is that it is difficult to generate general prescriptions for "good" parenting. A goal might be accomplished in one way with one child and in another way with another child, depending on the child's temperament. Parents need to be sensitive and remain flexible to the infant's signals and needs. Structuring the child's environment. Crowded, noisy environments can pose greater problems for some children (such as a "difficult child") than others (such as an "easygoing" child). We might also expect that a fearful, withdrawing child would benefit from slower entry into new contexts. The "difficult child" and packaged parenting programs. Programs for parents often focus on dealing with children who have "difficult" temperaments. In some cases, "difficult child" refers to Thomas and Chess' description of a child who reacts negatively, cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change. In others, the concept might be used to describe a child who is irritable, displays anger frequently, does not follow directions well, or shows some other negative characteristic. Acknowledging that some children are harder than others to parent is often helpful, and advice on how to handle specific difficult characteristics can be useful. However, whether a specific characteristic is difficult depends on its fit with the environment. To label a child "difficult" has the danger of becoming a self-fulfilling prophecy. If a child is identified as "difficult," people may treat the child in a way that actually elicits "difficult" behavior.

Study section Fear

A baby's earlier emotion. Typically appears at about 6 months and peaks at about 18 months. Abused and neglected infants can show fear as early as 3 months. Most frequent fear involves stranger anxiety, in which an infant shows a fear and wariness of strangers. Stranger anxiety usually emerges gradually. First appears about 6 mths. in the form of wary reactions. By 9 mths fear of strangers is often more intense, reaching a peak towards the end of the 1st year of life. Infants also show fear of being separated from caregivers causing separation protest.

What is attachment?

A close emotional bond between two people.

Define Emotion

A feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is in a state or an interaction that is important to him or her, especially to his or her well-being.

What is a key theme of emotional development in adulthood?

A key theme of emotional development in adulthood is "the adaptive integration of emotional experience into satisfying daily life and successful relationships with others".

Describe the findings of the studies on adult attachment patterns on pages 324-325.

A longitudinal study by Katherine Haydon and her colleagues (2012) provides insight into which aspects of early child development are linked to different aspects of attachment in emerging and early adulthood. In this study, adults who experienced higher-quality parenting in childhood were more likely to have secure attachment thoughts about early experiences with caregivers and about current romantic partners 20 years later. However, in this study, neither generalized attachment (adult thoughts about childhood relationships with caregivers) nor romantic attachment (thoughts about specific romantic partners) assessed in emerging and early adulthood were linked to infant attachment assessed at 12 months of age, which contradicts the view that infant attachment provides the basis for all subsequent attachment relationships. Also, in this study, ego resiliency (which involves flexibly regulating attention, affect, and behavior in response to changing environmental demands) assessed at 54 months of age was linked to more secure romantic representations in adulthood but not to adult representations of attachment to caregivers in childhood. This study reflects the developmental cascade model described earlier that emphasizes the importance of considering not only very early experiences but also later developmental changes and experiences in predicting relationship outcomes in adulthood.

Describe the recent research on older adults' attachment.

A recent research review on attachment in older adults reached the following conclusions (Van Assche & others, 2013): Older adults have fewer attachment relationships than younger adults (Cicirelli, 2010). With increasing age, attachment anxiety decreases (Chopik, Edelstein, & Fraley, 2013). In late adulthood, attachment security is associated with psychological and physical well-being (Bodner & Cohen-Fridel, 2010). Insecure attachment is linked to more perceived negative caregiver burden in caring for patients with Alzheimer disease (Karantzas & others, 2010).

Study section Adolescence on pages 303-304.

Adolescence has long been described as a time of emotional turmoil (Hall, 1904). Adolescents are not constantly in a state of "storm and stress," but emotional highs and lows do increase during early adolescence (Rosenblum & Lewis, 2003). Young adolescents can be on top of the world one moment and down in the dumps the next. In some instances, the intensity of their emotions seems out of proportion to the events that elicit them (Morris, Cui, & Steinberg, 2013). Young adolescents might sulk a lot, not knowing how to adequately express their feelings. With little or no provocation, they can blow up at their parents or siblings, a response that might reflect the defense mechanism of displacing their feelings onto another person. For some adolescents, such emotional swings can reflect serious problems. Girls are especially vulnerable to depression in adolescence (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2011). But it is important for adults to recognize that moodiness is a normal aspect of early adolescence and to understand that most adolescents make it through these moody times to become competent adults.

Describe the changes in the aging brain related to emotions.

Although links between the aging brain and emotion have only just begun to be studied, recent research suggests some possible connections (Dolcos, Katsumi, & Dixon, 2014; Samanez-Larkin & Carstensen, 2011). Reduced negative emotion in older adults may be associated with decreased physiological arousal of emotion due to aging in the amygdala and autonomic nervous system (Kaszniak & Menchola, 2012). More effective emotion regulation may be related to this reduction in subcortical activation and also to increased activation in the prefrontal cortex

Study first 3 paragraphs of Understanding Emotions section

Among the most important changes in emotional development in early childhood is an increased understanding of emotion (Denham, Bassett, & Wyatt, 2015; Denham & others, 2014). During early childhood, young children increasingly understand that certain situations are likely to evoke particular emotions, facial expressions indicate specific emotions, emotions affect behavior, and emotions can be used to influence others' emotions (Cole & others, 2009). In one study, young children's emotional understanding was linked to how extensively they engaged in prosocial behavior (Ensor, Spencer, & Hughes, 2010). Between 2 and 4 years of age, children considerably increase the number of terms they use to describe emotions. During this time, they are also learning about the causes and consequences of feelings. When they are 4 to 5 years of age, children show an increased ability to reflect on emotions. They also begin to understand that the same event can elicit different feelings in different people. Moreover, they show a growing awareness that they need to manage their emotions to meet social standards (Denham & Zinsser, 2014). And, by 5 years of age, most children can accurately identify emotions that are produced by challenging circumstances and describe strategies they might call on to cope with everyday stress (Cole & others, 2009).

Describe the differences between mothers and fathers as caregivers.

An increasing number of U.S. fathers stay home full-time with their children (Lamb & Lewis, 2013). In a recent survey, the number of stay-at-home dads in the United States was estimated to be 2 million in 2012 (Livingston, 2014). The 2 million figure represents a significant increase from 1.6 million in 2004 and 1.1 million in 1989. A large portion of the full-time fathers have career-focused wives who provide most of the family's income. One study revealed that the stay-at-home fathers were as satisfied with their marriage as traditional parents, although they indicated that they missed their daily life in the workplace (Rochlen & others, 2008). In this study, the stay-at-home fathers reported that they tended to be ostracized when they took their children to playgrounds and often were excluded from parent groups. Can fathers take care of infants as competently as mothers can? Observations of fathers and their infants suggest that fathers have the ability to care for their infants as sensitively and responsively as mothers do (Clarke-Stewart & Parke, 2014; Shaw, 2013; Shwalb, Shwalb, & Lamb, 2013). A recent study found that infants who showed a higher level of externalizing, disruptive problems at one year of age had fathers who displayed a low level of engagement with them as early as the third month of life (Ramchandani & others, 2013). Another recent study revealed that fathers with a college-level education engaged in more stimulating physical activities with their infants than less-educated fathers did and that fathers in a conflicting couple relationship participated in less caregiving and physical play with their infants (Cabrera, Hofferth, & Chae, 2011). Consider also the Aka pygmy culture in Africa, where fathers spend as much time interacting with their infants as mothers do (Hewlett, 2000; Hewlett & MacFarlan, 2010). A recent study also found that marital intimacy and partner support during prenatal development were linked to father-infant attachment following childbirth (Yu & others, 2012). Remember, however, that although fathers can be active, nurturing, involved caregivers with their infants, as Aka pygmy fathers are, in many cultures men have not chosen to follow this pattern (Parkinson, 2010). Also, if fathers have mental health problems, they may interact less effectively with their infants than fathers without such problems. A recent study revealed that depressed fathers focused more on their own needs than on their infants' needs and that they directed more negative and critical speech toward infants (Sethna, Murray, & Ramchandani, 2012). Do fathers behave differently from mothers when interacting with their infants? Maternal interactions usually center on child-care activities—feeding, changing diapers, bathing (Lamb & Lewis, 2013). Paternal interactions are more likely to include play (Clarke-Stewart & Parke, 2014). Fathers engage in more rough-and-tumble play than mothers do. They bounce infants, throw them up in the air, tickle them, and so on (Lamb, 2013). Mothers do play with infants, but their play is less physical and arousing than that of fathers.

Describe the benefits of secure attachment in adulthood.

Attachment security predicted more positive romantic relationships (Holland & Roisman, 2010). In newlywed marriages, spouses were more likely to engage in infidelity when either they or their partner had an anxious attachment style (Russell, Baker, & McNulty, 2013). A national survey indicated that insecure attachment in adults was associated with the development of disease and chronic illness, especially cardiovascular system problems such as high blood pressure, heart attack, and stroke (McWilliams & Bailey, 2010). Adults with avoidant and anxious attachment patterns had a lower level of sexual satisfaction than their counterparts with a secure attachment pattern (Brassard & others, 2012). Secure attachment in adults was linked to fewer sleep disruptions than insecure avoidant and anxious attachment (Adams & McWilliams, 2015).

Study section Developmental Connections in Temperament.

Children who had an easy temperament at 3 to 5 years of age were likely to be well adjusted as young adults. In contrast, many children who had a difficult temperament at 3 to 5 years were not well adjusted as young adults. Boys w/ a difficult temperament in childhood are less likely as adults to continue formal education, whereas girls w/ a difficult temperament in childhood are more likely to experience marital conflict as adults.

Study section Interpreting Differences in Attachment.

Do individual differences in attachment matter? Ainsworth notes that secure attachment in the first year of life provides an important foundation for psychological development later in life. The securely attached infant moves freely away from the mother but keeps track of where she is through periodic glances. The securely attached infant responds positively to being picked up by others and, when put back down, freely moves away to play. An insecurely attached infant, by contrast, avoids the mother or is ambivalent toward her, fears strangers, and is upset by minor, everyday separations. If early attachment to a caregiver is important, it should influence a child's social behavior later in development. For some children, early attachments seem to foreshadow later functioning (Ding & others, 2014; Frazier & Scharf, 2015; Gander & Buchheim, 2015; Umemura & Jacobvitz, 2014). In the extensive longitudinal study conducted by Alan Sroufe and his colleagues (2005; Sroufe, Coffino, & Carlson, 2010), early secure attachment (assessed by the Strange Situation at 12 and 18 months) was linked with positive emotional health, high self-esteem, self-confidence, and socially competent interaction with peers, teachers, camp counselors, and romantic partners through adolescence. Also, a recent meta-analysis concluded that secure attachment in infancy was related to social competence with peers in early childhood (Groh & others, 2014). Yet another study discovered that attachment security at 2 years of age was linked to lower rates of peer conflict at 3 years of age (Raikes & others, 2013). Further, a recent study revealed that infant attachment insecurity (especially insecure resistant attachment) and early childhood behavioral inhibition predicted adolescent social anxiety symptoms (Lewis-Morrarty & others, 2015). And a meta-analysis revealed that disorganized attachment was more strongly linked to externalizing problems (aggression and hostility, for example) than were avoidant and resistant attachment (Fearon & others, 2010).

Study section Attachment in Middle and Late Childhood.

Earlier you read about the importance of secure attachment in infancy and the role of sensitive parenting in attachment (Thompson, 2015). The attachment process continues to be an important aspect of children's development in the childhood years. In middle and late childhood, attachment becomes more sophisticated, and as children's social worlds expand to include peers, teachers, and others, they typically spend less time with parents. Kathryn Kerns and her colleagues (Brumariu, Kerns, & Seibert, 2012; Kerns & Brumariu, 2016; Kerns & Seibert, 2012, 2016; Kerns, Siener, & Brumariu, 2011; Siener & Kerns, 2012) have studied links between attachment to parents and various child outcomes in middle and late childhood. They have found that during this period of development, secure attachment is associated with a lower level of internalized symptoms, anxiety, and depression in children (Brumariu & Kerns, 2011). For example, their research revealed that children who were less securely attached to their mothers reported having more anxiety (Brumariu, Kerns, & Seibert, 2012; Kerns & Brumariu, 2014). Also in this research, secure attachment was linked to a higher level of children's emotion regulation and less difficulty in identifying emotions. And their research indicates that insecure disorganized children (Type D) are most at risk for developing anxiety problems (Kerns & Brumariu, 2014).

Study first paragraph of section Emotional Expression and Social Relationships

Emotional expression is involved in infants' first relationships. The ability of infants to communicate emotions permits coordinated interactions with their caregivers and the beginning of an emotional bond between them (Thompson, 2015). Not only do parents change their emotional expressions in response to infants' emotional expressions, but infants also modify their emotional expressions in response to their parents' emotional expressions. In other words, these interactions are mutually regulated (Bridgett & others, 2009). Because of this coordination, the interactions are described as reciprocal, or synchronous, when all is going well. Sensitive, responsive parents help their infants grow emotionally, whether the infants respond in distressed or happy ways (Thompson, 2014). A recent study found that a higher level of maternal positive emotionality predicted more initial infant smiling and laughter, while a higher level of parental stress predicted a lower trajectory of infant smiling and laughter (Bridgett & others, 2013). Another recent study revealed that parents' elicitation of talk about emotion with toddlers was associated with the toddlers' sharing and helping behaviors (Brownell & others, 2013). Cries and smiles are two emotional expressions that infants display when interacting with parents. These are babies' first forms of emotional communication.

Describe Harlow's research and his findings.

Harlow removed infant monkeys from their mothers at birth; for six months they were reared by surrogate (substitute) "mothers." One surrogate mother was made of wire, the other of cloth. Half of the infant monkeys were fed by the wire mother, half by the cloth mother. Periodically, the amount of time the infant monkeys spent with either the wire or the cloth mother was computed. Regardless of which mother fed them, the infant monkeys spent far more time with the cloth mother. Even if the wire mother but not the cloth mother provided nourishment, the infant monkeys spent more time with the cloth mother. And when Harlow frightened the monkeys, those "raised" by the cloth mother ran to the mother and clung to it; those raised by the wire mother did not. Whether the mother provided comfort seemed to determine whether the monkeys associated the mother with security. This study clearly demonstrated that feeding is not the crucial element in the attachment process and that contact comfort is important.

What are some skills involved in emotional competence?

Having awareness of one's emotional states. Detecting others' emotions. Using the vocabulary of emotion terms in socially and culturally appropriate ways. Having empathetic and sympathetic sensitivity to others' emotional experiences. Recognizing that inner emotional states do not have to correspond to outer expressions. Adaptively coping with negative emotions by using self-regulatory strategies that reduce the intensity or duration of such emotional states. Having awareness that the expression of emotions plays a major role in relationships. Viewing oneself overall as feeling the way one wants to feel.

Study section Caregiving Styles and Attachment.

How do the caregivers of insecurely attached babies interact with them? Caregivers of avoidant babies tend to be unavailable or rejecting (Posada & Kaloustian, 2011). They often don't respond to their babies' signals and have little physical contact with them. When they do interact with their babies, they may behave in an angry and irritable way. Caregivers of resistant babies tend to be inconsistent; sometimes they respond to their babies' needs, and sometimes they don't. In general, they tend not to be very affectionate with their babies and show little synchrony when interacting with them. Caregivers of disorganized babies often neglect or physically abuse them (Bernard & others, 2012). In some cases, these caregivers are depressed. In sum, caregivers' interactions with infants influence whether infants are securely or insecurely attached to the caregivers (Sroufe, Coffino, & Carlson, 2010)

Study section Developmental Changes in Emotion on p. 302

Improved emotional understanding. Children in elementary school develop an increased ability to understand such complex emotions as pride and shame. These emotions become less tied to the reactions of other people; they become more self-generated and integrated with a sense of personal responsibility. A child may feel a sense of pride about developing new reading skills or shame after hurting a friend's feelings. Also, during middle and late childhood as part of their understanding of emotions, children can engage in "mental time travel," in which they anticipate and recall the cognitive and emotional aspects of events (Lagattuta, 2014a, b). Marked improvements in the ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions. Children now sometimes intentionally hide their emotions. Although a boy may feel sad that a friend does not want to play with him, he may decide not to share those feelings with his parents. The use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings. In the elementary school years, children reflect more about emotional experiences and develop strategies to cope with their emotional lives. Children can more effectively manage their emotions by cognitive means, such as using distracting thoughts. A boy may be excited about his birthday party that will take place later in the afternoon, but still be able to concentrate on his schoolwork during the day. An increased tendency to take into fuller account the events leading to emotional reactions. A fourth-grader may become aware that her sadness today is influenced by her friend's moving to another town last week. Development of a capacity for genuine empathy. Two girls see another child in distress on the playground and run to the child and ask if they can help.

Explain how aspects of a child's environment can encourage or discourage the persistence of temperament characteristics.

In short, many aspects of a child's environment can encourage or discourage the persistence of temperament characteristics (Bates & Pettit, 2015; Gartstein & others, 2010; Shiner & DeYoung, 2013). For example, a recent study found that fathers' internalizing problems (anxiety and depression, for example) were linked to a higher level of negative affectivity in 6-month-olds (Potapova, Gartstein, & Bridgett, 2014). And another recent study revealed that maternal negativity and child problem behavior were most strongly linked for children who were low in effortful control and living in chaotic homes (Chen, Deater-Deckard, and Bell, 2014). One useful way of thinking about temperament-environment connections involves the concept of goodness of fit.

Study section Infants' Social Sophistication and Insight.

In sum, researchers are discovering that infants are more socially sophisticated and insightful at younger ages than was previously envisioned (Thompson, 2006, 2015, 2016). Such sophistication and insight are reflected in infants' perceptions of others' actions as intentionally motivated and goal-directed, their motivation to share and participate in that intentionality, and their increase in emotion understanding and communication by their first birthday. The more advanced social cognitive skills of infants could be expected to influence their understanding and awareness of attachment to a caregiver.

Study first paragraph of Regulating Emotions on p. 301

Many researchers consider the growth of emotion regulation in children as fundamental to the development of social competence (Calkins & Dollar, 2014; Goodvin, Thompson, & Winer, 2015; Nelson & others, 2012). In a recent study of 5- to 7-year-olds, understanding others' emotions was linked to the children's emotion regulation (Hudson & Jacques, 2014). Emotion regulation can be conceptualized as an important component of self-regulation or of executive function. Executive function is increasingly thought to be a key concept in describing the young child's higher-level cognitive functioning. Cybelle Raver and her colleagues (Blair & Raver, 2012; McCoy & Raver, 2011; Raver & others, 2011, 2012. 2013; Zhai, Raver, & Jones, 2012) are using various interventions, such as increasing caregiver emotional expressiveness, to improve young children's emotion regulation and reduce behavior problems in children growing up in poverty conditions.

Describe the findings of the NICHD study concerning U.S. child care on pages 320-322.

Patterns of use. Many families placed their infants in child care very soon after the child's birth, and there was considerable instability in the child-care arrangements. By 4 months of age, nearly three-fourths of the infants had entered some form of nonmaternal child care. Almost half of the infants were cared for by a relative when they first entered care; only 12 percent were enrolled in child-care centers. Low-income families were more likely than more affluent families to use child care, but infants from low-income families who were in child care averaged the same number of hours of child care as other income groups. In the preschool years, mothers who were single, those with more education, and families with higher incomes used more hours of center-based care than other families. Minority families and mothers with less education used more hours of care by relatives. Quality of care. Evaluations of quality of care were based on characteristics such as group size, child-adult ratio, physical environment, caregiver characteristics (such as formal education, specialized training, and child-care experience), and caregiver behavior (such as sensitivity to children). An alarming conclusion is that a majority of the child care in the first three years of life was of unacceptably low quality. Positive caregiving by nonparents in child-care settings was infrequent—only 12 percent of the children studied experienced positive nonparental child care (such as positive talk and language stimulation)! Further, infants from low-income families experienced a lower quality of child care than infants from higher-income families. When quality of caregivers' care was high, children performed better on cognitive and language tasks, were more cooperative with their mothers during play, showed more positive and skilled interaction with peers, and had fewer behavior problems. Caregiver training and good child-to-staff ratios were linked with higher cognitive and social competence when children were 54 months of age. In a recent study, high-quality infant-toddler child care was linked to better memory skills at the end of the preschool years (Li & others, 2013). In another recent study, higher-quality child care from birth to 4½ years of age was linked to higher cognitive-academic achievement at 15 years of age (Vandell & others, 2010). In this study, early high-quality care also was related to youth reports of less externalizing behavior (lower rates of delinquency, for example). Also, in a recent study, high-quality infant-toddler child care was linked to better memory skills at the end of the preschool years (Li & others, 2013). Amount of child care. In general, when children spent 30 hours or more per week in child care, their development was less than optimal (Ramey, 2005). In a recent study, more hours of early non-relative child care was related to higher levels of risk taking and impulsivity at 15 years of age (Vandell & others, 2010). Family and parenting influences. The influence of families and parenting was not weakened by extensive child care. Parents played a significant role in helping children to regulate their emotions. Especially important parenting influences were being sensitive to children's needs, being involved with children, and cognitively stimulating them. Indeed, parental sensitivity has been the most consistent predictor of a secure attachment, with child-care experiences being relevant in many cases only when mothers engage in insensitive parenting (Friedman, Melhuish, & Hill, 2011). An important point about the extensive NICHD research is that findings show that family factors are considerably stronger and more consistent predictors of a wide variety of child outcomes than are child-care aspects such as quality, quantity, and type. Home and child-care settings. The worst outcomes for children occur when both home and child-care settings are of poor quality. For example, a recent study involving the NICHD SECCYD data revealed that worse socioemotional outcomes (higher levels of problem behavior, lower levels of prosocial behavior) for children occurred when they experienced both home and child-care environments that conferred risk (Watamura & others, 2011).

What are the following emotions and when do they first occur: Primary emotions, Self-conscious emotions.

Primary emotions are emotions that are present in humans and other animals; these emotions appear in the first 6 months of the human infant's development. (surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust). Self-conscious emotions require self-awareness that involves consciousness and a sense of "me." (jealousy, empathy, embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt). Most of these occur after 18 months of age when a sense of self becomes consolidated in toddlers.

Name and describe Chess and Thomas' three types of temperament.

Psychiatrists Alexander Chess and Stella Thomas (Chess & Thomas, 1977; Thomas & Chess, 1991) identified three basic types, or clusters, of temperament: An easy child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences. A difficult child reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change. A slow-to-warm-up child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood.

What are recommendations for helping children cope with the stress of especially devastating events?

Reassure children of their safety and security. This step may need to be taken numerous times. Allow children to retell events and be patient in listening to them. Encourage children to talk about any disturbing or confusing feelings. Tell them that these are normal feelings after a stressful event. Help children make sense of what happened. Children may misunderstand what took place. For example, young children "may blame themselves, believe things happened that did not happen, believe that terrorists are in the school, etc. Gently help children develop a realistic understanding of the event" (p. 10). Protect children from reexposure to frightening situations and reminders of the trauma. This strategy includes limiting conversations about the event in front of the children and limiting exposure to media coverage of the event.

What are some strategies parents can follow in regards to child care?

Recognize that the quality of your parenting is a key factor in your child's development. Make decisions that will improve that likelihood you will be good parents. Monitor your child's development. Take some time to fine the best child care.

Describe the links between adults' current attachment styles and many aspects of their lives.

Researchers are studying links between adults' current attachment styles and many aspects of their lives (Craparo & others, 2014; Hudson & others, 2014; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2014). For example, securely attached adults are more satisfied with their close relationships than insecurely attached adults, and the relationships of securely attached adults are more likely to be characterized by trust, commitment, and longevity. A recent meta-analysis of 94 samples of U.S. college students from 1988 to 2011 found the percentage of students with a secure attachment decreased in recent years while the percentage of students with insecure attachment styles increased

Study section Dating and Adjustment.

Researchers have linked dating and romantic relationships with various measures of how well adjusted adolescents are (Furman & Rose, 2015; Soller, 2014). For example, a recent study of 200 tenth-graders revealed that those with more romantic experiences reported higher levels of social acceptance, friendship competence, and romantic competence—however, having more romantic experience also was linked with a higher level of substance use, delinquency, and sexual behavior (Furman, Low, & Ho, 2009). Also, among adolescent girls but not adolescent males, having an older romantic partner was linked with an increase in depressive symptoms, largely influenced by an increase in substance use (Haydon & Halpern, 2010). Dating and romantic relationships at an early age can be especially problematic (Connolly & McIsaac, 2009). A recent study found that romantic activity was linked to depression in early adolescent girls (Starr & others, 2012). Researchers also have found that early dating and "going with" someone are linked with adolescent pregnancy and problems at home and school

Name and describe the 3 attachment styles of adults.

Secure attachment style. Securely attached adults have positive views of relationships, find it easy to get close to others, and are not overly concerned with, or stressed out about, their romantic relationships. These adults tend to enjoy sexuality in the context of a committed relationship and are less likely than others to have one-night stands. Avoidant attachment style. Avoidant individuals are hesitant about getting involved in romantic relationships and once in a relationship tend to distance themselves from their partner. Anxious attachment style. These individuals demand closeness, are less trusting, and are more emotional, jealous, and possessive.

Describe the 4 types of attachment.

Securely attached children use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment. When in the presence of their caregiver, securely attached infants explore the room and examine toys that have been placed in it. When the caregiver departs, securely attached infants might protest mildly, and when the caregiver returns these infants reestablish positive interaction with her, perhaps by smiling or climbing onto her lap. Subsequently, they usually resume playing with the toys in the room. Insecure avoidant children show insecurity by avoiding the mother. In the Strange Situation, these babies engage in little interaction with the caregiver, are not distressed when she leaves the room, usually do not reestablish contact with her on her return, and may even turn their back on her. If contact is established, the infant usually leans away or looks away. Insecure resistant children often cling to the caregiver and then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away. In the Strange Situation, these babies often cling anxiously to the caregiver and don't explore the playroom. When the caregiver leaves, they often cry loudly and push away if she tries to comfort them on her return, then want to be held again. Insecure disorganized children are disorganized and disoriented. In the Strange Situation, these babies might appear dazed, confused, and fearful. To be classified as disorganized, babies must show strong patterns of avoidance and resistance or display certain specified behaviors, such as extreme fearfulness around the caregiver.

Explain Socioemotional selectivity theory. Be thorough.

Socioemotional selectivity theory states that older adults become more selective about their activities and social relationships in order to maintain social and emotional well-being. Because they place a high value on emotional satisfaction, older adults often spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships. This theory argues that older adults deliberately withdraw from social contact with individuals peripheral to their lives while they maintain or increase contact with close friends and family members with whom they have had enjoyable relationships. This selective narrowing of social interaction maximizes positive emotional experiences and minimizes emotional risks as individuals become older. According to this theory, older adults systematically condense their social networks so that available social partners satisfy their emotional needs

Study section Positive and Negative Emotions.

Stereotypes suggest that older adults' emotional landscape is bleak and that most live sad, lonely lives. Researchers have found a different picture (Kunzmann, Kappes, & Wrosch, 2014). One study of a very large U.S. sample examined emotions at different ages (Mroczek & Kolarz, 1998). Older adults reported experiencing more positive emotion and less negative emotion than younger adults, and positive emotion increased with age in adults at an accelerating rate (see Figure 5). And a recent study of individuals from 22 to 93 years of age explored emotional experiences in the mornings and evenings (English & Carstensen, 2014b). Older adults reported experiencing more positive emotions than younger adults at both times of the day.

What is temperament?

Temperament involves individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding.

Explain social referencing.

Term used to describe "reading" emotional cues i others to help determine how to act in a specific situation.

What are the developmental changes in emotion during the adult years characterized by?

The changes often are characterized by an effort to create lifestyles that are emotionally satisfying, predictable, and manageable by making decisions about an occupation, a life partner, and other circumstances. Of course, not all individuals are successful in these efforts.

Study section Attachment to Parents.

The initial interest in attachment focused on infants and their caregivers. Developmentalists have recently begun to explore the role of secure attachment and related concepts, such as connectedness to parents, during adolescence (Dawson & others, 2014; Kobak & Kerig, 2015; Kobak & others, 2015; Zack & others, 2015). Secure attachment to parents in adolescence facilitates the adolescent's social competence and well-being, as reflected in such characteristics as self-esteem, emotional adjustment, and physical health (Hoeve & others, 2012). Recent research indicated that the most consistent outcomes of secure attachment in adolescence are positive peer relations and emotion regulation (Allen & Miga, 2010). In other recent research, Joseph Allen and his colleagues (2009) also found that adolescents who were securely attached at 14 years of age were more likely to report at age 21 that they were in an exclusive relationship, comfortable with intimacy in relationships, and attaining increased financial independence.

Explain Erikson's trust vs. mistrust stage.

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth and lasts through one year of age. Infants learn to trust that their caregivers will meet their basic needs. If these needs are not consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop.

What is heredity's role in the biological foundations of temperament?

Twin and adoption studies suggest that heredity has a moderate influence on differences in temperament within a group of people (Buss & Goldsmith, 2007). Too often the biological foundations of temperament are interpreted as meaning that temperament cannot develop or change. However, important self-regulatory dimensions of temperament such as adaptability, soothability, and persistence look very different in a 1-year-old and a 5-year-old (Easterbrooks & others, 2013). These temperament dimensions develop and change with the growth of the neurobiological foundations of self-regulation.

Study section Stress and Gender.

Women and men differ in the way they experience and respond to stressors (Almeida & others, 2011). Women are more vulnerable to social stressors such as those involving romance, family, and work. For example, women experience higher levels of stress when things go wrong in romantic and marital relationships. Women also are more likely than men to become depressed when they encounter stressful life events such as a divorce or the death of a friend. When men face stress, they are likely to respond in a fight or flight manner—become aggressive, withdraw from social contact, or drink alcohol. By contrast, according to Shelley Taylor and her colleagues (2011a, b, c, 2015, Taylor & others, 2000), when women experience stress, they are more likely to engage in a tend and befriend pattern, seeking social alliances with others, especially friends. Taylor argues that when women experience stress an influx of the hormone oxytocin, which is linked to nurturing in animals, is released.