EPPP I/O Psych Adrienne Habib 2020/2021

Goal setting theory

- Employees are motivated to achieve goals they have consciously accepted and have committed to - An employee's participation in setting goals is not always critical but is necessary when the employee is not likely to accept assigned goals - Specific and moderately difficult goals produce higher levels of productivity - Providing employees with feedback is critical - Goal setting + feedback is superior in terms of improving productivity

Kirkpatrick (1976) distinguishes between four criteria for evaluating training programs

1) Reaction criteria (did you like it?) 2) Learning criteria (did you learn anything? how much?) 3) Behavioral (on the job) criteria (where there any changes in behavior? did you apply anything from your training to the job?) 4) Results criteria (how important is this training to the bottom line goals of the organization? Is the training worth it?). This is the hardest criteria to evaluate.

Methods of Job Analysis

1) job oriented methods: information on the tasks that are performed on the job 2) worker oriented methods: information about knowledge, skills, abilities, other abilities (KSAOs) that a worker needs to perform the job successfully.

Survey feedback

A consultant focuses on employees' attitudes and perceptions and consists of three phases - data collection - feedback meeting -action plan

Holland's theory of career choice

A good personality-job environment match leads to satisfaction, persistence, and productivity (especially for those who are highly differentiated). Highly differentiated means you are more likely to be satisfied with a social job if you are also high in social personality trait. He distinguishes between six personality/job environment types (RIASEC) 1) Realistic (outdoors, park ranger, hands on) 2) Investigate (sciences, looking for answers) 3) Artistic (dancing, painting, writing) 4) Social (do you need to interact with others, clinical psych) 5) Enterprising (do you have an eye for business and growth) 6) Conventional (accountants, sameness from day to day, matching, organization)

Taylor-Russell Tables

A series of tables based on the selection ratio, base rate, and test validity that yield information about the percentage of future employees who will be successful if a particular test is used.

Frame-of-reference (FOR) training

A training method to improve rating accuracy that involves providing raters with a common frame of reference to use when rating individuals

Alternative work schedules

Alternatives to the regular 5-day work week includes the compressed work week (four 10s, three 12s) and flextime (core hours with flexible start and stop times) Research says that compressed work weeks have a positive effect on employee's job performance or absenteeism. There are increased accidents with compressed work weeks, usually occur later in shifts. Flextime has positive impact on employee satisfaction and objective productivity. Decreased absenteeism. Can cause problems related to communication, scheduling, work flow.

House's Path-Goal Theory

An effective leader is one who can help identify a path for employees that allows them to fulfill personal goals through the achievement of group and organizational goals. Primary functions of a leader - clarify goals and the paths that will lead to their achievement - provide rewards to employees through support and attention to their needs Four Leadership Styles 1) Directive: Good for employees with low skills. Gives specific guidelines and rules. 2) Supportive: focused on establishing supportive relationship. What the employee needs from leader. Might be more flexible with hours in order for employee to get to work 3) Participative: involves employee in decision making 4) Achievement-oriented: challenges employees by setting goals. Encourages high levels of performance. Looks for opportunities for growth.

Process consultation

An external consultant focuses on helping members of an organization help themselves by improving their ability to perceive, understand, and alter behaviors that are adversely affecting interactions at work

Adverse impact

As defined in the Uniform Guidelines, a selection test or other employment procedures discriminates against members of a legally protected group (i.e., has an adverse impact) when use of that procedure results in a substantially different selection, placement, or promotion rate for members of that group.

Night shift

Associated with more problems (higher accident rates, poorer work quality, more health problems), but its negative effects may be alleviated by predictability and a sense of control (you chose to work nights). Associated with GI issues, heart problems, etc.

Guided mastery

Bandura recommends the use of guided mastery, which consists of three components 1) modeling 2) skill mastery 3) self-directed application

subjective criterion measures

Categorized as either relative or absolute. 1) relative (comparative) techniques: rater compares performance of two or more employees to each other. Advantage = alleviates rater biases. 2) absolute techniques: provides information on the ratee's performance without reference or comparison to another.

Job Analysis

Collecting information needed to describe job requirements. Results serve as basis for developing criterion measures. Also helps with recruitment, selection, workforce planning, training program design, performance management, identifying causes of accidents and other safety problems.

Summative evaluation

Conducted after the program has been implemented to determine if goals have been met (was it worth it?)

Needs assessment (analysis)

Conducted to determine training needs and includes 1) an organization analysis to identify organizational goals and determine if training is needed to achieve those goals 2) a task (job) analysis to identify what must be done to perform the job 3) a person analysis to determine which employees require training and what knowledge, skills, abilities they need 4) a demographic analysis to identify the training needs of different groups of workers (e.g., older versus younger workers) Example: Needs that came with COVID pandemic and alterations made to continue with college classes

Formative evaluation

Conducted while a program is being developed to determine if modifications are needed (will it be worth it?)

Tiedeman and O'Hara's theory of career development =

EGO IDENTITY

Job evaluation

Emphasizes identifying compensable factors such as skills and education required, degree of autonomy and responsibility, consequences of errors. Job evaluation techniques are often used to establish COMPARABLE WORTH - to ensure that people who are performing work of comparable value receive comparable pay. Ensures that wages are based in each job's inherent value rather than who performs the job or the job title.

Rotating shift

Even worse than the night shift. Associated with the poorest work quality and highest accident and injury rates. Can alleviate by "following the clock" (start with a day shift, swing, night). Have rotations be less than 3 days or very long. This will be least disruptive to the body.

Fielder's Contingency (LPC) Model

Fielder's/LPC = FAVORABLENESS The most effective leadership style depends on the favorableness of the situation, with favorability being determined by the nature of leader-subordinate relations, task structure, and leader's power. Low LPC (task oriented) leaders are best in favorable and very unfavorable situations. High LPC (person oriented) leaders are best in moderately favorable situations Very favorable = highly structured with a lot of oversight, leader has a lot of control Unfavorable = not a lot of delegation or control by the leader

Swing shift

Generally 3-11pm. Mostly impacts social life.

Predictors used in organizations: work samples

Good for predicting what a person can currently do. Can be used as a realistic preview to the job. Also can be used as a trainability test, to see whether a person will benefit from training. Example: asking a prospective applicant for a sample assessment report before the interview

Group norms

Group members can occasionally deviate from group norms when they have accumulated idiosyncrasy credits (meaning they earned their way in and had a history of conforming to group norms, are the leader, or add something valuable to the group). Example: someone who worked at a company for a long time and always worked the mandatory 8-5pm is later able to negotiate working 8-4:45pm to pick up their kids

Group polarization/risky shift

Groups tend to make more extreme decisions than individuals working alone. Group polarization can be more conservative or riskier. Risky shift is about groups making a riskier decision than they would if they were making the decision individually.

Predictors used in organizations: interviews

Has a low validity (.14 to .23), but validity is improved when interview items are empirically derived and the interview is structured.

Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership

Hersey and Blanchard = EMPLOYEE'S ABILITY AND WILLINGNESS Optimal leader style depends on the employee's JOB MATURITY which is determined by their ability level and willingness 1) Telling leader: Has a high task and low relationship style. Best for employee who is low in ability and willingness. (Think of a teenager and his first job) 2) Selling leader: Has a high task and high relationship style. Best for employee who is low in ability and high in willingness. (Think of a young adult who is eager to move up the ranks at entry-level job) 3) Participating leader: Has a low task and high relationship style. Best for employee who is high in ability and low in willingness. (Think of a parent and an older child who is capable of tying shoes but wants parent's help) 4) Delegating leader: Has a low task and low relationship style. Best for employees who are high in ability and high in willingness. (Think of clinical psychologists who work at a college counseling center, boss is hands-off)

EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission)

INDEPENDENT agency created in 1964-works to eliminate employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, gender, disability, age or other criteria unrelated to job performance.

Types of training in an organization

On-the-job: most widely used. Advantages are they permit active participation and ongoing feedback. For example, job rotations used in the training of managers. managers do job rotations to learn other peoples' jobs that they will be supervising. Other examples are internships, apprenticeships. Off-the-job: Advantages are more opportunities to focus on and practice specific job elements, provide supplemental information, use professional trainers, tolerable of learning errors. Example, VESTIBULE TRAINING for pilots. pilots use a simulator to learn to fly planes. Other examples are conferences, lectures, computer-assisted instruction. Another example is BEHAVIORAL MODELING, a person watches a skilled worker perform the target behavior and then practices.

JOB ANALYSIS VERSUS JOB EVALUATION

Job analysis: goal is to clarify the requirements of the job Job evaluation: goal is to determine the relative worth of jobs in order to set salaries and wages.

Lewin's Force-Field Model of Planned Change

LEWIN'S = FREEZING METAPHOR When driving forces become stronger than restraining forces, change is likely to occur. The change process involves three stages 1) Unfreezing (need for change is recognized) 2) Changing (moving organization in that direction, helping employees learn new skills, etc.) 3) Refreezing (supporting changes that were made, help stabilize organization after new changes were implemented).

Characteristics of criterion measures: criterion contamination

Limits relevance and occurs when an actual criterion assess factors other than those it was designed to measure.

Realistic job preview

May include a written description of the job, a video, discussion with current workers, etc. An assumption underlying the uses of RJPs is that disillusionment with the job (that is, a mismatch of expectations and reality) is a primary cause of turnover. Purpose is to reduce unrealistic job expectations, increase job satisfaction and commitment, lower turnover rates

McClelland's Theory of Needs

McClelland described motivation as being determined by three fundamental needs 1) need for affiliation 2) need for achievement 3) need for power (personal versus socialized power)

Social inhibition

More likely when the task is difficult or new. Presence of others will decrease performance.

Learning principles

Most effective: - Active Learning - Distributed (over time) - Providing many examples and identical elements maximizes transfer of training.

Equity theory

Motivation is affected by comparison between our own input/outcome ratio and then input/outcome ratios of comparable others

Potential cause of adverse impact (unfairness)

Occurs when a predictor has similar validity coefficients for both groups but members of one group consistently obtain lower scores on the predictor even though they do well on the criterion. Women consistently get a lower score on a hiring test (the predictor) even though they do well on the actual job (the criterion)

Rater biases: leniency/strictness bias

Occurs when a rater tends to avoid the middle range of a rating scale and instead rates all employees as either high or low.

Group tasks category: conjunctive

On a conjunctive task, the performance of the least competent member places a limit on the group's product or performance. Ex: mountain climbing

Group tasks category: disjunctive

On a disjunctive task, the solution of one member of the group is chosen by the group to be the group's solution

Group task category: Additive

On additive tasks, the coordinated efforts of several people add together to form the group product

Types of Criterion Measures

Organizations use a variety of criterion measures to assess employee performance. 1) objective (direct) measures: quantitative measures of production. Units produced, sold, etc. can also be things like tardiness, accidents, absenteeism. Can be inadequate. May be biased to situational factors. Also does not assess things like cooperating with coworkers or motivation. 2) subjective measures: most frequently used. Usually takes form of ratings that reflect judgement of the rater. Ratings by employee's immediate supervisor are most common. Self ratings are most lenient but less susceptible to halo bias. Supervisor ratings are generally most reliable. Peer ratings are good at predicting training success and subsequent promotions.

Social facilitation

Performance will increase when there is the presence of others and the task is well-learned or easy

Rational-economic model (Simon, 1979)

Proposes that decision makers maximize benefits by considering all possible alternatives before choosing the optimal one. Rational = logic, economic = money. It is worth the time and money to make the best decision

Bounded rationality model (AKA administrative model) (Simon, 1979)

Proposes that limited information, time, and resources, cause decision-makers to be less than totally rational and, as a result, they "satisfice" rather than "optimize". Will take the option that meets the minimum due to restraints of time and money. Think of the football team who replaces the first quarterback with the next available. Not going to go through the whole process of hiring new quarterback in the middle of a season.

Expectancy theory

Proposes that motivation is a function of three beliefs - 1) expectancy (effort leads to performance) 2) instrumentality (performance leads to outcomes) 3) valence (value of the outcomes, rewards) Ex: Polly was promised when she was hired that if she had good job performances she would be given a raise, but she did not receive a raise. According to expectancy theory, the belief most disrupted would be instrumentality. Her performance did not lead to outcomes.

Rater Biases: Central Tendency Bias

Rater's consistent use of only the middle range of the rating scale

Alderfer's ERG Theory

Reduced Maslow's needs to three 1) existence 2) relatedness 3) growth - Alderfer proposed people may be motivated by more than one need at a time, the activation of needs does not always progress from lower - to higher-level needs. People may regress to a lower level when a need is frustrated.

Characteristics of criterion measures: relevance

Refers to the actual criterion's construct validity. Degree to which it measures the ultimate criterion.

Characteristics of criterion measures: deficiency

Refers to the degree to which and actual criterion does NOT measure all aspects of the ultimate criterion, limits of relevance.

Incremental validity

Refers to the increase in decision-making accuracy an employer will achieve by using the predictor to make selection decisions. An important contributor to a measure's incremental validity is its validity coefficient.

Brainstorming

Research has found that individuals working alone generate more and better ideas than the same number of individuals working together as a group

Super's career development theory =

SELF CONCEPT

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Satisfaction and motivation arise from two different factors 1) Hygiene (job context) factors that cause dissatisfaction when they are absent (ex: having a window in your office, having a decent salary, working normal 9-5 hours) 2) Motivator (job content) factors that foster satisfaction and motivation when they are present. The theory underlies the notion of job enrichment. In order to have job enrichment - both elements need to be there. More likely to feel neutral about a job if there is good hygiene but not motivators.

Group task category: compensatory

The average of the contributions of all members of the group represent the group product

Vroom and Yetton's Normative (Contingency) Model

The best decision making style depends on certain characteristics of the situation. The model provides a decision tree to help a leader chose the best style. 1) Autocratic One (AI): The leader makes the decision alone. 2) Autocratic Two (AII): The leader seeks input from employees but then makes the final decision. 3)Consultative One (CI): The leader explains the problem to each employee on a one-to-one basis, but the leader's decision may or may not reflect input from the employees. 4) Consultative Two (CII): The leader explains the problem to employees as a group, but the leader's decision may or may not reflect input from the employees. 5) Group (G): The leader explains the problem to employees as a group, and the group makes the final decision.

Super's life-space, life-span theory

The job that fits the person's self-concept (values, interests, personality) leads to satisfaction and success. Super's theory involves the following concepts 1) SELF-CONCEPT: a picture of the self in some role, situation, or position, performing some set of functions, or in some web of relationships. Changes over an individual's life span but becomes more stable with age. 2) LIFE SPAN: Super distinguishes between five life stages in career development. He describes the ability to accomplish the tasks of each stage as "career maturity". - growth - exploration - establishment - maintenance - disengagement 3) LIFE SPACE: the various social roles an individual adopts at different times in their life (Life-career rainbow).

Predictors used in organizations: cognitive ability tests

The most valid predictors across different jobs and job settings ( r = .53 to .75). General mental (cognitive) ability tests

Total Quality Management (TQM)

The primary focus of TQM is on the continuous improvement of the quality of the organization's good and services and employees' quality-of-work-life. Example: surveys given after seminars, surveys from USPS.

Group think

The suspension of critical thinking. It is most likely to occur in a very COHESIVE GROUP that has a DIRECTIVE LEADER. Groupthink can be reduced by encouraging criticism (having a devil's advocate) and making sure the leader does not recommend a solution early in the decision-making process. Remember Cuban missile crisis and bay of pigs.

Social loafing

The tendency for an individual to exert less effort as a group member than when working alone. More likely to occur with a LARGE GROUP WITH LOW GROUP COHESION. Think of the freeloader when a group of friends pays the bill at a restaurant.

Predictors used in organizations: biodata (biographical information)

The validity is only somewhat lower than that of cognitive ability tests the items are empirically derived.

Ohio leadership studies

These studies identified two basic dimensions of leadership 1) initiating structure (task oriented) 2) consideration (person oriented)

Transformational versus transactional leaders

Transformational leaders: typically geared towards change, innovation, looking ahead, visionary. Bottom up communication. Transactional leaders: focused on stability, production. Top down communication.

Rating techniques: forced choice rating scale

Type: absolute Each item in a forced choice rating scale consists of 2-4 alternatives that are considered to be about equal in terms of desirability. The rater selects the alternative that best or least describes the ratee.

Rating techniques: Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)

Type: absolute When developing BARS, supervisors/others familiar with the job... 1) identify several independent dimensions of job behavior (job knowledge, motivation) 2) identify several behavioral anchors (critical incidents) for each dimension 3) order and number the behavioral anchors within each dimension from least to most positive or desirable. advantages: because it uses critical incidents it can easily be used to provide employees with specific feedback, increased inter-rater reliability, reduces rater bias disadvantages: time consuming to create.

Rating techniques: critical incident

Type: absolute A supervisor creates a checklist of outstanding and poor performance by observing employees. Uses checklist to evaluate the ratee. Good for employee feedback. Requires close supervision of employees and only addresses extreme job behaviors.

Rating techniques: paired comparison

Type: relative Rater compares each ratee with every other ratee in pairs. Can be cumbersome.

Rating techniques: forced distribution

Type: relative Similar to grading on a curve. Assigning ratees to a limited number of categories based on predefined normal distribution (lowest 10%, highest 10%). May yield erroneous data of performance of ratees is not actually normally distributed

Characteristics of criterion measures: ultimate versus actual criterion

Ultimate criterion: conceptual or theoretical criterion. An accurate and complete measure of performance. Actual criterion: way that performance is actually measured. Example: for a psychotherapist the ultimate criterion is to provide effective therapy services. The actual criterion is a client survey of their satisfaction.

Responding to adverse impact due to differential validity

Use a different predictor that is equally valid for both groups or don't use that predictor for that specific group.

Responding to adverse impact due to unfairness

Use different predictor cutoff scores for members of the two groups OR Demonstrate that continued use of the predictor is both job-related and a business necessity. For example: gender differences with arm strengths. firefighters need a minimum level of strength to move firehose. it is a necessity of the job to test how well firefighters can move the firehouse (predictor cutoff score) but it does have an adverse impact on females.

80% Four-fifths Rule

Used to determine if a procedure is having an adverse impact. To use this rule, the hiring rate of the majority group is multiplied by .80 (80%) to obtain a minimum hiring rate for the minority group. Example: Hiring rate for men = 70% Hiring rate for women = 40% .70 x .80 = .56 (this is the acceptable hiring rate for women)

Predictors used in organizations: Assessment centers

Used to select, promote, and train managerial level employees. incorporates a number of techniques including situational testing (e.g., the in-basket). In-basket technique requires participants to take action on letters, memos, brief reports. etc.

Predictors used in organizations: Personality tests

Useful as a screening device for high stress jobs. Commonly used is the "Big Five" personality traits (OCEAN). Openness to experience Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism . Conscientiousness correlates most highly with performance across different jobs.

Rater biases: Halo Bias

When a rater's evaluation of an employee on one dimension of job performance affects his/her evaluation of that employee on other unrelated dimensions or when the rater's general impression of an employee influences how the rater rates the employee on all dimensions of job performance. Can be either positive or negative halo effect.

Adverse impact due to unfairness

When members of a group consistently obtain lower scores on the predictor that members of another group, but the difference in predictor scores is NOT related to differences in scores on the criterion. Think of a scatter plot with both shapes for men and women being ellipses. However, the ellipsis for women is to the left, indicating lower predictor scores.

Day shift

generally 7-3pm or 8-4pm. We as humans are the best match with the day shift. We work best with day shift.

Expectancy theory: valence refers to...

the desirability of outcomes (rewards)

Differential validity

occurs when 1) there is a significant difference in the validity coefficients obtained for subgroups (e.g., ethnicity, gender) 2) the correlations found in one or both of these groups are significantly different from zero. Example: women who obtained a low score on the predictor were just as likely to obtain an acceptable score on the criterion as were women who obtained a high score on the predictor. Scores on predictors are unrelated to criterion scores.

Expectancy theory: instrumentality refers to...

the belief that successful performance will lead to positive outcomes (rewards)

Base rate

the percent of employees who are performing satisfactorily without the use of proposed predictor and ranges in value from 0 to 1.0. Moderate base rates (close to .50) are associated with the greatest incremental validity

Selection ratio

the ratio of job openings to job applicants. (Ex: one job opening for every 50 applicants). A low ratio is preferable.

Expectancy theory: expectancy refers to...

the relationship between effort and performance (high effort means good performance)