Developmental Psychology Test 3 Study Guide
What is an ethnic identity? At what age do children become aware of racial or ethnic differences?
"Ethnic identity refers to a personal sense of belonging to an ethnic group—a group defined according to a cultural heritage, including cultural values, traditions, and language—and the feelings and attitudes one holds regarding one's sense of belonging to that group" At 3 years old.
What is the difference between a morpheme and a phoneme?
Morphemes are the smallest meaningful elements of a language. EX: ed • Phonemes are the basic units of speech of a language that are used to create morphemes and words. • The main difference between a morpheme and phoneme is that while a morpheme carries a concrete meaning, a phoneme itself does not carry any meaning.
Be able to compare "situational compliance" to "committed compliance"
Situational compliance obedience that results from a child's awareness of an adults will in a particular situation and doesn't reflect enduring behavioral damage Committed compliance behavior that results from a child's internalizing the instruction of the adult. *results in + emotion
Be able to describe the social learning and cognitive theories about the formation of gender identity in boys and girls.
Social learning Learning of gender-roles through observation and imitation Parents provide models for children to imitate and selectively reinforce gender-appropriate behavior Parents start to treat girls vs. boys differently from birth if not before (not always intentional) E.g., Boy babies more likely to be described as firmer, better coordinated, stronger Parents typically set up environment to correspond with gender Name choice, room & clothing colors/styles, toys provided Cognitive theories Child's knowledge and concepts about gender roles are central Gender schemas Mental models about males and females that children use to process information; how to interpret, categorize, and remember people/events Schemas developed and changed through observation, imitation, and reinforcement Children better attend to and remember schema-consistent vs. schema-inconsistent examples (e.g., boy who is a firefighter vs. boy who is a nurse)
Be able to describe the difference between instrumental aggression versus hostile aggression as well as the difference between physical aggression versus relational aggression.
Starting around age 2, boys are more likely than girls to use physical aggression Girls are more likely to use relational aggression (intentionally try to harm others' friendships or deliberately exclude another child from the group)
What is telegraphic speech?
Two-word utterances (start around 18 mo.)
What is a class inclusion problem? How do pre-operational children typically perform on this task? Why (what is it difficult for them)?
Can't solve class inclusion problems Example Present child with 20 animals—15 pigs and 5 cows "Are there more pigs or more animals?" preoperational child will answer "pigs"
Be able to describe a standard conservation task (for either number or liquid)—how do preoperational children answer? What is centration? What feature do young children typically centrate on?
Centration = focus attention on only one aspect at a time; can't coordinate two perspectives Example: conservation tasks Young children don't understand that properties of objects are NOT altered by change in appearance Child will say that Row "A1" and "B1" have the same amount, but Row "A2" has more than "B2" Example references same coins. owns are more spread out. They choose the coins that are spread out.
What is meant by the term "pragmatics?"
the branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used, including such matters as deixis, the taking of turns in conversation, text organization, presupposition, and implicature. We would like to demonstrate this by showing you how life would be WITHOUT Pragmatics: 'Can you pass the salt?' Literal Meaning: Are you physically able to do this task? Literal Response: 'Yes'
Be able to describe the developmental progression of language sounds from crying to first words (know the approximate ages for the beginnings of each step). How is this different for deaf children?
§Crying and "vegetative sounds" §Cooing (starts around 1-2 months) §Simple articulation (starts around 3 months) §Babbling (starts around 6 months) §Dadadada,babababa §Differences for deaf vs. hearing children §Expressive Jargon (starts around 9-12 months) §Babbling with intonation and prosody of language §First words (starts around 12 months
Be able to describe the developmental transition from holophrases to the ability to speak in multiple word utterances using grammar rules.
§Holophrases(start around 12 mo.) §Single word "sentences" often accompanied by gestures §Two-word utterances (start around 18 mo.) §"telegraphic speech" §Multiple word utterances (2 years +) §Often in form of "replacement sequences" where child builds on earlier utterances to form one complete sentence: §Example §"Wings." "Dragon wings." Dragon wings fly." §Acquisition of more complex grammar rules (3-to 4+ years) §E.g., articles, prepositions, past tense, possessive
At what age do children start to label themselves as boy versus girl? How does this relate to their behavior at this age?
By age 3 children correctly label people as either a "boy" or "girl" base it on hair length, dress, and toy preferences (not biology) Children can develop gender-typed preferences. Around this same time: Boys and girls tend to segregate themselves into same-gender playgroups, and show memory biases for gender-linked objects/events Not until ages 5 do most children know that people do not change gender by changing outside appearance, such as hair or dress (gender consistency) [They have consistency]
Be able to identify the key features of the CHANGE OF LOCATION false belief task and the UNEXPECTED CONTENTS false belief task. Make sure you know the key questions. How do 3-year-olds typically perform? How do 5-year-olds typically perform? Why is it important to understand false belief? What are some "real-world" implications?
Change of location "One day Sally puts her penny in a box. Then she goes and takes a nap. While Sally is sleeping, Anne takes the penny out of the box and puts it inside a bag. Sally wakes up and she wants her penny." Child asked: Where will she LOOK for her penny? Where does she THINK the penny is? Where is her penny REALLY? Unexpected Contents The child is shown a FAMILIAR BOX, such as a box of raisins. After the child states that he/she thinks there are raisins in the box, the experimenter opens it up to reveal an UNEXPECTED item, such as a marble. The experimenter closes the box and asks: Before we opened this box what did YOU THINK was inside it? What would YOUR FRIEND THINK is inside this box when he/she sees it all closed up? Central Findings Children 3 years and younger consistently fail false belief tasks See the world as a singular reality—believe that the mind represents the world exactly as it is Starting at age 4 (by age 5), children consistently pass false belief tasks Understand that a person's mind can misrepresent reality Real World Implications Become better "problem solvers" as well as more capable "liars" and "deceivers" Become more aware of social conventions—e.g., masking disappointment Correlated with higher social competence and positive peer relationships
What is the "mean monkey" task? (shown in a in-class video).
Children shown sticks, some less desirable Mean Monkey asks children which stickers they want/don't want Mean Monkey takes desired stickers3 year olds → continued to tell "truth" → lose desired stickers4 year olds → caught on → told Mean Monkey opposite
Be able to describe some of the evidence to support the NURTURE view on the development of gender-typed behavior in children.
Evidence for nurture Parental expectations about boys vs. girls affect their caretaking (even prenatally) Cross-cultural comparisons have found wide variation in what is considered "masculine" and "feminine" (also changes historically) Maternal education and employment linked to more "gender-egalitarian" views in both boys and girls Parents and schools that attempt to promote "gender egalitarianism" have had mixed results with preschoolers
Be able to describe evolutionary, biological, cognitive, and environmental theories on the CAUSES of aggression.
Evolutionary theories: Aggression important in animal evolution—often necessary for survival and reproduction Biological theories: Correlation between aggression and level of testosterone Testosterone may indirectly increase aggression by leading to higher activity level Difficulty in attention processes linked to aggression MZ twins have higher concordance rates for aggression than DZ twins Cultural theories: Aggression in children connected to degree to which societies encourage and value aggression For example, boys are more aggressive in societies where males enter military during preadolescent years Environmental theories: Aggression is often rewarded (aggressor often gets what he/she wants; or more attention)
From the textbook: What is a script? Be able to name and describe some common scripts understood by 2 & 3-year-olds. Why are scripts important? How do scripts change with age?
Example "Boy aged 3 years, 1 month: Well, you eat and then go somewhere. Girl aged 4 years, 10 months: Okay. Now, first we go to restaurants at nighttime and we, um, we, and we go and wait for a while, and then the waiter comes and gives us the little stuff with the dinners on it, and then we wait for a little bit, a half an hour or a few minutes or something, and, um, then our pizza comes or anything, and um, then when we're finished eating the salad that we order, we get to eat our pizza when it's done, because we get the salad before the pizza's ready. So then when we're finished with all the pizza and all our salad, we just leave."" Even these simple reports demonstrate that scripts represent generalized knowledge. For one thing, the children are describing general content: They are clearly referring to more than a single, unique meal. The 3-year-old uses the generalized form "you eat" rather than a specific reference to a particular time when he ate. The little girl's introduction ("First we go to restaurants at nighttime") indicates that she, too, is speaking of restaurant visits in general."" Cultural scripts are guides to action. They are mental representations that individuals use to figure out what is likely to happen next in familiar circumstances. Until children have acquired a large repertoire of scripted knowledge from which they can generalize in unfamiliar circumstances, they must pay attention to the details of each new activity."
What are moral rules versus social conventions versus personal rules? Can preschoolers differentiate between them? Do the boundaries vary by culture?
First understanding about "good" and "bad" often related to response they get from others, including parents, siblings, and peers Example: angry parent = naughty child Preschoolers can differentiate among three kinds of rules (Social Domain Theory): Moral Rules (rules related to justice & welfare) Social Conventions (rules important for coordinating social groups) Personal Rules (areas of personal jurisdiction & control) There are cultural variations in the scope of moral vs. conventional rules
What were the main findings from Lagattuta (2005) regarding young children's understanding of emotions in situations where desires conflict with prohibitive rules? At what age do children understand that abiding by rules (willpower) can make a person feel good and that breaking rules (transgression) can make a person feel bad?
How do children reason about the emotional consequences of deciding to inhibit (willpower) versus fulfill desires (transgression) in rule situations? At what age do children realize that people could FEEL GOOD about NOT getting what they want or FEEL BAD about getting what they want? Predictions directly opposite to typical connections between desire fulfillment and emotions Method 4-year-olds, 5-year-olds, 7-year-olds, and adults (N = 64) Desire-rule conflict stories Character wants to do something but it conflicts with a prohibitive rule (e.g., safety) Stories end with the character staying safe (willpower ending) or with the character fulfilling desire (transgression ending). Participants predict emotion (feel good versus feel bad) Test Question: Do you think this kid is feeling good or bad right now?(Kid walking sidewalk; either obeying parents or retrieving ball 7-year-olds and adults predicted that characters would feel positive emotions following willpower decisions and negative emotions after transgression decisions significantly more often than 4- and 5-year-olds
Be able to name and describe several of the early foundations to children's understanding about the mind (e.g., joint attention, social referencing, imitation, dyadic synchrony)
Imitation: using someone as model Attention to eye gaze and intention Social Referencing: Social referencing refers to the process wherein infants use the affective displays of an adult to regulate their behaviors toward environmental objects, persons, and situations. Pointing/Gesturing Joint Attention: Joint attention or shared attention is the shared focus of two individuals on an object. It is achieved when one individual alerts another to an object by means of eye-gazing, pointing or other verbal or non-verbal indications. Desires & Emotions Pretense Dyadic synchrony has been broadly conceptualized as the quality of the parent-child dyadic relationship from infancy to the school-age period
What is the conditioned head turn technique? How is it done?
Infant sits on adult's lap (adult has headphones on) Infant listens to speech sounds over loudspeaker Infant conditioned to turn head toward sound source when the infant detects a change in the sound Rewarded by interesting display
Be able to describe information processing, cultural context, and biological accounts of cognitive development in early childhood.
Information Processing approaches = use analogy of computer to explain cognitive development See development as MORE CONTINUOUS than Piaget With age there are increases in: Attentional control Short-term working memory Long-term memory Speed of processing information Knowledge Base Strategy Use Biological Accounts Immaturity of different parts of brain account for cognitive deficiencies in early childhood Low levels of myelination in hippocampus related to problems in working memory Low levels of myelination in frontal cortex related to difficulties in perspective taking and inhibitory control Cultural Context Make specific activities available(you cannot learn something without being exposed to it) Determine frequency of basic activities (one may become skilled dancer in one culture) Relate different activities to each other (EX: pottery-making can lead to skills in other areas) Regulating child's role in activity (specialized abilities develop)
Who was Genie? What does her life reveal about the importance of early experience for language development? What were some of the ethical problems with how her case was handled?
Isolated from age 2 to 13 •Never developed normal language •Could learn new vocabulary, but syntax especially poor •Questions about mental abilities prior to abuse Issues of ethics in research •Was Genie's well-being sacrificed for scientific inquiry? (Important to make sure she is doing okay. Researchers fostered her. But researchers could not continue and gave her back to her mom.) •Focused on building language instead of social relationships or attachment to others
What is the understanding of dual representation (research by DeLoache)? At what age are young children capable of using a scale model to retrieve an object from a larger room?
Knowledge that a picture or scale model can be BOTH an object itself and a SYMBOL or representation of something else (DeLoache) Developing the ability to perceive pictures as representations or symbols. Young children will often grasp at items in pictures as if they are real (e.g., baby trying to pull his cars off his shirt at 14 months)
Be able to identify evidence for a biological basis for language learning.
Language and mental abnormalities: §Distinctions between language and thought §Williams syndrome: low IQ but adequate language §Localization §Left hemisphere dominant for language in most people §Broca's area (in frontal lobe of LH: productive) §Wernicke's area (in temporal lobe of LH: receptive) §These areas are important for processing both spoken language and sign language (Modern view picture in slide 8 important)
Be able to name, describe, and give an example of the 3 main cognitive principles for word learning (Markman): the whole-object, the categorizing (taxonomic) constraint, and the mutual-exclusivity constraint.
Markman studies §Children don't consider endless possibilities about word meaning §Three cognitive principles help narrow the guesses children make: §Whole object principle §Categorizing principle §Mutual-exclusivity principle §The whole-object principle: §When hear a new word, assume the word refers to the whole object not just one part §The categorizing (taxonomic) principle: §Assume object labels extend to an entire category §e.g., the word "dog" can be applied to not just a family dog, but to other dogs or even (wrongly) to all other four-legged animals. §An object label wouldn't refer to something in a different category. For example, let's say a child does not know the word for leash. The child is not likely to think the word "dog" extends to represent the leash. §Depends on child's knowledge about categories and contrastive terms §The mutual-exclusivity principle: §Assume an object can only have one name—when you hear a new label assume it is for the object you don't know
Contrast mental modules versus skeletal principles.
Mental modules (modularity theory) Cognitive processes consist of separate biological subsystems, hardwired at birth and that do not need special tutoring in order to develop Prodigies: Islands of brilliance in an overall normal level of development (e.g., Mozart) Skeletal principles (theory theory) Provide domain-specific support for development Get a cognitive process started and provide some initial direction, but subsequent experience is needed to realize the potential
Added: What do we learn from Woodward's studies about the connection between verbally labeling and gesturing? Is this connection important for learning novel words?
Need to follow pointing and line of gaze to learn new words. No
How has more recent research challenged Piaget's claims about the quality of children's thinking between the ages of 2 and 6 (e.g., in relation to centration, egocentrism, animism, realism)? Be able to support your answer with research examples (you don't have to know the names of the researchers—just the main findings).
New methods have given new insights Cognition between 2 and 6 is: More sophisticated than Piaget believed More continuous, rather than stage-like More domain-specific, rather than domain general Main Findings 2.5-year-olds typically fail to use the scale model as a symbol of the larger room—cannot successfully retrieve the toy 3-year-olds typically succeed on this task, revealing knowledge that something can be both an object itself and a SYMBOL of something else (achieve knowledge of dual representation) But, if trick children into thinking that the model and the actual room are one and the same then children younger than 3 can pass (e.g., shrinking room study) DeLoache proposed that the problem arises when child's attention is drawn to the SYMBOL as an interesting object on it's OWN—they can't think about the relation to SOMETHING ELSE. No longer an effective SYMBOL when can't link it back to what it's supposed to represent. Shrinking room study—if they thought the room had actually shrunk or enlarged than they could use the scale model to find the Snoopy in the other room. Interesting—have also done it with t.v.—if children think they are seeing a t.v. they won't use the information depicted in the t.v. to find a hidden object. But if they think they are looking through a window at the same information (that they are actually SEEING it—then they do).
At what ages do children make scale errors? What are they doing that is strange? What are some explanations for this behavior?
Occur between 18 and 30 months Child fails to take into account information about size when deciding how to use an object E.g., try to sit on a miniature chair Linked to immaturity in the interaction of two brain systems (1) visual recognition of objects (including categorization and planning of action) (2) perception of object size
Be able to define and give an example of overextensions and underextensions.
Overextensions §= child uses single label to refer to many other entities that share a common form, texture, or function §Examples of overextensions: §Daddy = all men §Kitty = all four-legged animals §Ball = anything round §Kick = sudden sharp contact between limb and object, to propel an object, to wave a limb §Note: Can be helpful in getting expansion or clarification from adults Underextension §= child uses verbal label in a narrower way than adults §Examples §Bottle = only child's own bottle §Dog = only family's dog
What are some sources of individual differences in children's knowledge about the mind? Why?
Parent-Child Interactions Siblings Peers Culture Perceptual Deficits Blindness Deafness Biology
What are overregularized grammar forms? Be able to define and give an example. At what age do children start doing making these errors? Why is the appearance of overregularized words an important indicator of children's language development? Be able to describe how the acquisition of correct grammar forms often takes the form of a U-Shaped development.
Plural (English) §Basic rule = add "s" sound to end of word §The "wugtest" (Berko) §First often correct with regular and irregular forms (women, sheep) §Once they learn rule (about 2-to 3 years of age) they overregularize it (womans, childs) §Around 5-to 7-years they consistently use correct forms Past Tense (English) §Past tense §Add "ed" to end of word §As with plurals, a U-shaped development §At first learn by treating each word separately (jumped, run, went) §Once they have acquired approx. 60-70 verbs (around age 2) they start to recognize rule (= add "ed") and produce overregularized forms (e.g., "goed" instead of "went") §These overregularized forms continue until about 7 years of age Strong evidence that children are EXTRACTING important grammar rules from their language and applying them CREATIVELY (they can even apply them to novel or nonsense words they have never heard before)
Be able to name and describe qualities of preoperational thought—(e.g., centration, egocentrism, animism, precausal reasoning)
Preoperartional thought Approx. ages 2-6 Increase in representational or symbolic activity Development in language, pretense, problem-solving BUT. . .typically described in relation to what young children can't understand—not capable of true mental operations Centration = focus attention on only one aspect at a time; can't coordinate two perspectives Example: conservation tasks Young children don't understand that properties of objects are NOT altered by change in appearance Egocentrism = "to center on oneself"; difficulty in perceiving world from another person's point of view Three Mountains Task Spatial perspective taking Young children wrongly assume other person has same view as their own Precausal reasoning Confuse cause and effect; or reasoning from one particular to another ("It isn't afternoon because I haven't had my nap;" "I'm a grownup because I touched a knife") Animism Endowing inanimate objects with life or psychological states/traits
Be able to describe the development of prosocial behavior in early childhood. How can the environment encourage prosocial behavior?
REINFORCE PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR Aggression decreases if parents, schools, and peers learn to selectively reinforce prosocial behavior in children AND IN CASES OF AGGRESSION give all attention to VICTIM Reinforcing prosocial behavior: "You are doing a great job helping!" DEVELOPMENT OF PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR Connected to perspective-taking, moral reasoning, and empathy development Empathy = sharing of another person's feelings Believed to be an essential foundation to all prosocial behavior Early development 0-1: "emotion contagion" 1-2 yrs: comforting behaviors, "worried attention" 3-5 yrs: expanding repertoire of comforting behaviors (e.g., physical and verbal), better perspective taking and emotion understanding, more frequent comforting behaviors Encouraging Prosocial Behavior Explicit modeling: Adult models prosocial behavior he/she wants child to imitate Induction: Adult gives EXPLANATIONS of what needs to be done and why to help others—appeal to larger goals of "being big," "helping others," "being a kind person" (dispositional praise) Prosocial Behavior Link to Emotion Understanding "Socioemotional Competence" (Saarni) Need to be aware of other people's feelings
How do children learn aggressive behavior through observational learning?
Research by Albert Bandura et al. (1960s) Groups of children watched either: (1) A live adult model, (2) filmed version of adult model, or (3) model dressed as "cartoon cat" attacking an inflatable "Bobo doll" Control group watched non-violent film Results Children imitated the FILMED, LIVE, and CARTOON acts of aggression Aggressive acts in experimental groups significantly higher than children in control group (control group still did do some acts of violence) Later studies showed that imitation of aggression is dependent upon the CONSEQUENCES to the model More likely to imitate aggression if they saw act rewarded OR go unpunished
What do Baldwin's studies reveal about the connection between the development of joint attention skills and language learning in young children?
Research by Baldwin §Experimenter engages toddler with a novel object §While child is looking at object, the experimenter says a novel label ("Oh, look, a dax!") while looking at a different object. §Question: Will child rely assume the label refers to the object that childor the experimenteris looking at? Findings §18-month-olds understand that the word a speaker utters refers to what the speaker is looking at versus what occupies the infant's own attention §18-month-olds will not learn new words if they can't determine the speaker's attentional focus (e.g., word is heard over a loudspeaker) §Strong evidence for the role of joint attention in language learning
What is meant by having a "theory of mind?"
Theory of Mind = KNOWLEDGE ABOUT PEOPLE in terms of their inner, mental lives (e.g., desires, emotions, beliefs, thoughts) Research in the past 20+ years has revealed that several essential components of a "theory of mind" develop in early childhood
What is meant by "domain specificity" in children's thinking?
There are no central, stage-like cognitive changes that apply to all domains Examples: language, math, music, physics, biology, and psychology the last three of these are often called "privileged domains" due to their evolutionary significance
How do transgender children compare to cisgender children in gender identity?
Transgender= expressed gender identity different than gender assigned at birth Cisgender= expressed gender identity corresponds with gender assigned at birth
What are some changes in children's ability to UNDERSTAND and REGULATE their emotions between the ages of 2 and 6?
Understanding Causes of Emotions Starting around age 2-3 young children can pair common situations with basic emotions (e.g., birthday parties = happy; getting hurt = sad) During preschool years, children increasingly understand that (see Lagattuta & Thompson, 2007): People can feel differently about the same situation A person's emotion "on the outside" can be different from how a person "feels inside" That a person's current emotions can be influenced by their pastexperiences and anticipation for the future That emotions can be caused by mental sources such as what a person wants, believes, thinks about, or remembers Regulation of Emotions Between 2 & 6 years children become better able to regulate negative emotion Early ability: Avoidance of negative events (avert eyes, cover ears) Later ability: Use mental strategies such as distraction (thinking most about something else) re-interpretation of event (to make it more positive)
When a child understands "false belief" what important information do they know about the relation between the mind and the world?
Understanding False Belief = Knowledge that a person can "misrepresent" reality, or believe something that is not true Two central measures: Change of location task Unexpected contents task
When does the "language explosion" typically occur in young children? What is fast mapping?
Vocabulary Acquisition §Simplest indication of semantic development §Language "explosion" approx. 18 months §Vocabulary more than doubles within a few months §From 1.5 years to 10 years, children add an average of 10 words per day! §How do they do it so fast with such minimal exposure??
What are some of the characteristics of infant-directed speech? Is this type of speech only present in U.S. cultures? Why might it be helpful for word learning?
§Parents often use infant-directed speech(exaggerated intonations, short simple sentences, pitch peak at end of utterance, repetition) to capture and maintain infant attention §Parents sign more slowly, use more repetitions, and greater exaggeration of movements with their deaf children vs. deaf adult friends §Not universal: Some island tribes rarely speak to babies §Parents often combine gestures with language to help infants learn new words
Be able to contrast productive versus receptive vocabulary—which is larger in infancy/early childhood?
§Productive language = language child produces §Receptive language = language that child comprehends §Receptive language greatly exceeds productive language in infancy and early childhood §Example: §By the time an infant speaks her first words, she understands about 100 words
Are there critical/sensitive periods in language acquisition? What is some research evidence from first language learning and second language learning?
§Research on learning a second language §Cannot acquire the same level of complex grammar, correct accent, or discriminate all phonemes if learn 2nd language after vs. before puberty §Research on language learning and the brain §Language organized differently in the brain for people learning 2nd language "early" versus "late" §Suggest different cognitive processes for late language learning (Early more localized and late is more diffused for learning a language. )
What is statistical learning? How is it studied in infants? How does this newer viewpoint potentially challenge biological theories of language development?
§The human brain has amazing ability to detect statistical regularities in the environment, like speech §From infancy, humans are capable of statistical learning: attending to the statistical regularities of speech sounds, music sounds, etc. §This tracking of sound sequences helps infants locate word boundaries in streams of speech (speakers rarely pause in between words) and learn the structure of language §Syllable combinations that are part of the same word co-occur more frequently than syllable combinations that occur between words Example §Consider the phrase: prettybaby §Prefix pre-more predictive of ty, than ty is of bain the English language §Infants can distinguish between sequences with high and low transitional probabilities §They use this information to identify word boundaries—even in invented languages
Be familiar with Janet Werker's research on infants' ability to detect phonemic contrasts in native versus non-native languages. At what age do these perceptual abilities disappear? Why is a good thing that they do? What is meant by "maintenance-loss?"
•Interested in: •The kinds of perceptual biases infants bring to speech perception •The role that exposure to different languages plays in modifying perceptual sound categories Before a year of age infants are able to distinguish between sounds. After the year of age infants no longer are able to distinguish between sounds. General findings §6-to 8-month-olds can distinguish speech sounds in all of the world's languages (as well as native speakers in those languages) §Will consistently turn head when hear sound that crosses "categorical boundary" §These perceptual abilities start to decline around 8-to 10-months of age, and typically "disappear" around 1 year of age Implications §Illustration of "maintenance-loss" and perceptual narrowing in development: §Perceptual ability is present before onset of experience (e.g., young infants can discriminate speech sounds in languages they have never heard) §Experience is necessary to maintain capability