Euro Unit Test 4

Unification of Germany: Realpolitik

German liberalism revived after 1848 revolution, King Frederick William granted Prussian constitution 1850 that established two house parliament, lower house was to be elected by universal male suffrage, series of edicts modified the electoral system to preserve power of traditional elites, edicts divided voters into three classes based on amount of taxes they paid, votes were apportioned accordingly, so small amount of the population elected one third of the government, large landowners or wealthy industrialists had about 17x voting power, voting took place in public orally

Darwinian Theory and Religion

Darwinian theory challenged deeply held religious beliefs, wasn't atheist, wasn't trying to make a rift with religion, sparked a debate on the existence of God, we are not special, take away idea that God created us and that we are special, for Darwin world was not governed by order, harmony, and divine will but by random chance and struggle, Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895), argued against Christians appalled by the implications of Darwinism, called himself an agnostic, opposed to all dogma, you should follow reason as far as it can take you

German Revisionism

Eduard Bernstein (1850-1932) called for a shift to moderate reform, look at the conditions, need to keep acting through political system we have, violent revolution isn't needed, making gradual changes, accepted by moderate Marxist, but called revisionist by extreme, said lost true faith of Marxism, said need to keep fighting for rights, any winning through political reforms don't need the violence, German radicals, Rosa Luxembourg (1870-1919) called for mass strikes, hoping to ignite a proletarian revolution, conflict over strategy and tactics reached its climax in the years before World War I

Great Game & Japanese - Russian Relations

Russia championed idea of annexation of bordering lands, Great Game: maneuvering, spying and support of friendly puppet governments by Russia and Britain, moving around Middle East area, trying to get each other out, bribe and sign contracts with local rulers, don't want to lose poppy production or the safety of India, also expanded east, traded islands with Japan, eastward advance halted when came against Japanese expansion, Russo-Japanese War 1904 Russia was beaten badly despite fighting hard, national humiliation provoked revolt and led to American brokered peace treaty in 1905, proved European powers weren't the only ones

The Populists

Russia to modernize on its own terms, not those of the West, based on the ancient village commune (mir), mostly middle class, students, and women, overthrowing the tsar through anarchy and insurrection, dedicated their lives to the people, read Marx's Capital and emphasized peasant socialism

Turkish Nationalism

Turks had grown impatient with weakness of the sultan, the Young Turks, forced the sultan to establish a constitutional government in 1908, Mohammed V (1909-1918) came to the throne, launched effort to "Ottomanize" all imperial subjects, tried to bring Christian and Muslim communities under more centralized control, spread Turkish culture

New Unionism

labor unions evolved into mass, centralized, national organizations, organization across whole industries, brought unskilled workers into the ranks, gave labor power to negotiate wages and conditions of work, provided the framework for the socialist mass party

Popular Revolts in Italian Unification

March 1848 popular revolts broke out in Venetia and Lombardy fueled by anger at Austrian occupation, Milan people marched on palace of Austrian governor general calling for reforms, Venice revolutionaries forced Austrian troops out of the city and declared a republic, Charles Albert provided revolutionaries with military support and took up Italian nationalism, Albert also please liberals by creating an elected legislature and relaxing press censorship, August 1848 popular revolt of laborers broke out in Bologna, challenged authority of pope in Papal States

Two Schools of Thought on Building Russia

Slavophiles or Romantic Nationalists: sought to preserve Russia's distinctive features, idealized traditional Russian culture and peasant commune, rejected Western secularism, urban commercialization and middle-class culture, Westernizers: wanted Russia to adopt European developments in science, technology and education, believed these were foundation of Western liberalism and protection of individual rights

French Impressionism

attempted to objectively record natural phenomena, more fuzzy, get an impression, lot of serious artists didn't like it at the time but still popular, more recognition of what is happening in French society, see creation of the weekend and leisure time, picnics, exclusive to Paris, during Paris Commune, artists very popular among society, captured the transitory play of light on surfaces, legacies of Claude Monet (1840-1926) and Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841-1919) who paved the way for younger artists to experiment more freely, impressionist artists organized their own independent exhibitions

Colonial Cultures

growth of Bombay, Calcutta, and Shanghai, colonialism created new hybrid cultures, annexed areas as laboratories for creating orderly and disciplined societies, worry over preserving national traditions and identity, should education be Westernized?, fraternization with indigenous peoples might undermine European power, sexual relations, compromises about "acceptability"

Jeremy Bentham

major British liberal, wrote "The Principles of Morals and Legislation", illustrated how liberalism continued the Enlightenment legacy and transformed it, didn't believe human interests were naturally harmonious or that a stable social order could emerge naturally from a body of self-interested individuals, proposed that society adopt organizing principle of utilitarianism, social institutions and laws measured according to social usefulness, according to whether they produced greatest happiness of greatest number, acknowledged importance of individual, each best understood his or her own interests and was best left free to pursue those interests, only when interest of one person conflicted with interests or happiness of the greatest number could individual freedom be curtailed, practical spirit of utilitarianism made it popular, Bentham went further than most liberals, befriended Jacobins and believed in granting equal rights to women, utilitarianism: all about utility and function, greatest good for greatest number of people, example was the expansive British sewage system, backing up with evidence to support the spending

Limit of Success in Socialist Parties

never gained full worker support, some workers retained loyalty to liberal traditions or religious affiliation, others were excluded, Social Democrats, left wing looking for government regulation to help working class, what constituted the working class?

Imperialism

new imperialism was different by scope, intensity and long range consequences, transformed cultures, landscapes, states, idea that elimination of geographic barriers opened whole world to power of the West, fierce competition among nations upset balance of power, expression of European strength but also destabilizing, process of extending control over another

Development of Ideas of Race and Blood Purity

new prominence to racial thinking, Court Arthur de Gobineau "Inequality of Races", said race was master key for understanding world's problems, connection between nation and race, race about what nation you are part of

Italian Unification: Cavour and Garibaldi

two strategies for achieving statehood, one group supported by Mazzini and follower Giuseppe Garibaldi, envisioned republican Italy built from below with popular uprising, second group was more moderate nationalist wanted to unify Italy as constitutional monarchy, would be under leadership of kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, more conservative, wanted to steer clear of democracy and destabilizing forces that go with it, Charles Albert had drawn attention of Italian nationalists after took up anti-Austrian cause, son Victor Emmanuel brought a dude who would embody conservative vision of nationhood: Sardinian nobleman Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, represented two different routes to unification: from below or from above, most of peninsula after Garibaldi's cession was united under one ruler and Victor Emmanuel took the title of king of Italy

"The Principles of Realpolitik Applied to the Conditions of Germany"

1853 written by August Ludwig von Rocha, banished idealism and revolutionary fervor, vision of realpolitiks: practical, realistic politics, finding ways to achieve and maintain power was more important than moral or ideological goals like justice and freedom, rejected aspirations of earlier generations of liberal reformers who thought progress depended on constitutions and Enlightenment ideas of rights, captured changing outlook of broad sections of German middle class, watchword of 1850s and 60s, most closely associated with deeply conservative and pragmatic Otto von Bismarck, Bismarck would go on to be known for skillful diplomacy and power politics

Russia under Nicholas I

Nicholas went on to rule and became Europe's most uncompromising conservative, created a powerful political police force called the Third Section to prevent more domestic disorder, slight growth of the middle-class, bureaucracy did become more centralized, more efficient and less dependent on the nobility, made the complex legal system more systematic and uniform, new Code of Law which re-categorized every law passed since 1648 and published it in 48 volumes, landowners responded to increased demand for grain by reorganizing their estates to increase productivity, state began to build railroads to transport grain to Western markets

Changes of more liberal parliament

abolished slavery in British colonies in 1838, repeal of the Corn Laws in 1846 this was a significant example of middle class power, corn laws protected landowners and farmers from foreign competition by establishing tariffs for imports, kept bread prices high, middle class more saw this as an unfair protection of aristocracy and pushed for a repeal in the name of free trade, helped people eat, move towards laissez-faire, Anti-Corn Law League had meetings throughout the north of England and lobbied Parliament, eventually resulted in a repeal of the law and a free-trade policy that lasted until 1920s

Direct Rule

annex territories outright and subjugated the people, south east coast of Africa

Realism

art continues to look realistic with Romantic, but subjects change, more serious subjects, more common life subjects, not romanticized, a realistic view of life, here is a funeral, not a lot of crazy symbolisms, more straight forward, scenes of people working, common man doing work, worst and hardest work being done, lowest of work, working class scenes, recognition that this is what life is like

Social Welfare in Prussia

attempt to appeal to the working class, most comprehensive and generous welfare program in the world to that point, social safety net, catching people before they fall too fall, workers guaranteed sickness and accident insurance, rigorous factory inspection, limited working hours for women and children, old-age pensions, social security, wouldn't be a burden on the family, disability insurance, unemployment pensions, provided protections to workers, social welfare legislation did not win the loyalty of workers, more joined social democrat party

Reform in Great Britain

became one of the most liberal nations in Europe, slow reform, evenly moving along, end of the wars brought agricultural depression in Britain, low wages, unemployment, bad harvests, contributed to social unrest, big demonstrations in the streets, big one in London, new industrial towns radical middle-class people joined with workers in demanding increased representation in Parliament, radicals condemned Peterloo in 1819 and criticized army for turning against own citizens, Parliament passed Six Acts in 1819, attempts to suppress freedoms, outlawed seditious literature, increased stamp tax on newspapers, allowed house searches, restricted rights of assembly, political leaders reversed opposition to reform in response to pressure, 1820 Catholics and dissenters gain the right to vote, by 1830 many more organizations arose and some clashed with army and police, shopkeepers announced they would withhold taxes and form a national guard, country appeared to be on a verge of general disorder, Lord Grey was head of Whig Party and took the opportunity to push reform

Goethe and Beethoven

both marked transition between 18th century artistic movements that focused on order and harmony to crazy and disruptive emotions of 19th century, embraced cult of individual heroism, sympathized with Romantic view of nature and represented different aspects of search for new ways of seeing and hearing, sought a new way of expressing emotion and sent 19th century art in a new direction

Impact of WWI

brings the political parties all together, everything is thrown behind government efforts no matter their ideas, throw everything in because of nationalism, every major power were on verge of civil unrest in the working class, used to bring in the working classes under the flag, join together

New Technologies and Global Transformations

called the Second Industrial Revolution, big players: Britain, Germany, USA, new technologies: steel, electricity and chemicals, liquid-fuel internal combustion engine, by 1914 most navies had converted from coal to oil, discovery of oil fields in Russia, Borneo, Persia, and Texas, discovering the potential for worldwide industrialization, improvements in public health, get rid of infestations, modern medicines, figuring out where diseases come from, switch from steam to oil, big naval arms race, helps contribute to WWI

Consumption in the Era

consumption as a center of economic activity and theory, appearance of the department store, modern advertising, credit payments, can buy things on store credit, makes luxury goods more affordable, invention of department stores, mix of luxury and almost luxury quality stuff, developments in advertising, marketing departments that target specific consumers, create demand for things that wasn't there before, things are more available to middle class and some working class (nice plates), making them think they need it, people are always trying to imitate the class above, more convenience items like washing machines and dryers, limited to urban and developed areas, Russia, Spain, southern Italy don't see as much of these affects, rural areas are still traditional, new patterns of consumption were decidedly urban

Nicholas II (1868-1918, r. 1894-1917)

continued these "counter reforms", advocated Russification to extend the language, religion, and culture of Greater Russia, pogroms and open anti-Semitism

Syndicalism

demanded that workers share ownership and control of the means of production, capitalist state must be replaced by workers' syndicates or trade associations

New Form of Slavery

despite slavery and the slave trade having been banned throughout Europe, appalling work conditions for Africans, no real medicine or sanitation, eventually treatment was publicized and 1908 Belgium forced to take control, have a new store of raw materials with methods using everything but the name of slavery

Hungry Forties

deteriorating economic climate was key factor to outbreak of revolutions, poor harvests in early 1840s were followed by two years of complete grain harvest failure, potato blight brought starvation in Ireland and Hunger in Germany, food prices doubled and bread riots broke out, cyclical industrial slowdown that spread across Europe and put many into unemployment, starving peasants and unemployed laborers swamped public relief organizations, 1846-47 worst in entire century in terms on want and human suffering, for this reason called "Hungry Forties", attested to governments' abilities to manage a crisis and failure made a ruler seem illegitimate, public relief floundered and troops repressed potato riots regimes armed middle-class to protect themselves against the poor, governments looked authoritarian and inept, already had lots of political challenges: liberals wanting constitutional government and limits on royal power, republicans campaigned for universal manhood suffrage, nationalists challenged legitimacy of hereditary rulers, socialists claim to speak for most economically vulnerable of the population, political challenged reinforced by economic crisis, result was a wave of revolutions as governments lost the confidence of their people, first of the revolutions was in France

Austrian Empire

diverse collection of people and ethnicities, all infected with nationalism, all want their own countries or autonomy in their countries, Hapsburgs try to make it more unified by making them German, make them print in German and teach German in schools, only makes middle class write and speak occasionally in German but in their own languages for everything else, nationalism is cause and failure of these revolutions, no unity among these groups, divide between class lines, peasants hate lords and look to Habsburg as protectors, outbreaks occur from middle class but not supported by peasants, also good at dividing and conquering, Hungary: one region it almost works, biggest part of Austria, most unified in class and languages, seize control and almost have autonomy rule under Habsburgs, lasts for a few months and then crushed by huge Russian army because of Holy Alliance, Kossuth stepped up his campaigns against the Metternich system of Habsburg autocracy and control, demanded representative institutions, autonomy for the Hungarian Magyar nation, Vienna: popular movement of students and artisans, demanded political and social reforms, built barricades and attacked the imperial palace, Central Committee of Citizens, Metternich fled to Britain, government concessions, male suffrage and single house of representatives, withdrew troops from Vienna, worked toward the abolition of serfdom, yielded to Czech demands in Bohemia, Italian liberals and nationalists attacked empire's territories in Naples and Venice, paradox of nationalism, no cultural or ethnic majority could declare its independence without prompting rebellion elsewhere, student- and worker-led insurrection in Prague (May 1848), Austrian troops sent to restore order, Slav congress disbands, March Laws: Hungarian parliament abolished serfdom and noble privilege, established freedom of the press and of religion, changed suffrage requirements, enfranchised small-property holders, provoked opposition from Croats, Serbs, and Romanians within Hungary, Austrian government appointed anti- Magyar Josip Jelacic as governor of Croatia, Kossuth severed all ties between Hungary and Austria, Franz Joseph asked Nicholas I of Russia for military support, Hungarian revolt was crushed (August 1849), liberal government capitulated on October 31, 1849, reestablished censorship, disbanded the National Guard and student organizations, 25 revolutionary leaders went to the firing squad, Kossuth exiled himself to Turkey

Rise of the Corporation

economic growth and demands of mass consumption spurred the reorganization of capitalist institutions, modern corporation appeared, limited-liability laws, stockholders would only lose their share value in the event of bankruptcy, middle classes now considered corporate investment promising, limited liability corporation, can't lose more than you invested, size and control, larger corporations became necessary for survival, control shifted from the family to distant bankers and financiers, ethos of impersonal finance capital, demand for technical expertise, undercut traditional forms of family management, university-trained engineers, white-collar class: middle-level salaried managers, neither owners nor laborers, consolidation would protect industries from cyclical fluctuations and unbridled competition, vertical integration: industries controlled every step of production, from acquisition of raw materials to distribution of finished goods, Andrew Carnegie's steel company in Pittsburgh, horizontal integration: organized into cartels, non competition pact, own territories, companies in the same industry would band together, fixing prices and controlling competition, coal, oil, and steel were particularly well adapted, Rockefeller's Standard Oil, make sure that companies that are already there remain, no one else gets into the game, circumventing supply demand and competition, monopolies: very rich people try to build and dominate industries, public and private relations, governments with private firms come together to work on something, sometimes good (Suez and Panama Canals), business people getting involved in government and maintaining position in company, encourages imperialism especially if don't pay for it directly, can guarantee market or resources very support it, dominant trend was increased cooperation between government and industry, appearance of businessmen and financiers as officers of state

Chemicals

efficient production of alkali and sulfuric acid, transformed manufacture of paper, soaps, textiles, and fertilizer, British led the way in soaps and cleaners and in mass marketing, German production focused on industrial uses—synthetic dyes and refining petroleum, fertilizer, used in internal combustion engines, plane fuels, DDT miracle for lice and bed bugs

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

enormous influence with early novel "The Passions od Young Werther" 1774, story of young man's failure in love and eventual suicide, brought young author international fame, many people sympathized with the man character and probably missed the point about self-destructiveness of the cult of feeling, rumors indicated fascination that the emotionally complex character exerted over the reading public, significance of the novel was author's ability to capture the longing many felt for something more meaningful than life in strict conformity with social expectations, revealed new sense of self and aspirations for self-fulfillment, wrote "Faust" and published right before his death, retold German story of a man who sold his soul to the devil for eternal youth and universal knowledge, more classical in tone but still expressed Romantic concern with spiritual freedom and humanity's daring in probing life's divine mysteries

Ideologies Together

eventually conservatives, liberals and republicans recognized power of nationalism by trying to describe vision of a nation that went along with their core principles, conservatives linked dynastic ruling families and aristocratic elites to national traditions embodied in history of territorially rooted peasant cultures and traditional rulers, liberals and republicans praised a nation as a body of free citizens, Marxist socialists rejected claims of nationalists and said interest of social classes trumped national identity, conservatism, liberalism, republicanism, socialism and nationalism were principal political ideologies of early 19th century, rooted in 18th century but brought to forefront by political turmoil, some ideologies were continuations of French Revolutionary trio: liberty (from arbitrary authority), equality (or end of legal privilege) and fraternity (creation of new communities by citizens), conservatism was a reaction to the French Revolution

New Readers and the Popular press

facilitated the spread of new ideas, rising literacy rates and new forms of printed mass culture, journalism: emphasis on the sensational, advertising, "Yellow" journalism—entertainment, sensationalism, and the news

1830 Revolution in France

first big blow against the Concert of Europe, returned Bourbons to the throne, Louis XVIII claimed absolute power but granted a "charter" and conceded some important rights like legal equality, careers open to talent and two chamber parliamentary government, voting rights excluded most citizens, narrow base of support with sting of military defeat, nostalgia for glorious Napoleonic past and memories of the revolution undermined the Restoration, 1824 Louis XVIII was succeeded by more conservative Charles X who reigned 1824-30, pleased ultra-royalists by pushing assembly to compensate nobles whose land was taken and sold in the revolution but this angered property holders, restored Catholic Church to traditional place in schools which brought discontent with liberals, revokes the charter with July Ordinances, liberals started to organize opposition movement in Parliament, economic troubled encouraged opposition, worried police reports documented widespread unemployment, hunger and anger, confronted with the evidence of the regime's unpopularity Charles called for an elections, election went against him he tried to overthrow the Parliament with July Ordinances of 1830, dissolved new assembly before it even met, restricted suffrage more and announced strict press censorship, response was a revolution, Parisian workers, artisans and students took to the streets in three days of street battles, press was crucial to the spread of the movement which defied censors and quickly spread news of confrontations between protesters and forced of order, ultimately army was unwilling to fire on the crowd and Charles was forced to abdicate, leaders of the revolution opted for stability by crowning Duke of Orleans Louis-Philippe as a constitutional monarch, will be in charge until the next French revolution, called bourgeois king he will appeal to all levels, will be very popular at first, no intervention because the ruler was still royal, called July Monarchy, doubled number of voters although voting was still based on steep property requirements, propertied classes benefitted the most from the revolution, brought common people back into politics and revived memories of 1789, suggested that history was moving in a new direction and political landscape had changed since Congress of Vienna

Early Stages of Italian Unification

hadn't been united since Roman Empire, at beginning of 19th century was a patchwork of small states, Austria occupied northern states of Lombardy and Venetia most urban and industrial, Hapsburgs controlled Tuscany, Parma and Modena which extending Austrian influence, independent Italian states was southern kingdom of Two Sicilies governed by members of Bourbon family and Papal states ruled by Pope Gregory XVI and Piedmont-Sardinia ruled by Charles Albert of House of Savoy, Charles had no commitment to creating Italian national state, by virtue of Sardinia's economic power, geographical location and long tradition of opposition to Habsburgs the state played central role in nationalist and anti-Austrian politics, many liberals shared commitment to creating single Italian state but not the enthusiasm for people and popular movements, hoped instead to merge existing governments into a constitutional monarchy or government under pope, Mazzini's insistence on democratic republic committed to social and political transformation struck pragmatic liberals as utopian, saw well to do middle class people as dangerous, political turmoil raised hopes for political and social change, divided goals but shared common hope that national unification might get them the reforms, popular uprising in Rome confronted Pope directly and February 1849 new government in Rome declared itself a republic, March 1849 Mazzini came from exile to join movement in Rome but the movement wasn't coordinated or successful, over months Austrians gained upper hand in the North, French forces under Louis Napoleon intervened in Rome and Papal States, fierce resistance from Roman republicans and Giuseppe Garibaldi, still managed to restore pope's power and defeat the republic, Venetian Republic was last to fall after blockade and artillery bombardment from Austrian army in August 1849, uprisings raised hopes of nationalists who spoke of Italian resurgence

William II (1859-1941, r. 1888-1918)

his father dies, he takes over, forces Bismarck to resign, wants to be in charge, has weird fascination with socialism, very militaristic but also very into socialism (for an emperor), wants to be emperor of the people, more willing to work with social democrats, suspended antisocialist legislation in 1890 and legalized the SPD

Role of History in Marxism

history was pushed by class conflicts in economic and political reorganization, on economic or material base of society, identified industrial laborers as revolutionary class, comes from an interpretation that everything comes down to materialism, who owns stuff and who doesn't, people who own property control government and labor

Congo Free State of Belgium

inner part of Africa had been out of bounds for Europeans, rivers made difficult to more inland and lethal tropical diseases, new target was valley around Congo river, financed by Belgians paid by king Leopold II, followed steps of Henry Morton Stanley inspired creation of society of researchers on African culture, academy from Brussels set up treaties with local elites which opened the area, now had access to palm oil and natural rubber and possibility of diamonds, Congo Free State run by Leopold private company, region opened to unrestricted exploitation, huge tracts of land became mines and plantations

Cavour was the Brain

smart enough to politically unite people of different sides to fight for his view of unification, got Sardinia involved in other issues that put them in a good position to have powerful allies, pursued ambitious and pragmatic reforms guided by the state, was prime minister, depended on diplomacy, bit like Machiavelli and Richelieu

Informal Imperialism

less visible, stronger states allow weaker ones to maintain independence in return for reducing sovereignty, carving zones of sovereignty and privilege like treaty ports in states, best example is China, carved into states to claim but don't get rule but get special treatment, have control but not legal or conquest

Whig Party

liberals, new industrial middle class and radical artisans that argued passionately for reform, not necessarily democrats but had common cause with organized middle-class and working-class radicals to push reform, Birmingham banker Thomas Atwood organized Political Union of the Lower and Middle classes of the Peace

Independence Movement Overview

likely to succeed when they took advantage of conflict between great powers or when movements aligned with Europe's competition, Metternich's ability to prevent spread of nationalism and liberalism depended on repressive political regimes that didn't tolerate open expressions of dissent, containing movements for political and social change would eventually be impossible

French Revolution of 1848: A Republican Experiment

monarchy after 1830 was not much different than before, many demands to enlarge franchise and prime minister said everyone was free to acquire enough property to qualify, building projects like railways gave lots of opportunities for graft and reputation of government suffered, protest movements as republican societies proliferated in cities, frequently called the "bourgeois king", because follows Britains lead and goes into industrialization and laissez-faire, pleasing for upper middle class, Guizet: Philippe's prime minister, told people who complained about property requirement for voting it was their fault and they should make the money in order to be able to vote, France has limited industrial resources (coal, iron), they harvest aggressively, polarizing figure and suppressed political clubs, 1834 government declared the organizations illegal, rebellions broke out in Paris and Lyon and brought harsh repression that resulted in death and arrests, government refusal to compromise drove moderates into opposition, 1847 organized campaigned for electoral reform around repeated political banquets which was attempt to get around laws against assembly, called for giant banquet February 22, 1848 and king banned the meeting, sudden and surprising popular revolution in the streets caused Louis-Philippe to abdicate the throne, hastily assembled group of political figured declared France a republic, provisional government was made of liberals, republicans and socialists, produced a new constitution with elections based on universal male suffrage, one of their first acts was abolition of slavery in France and French colonies, tensions between propertied republicans and socialists broke the unity of the coalition, workers were suffering from the economic crisis and demanded the right to earn a living wage, elected a very political diverse government - everyone except, first time socialists are included, important - they take on a ton of socialist, Louis Napoleon comes back, appeals to wide range of citizens, conservationists: provides stability, liberals: stability and laissez-faire economics, peasants: incorporates Church more into French society, important because he represents a new conservative style of leadership, first to change the nature of conservatism in Europe, move towards conservatism that is pro-business that appeals to middle class, first to embrace nationalism to bring classes together, 1851- plebiscite puts him into emperor, ends French Republic and becomes an empire, named Napoleon, Concert of Europe/Big Five is okay with this, doesn't seem to represent a threat, doesn't seem to be revolutionary or aggressive to other European powers

Mary Shelley

most popular work is "Frankenstein", daughter of philosopher William Godwin and feminist Mary Wollstonecraft, met Percy Shelley, had three children, got married and published "Frankenstein" before she was 20, novel captured Romantic critique of science and Enlightenment reason and tells story of eccentric doctor determined to find secret of human life, conducted work on human corpses and body parts, Dr. Frankenstein produces life in the form of a monster, monster had human feelings but was overwhelmed by loneliness and self-hatred when the doctor cast him out, wrote story of a twisted creation myth, study of individual genius gone wrong, characterization of limits of reason and impossibility of controlling nature

France under Napoleon III

new kind of leader, starts as president and elected leader, does his best to appeal to all varieties of French people, believed in personal rule and centralized state, controlled nation's finances, army and foreign affairs, assembly was elected by universal male suffrage, only assembly could approve legislation drafted at emperor's direction, really couldn't do anything without Napoleon, limited power, regime aimed to undermine traditional elites by expanding bureaucracy and cultivating new relationship with people, took steps to develop economy, harbored near-utopian faith in power of industrial expansion to bring prosperity, political support and national glory, encouraged credit and new forms of financing, passed new limited-liability laws, signed free-trade treaty with Britain in 1860, go from long standing enemies to allies, worked to support Greeks in their independence, in Crimean War they work closely together and coordinate, supported creation of Credit Mobilier investment banking that sold shares and financed railroads, insurance and gas companies, coal and construction companies and building of Suez Canal, France doesn't take control of it and makes deal to lease land, be greatest engineering power at the time, reluctantly permitted existence of trade unions and legalized strikes, appealed to workers and middle class and sought to gain support for goal and reestablishing France as a leading world power, biggest was transformation of the capital city, Paris's medieval infrastructure was buckling under weight of population increase and industrial development, did a lot to expand industrial capacity, appeals to liberal middle class, cholera epidemics in 1832 and 1849, 1850 1/5 houses had running water, concerns about public health, political fears of crime and revolutionary militancy in working-class neighborhoods, massive rebuilding project made 34,000 new buildings, included elegant hotels with first elevators, new water pipes, sewer lines, streets, rationalized traffic flow, wide new boulevards, was an old city with dangerous slums, trolley tracks for public transit, got rid of slums for beautification and decrease chances of revolutions, rising rents drove working people from city center into increasingly segregated suburbs

Nationalities in Austria-Hungary

official policy was dual monarchy, said couldn't be discriminated against and could use own languages, official policy loosely enforced, elevating Hungarians and only giving them benefits of political nationhood worsened relationships, minority nationalities like Poles Czechs and Slovenes resented second-class status, regime in Hungary started Magyarization which was attempt to make state, civil service, and schools more Hungarian, didn't go well with Serbs and Croats

The Paris Commune 1871

partly a result of Franco-Prussian War, people of Paris decide they won't surrender, own government with legitimate government, as the Prussians leave they keep it going but French provincial governments have to come in a kill a bunch of people, radicalized working class people, had guaranteed income and very leftist things, pitted the nation against the radical city of Paris, Paris refused to surrender to the Germans, Paris proclaimed itself to be the true government of France, government sends troops to Paris in March 1871, barricades and street fighting, twenty-five thousand were executed, killed in fighting, or consumed in fires

Modernism

questioning the moral and cultural values of liberal, middle-class society, characteristics: self-conscious sense of rupture from history and tradition, rejection of established values, insistence on an expressive and experimental freedom, new understanding of the relationship between art and society, Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944) was devotee of occult mysticism, role of the visionary artist, from soulless materialism to the psychic-spiritual life, revolt on canvas, modernism defined itself in opposition to the past, rejection of mainstream academic art, against the "shackles of verisimilitude" (Gauguin), artists begin to turn their backs on the visual world, new focus on the subjective, psychologically oriented forms of self-expression

Indirect Rule

reach agreement with local leaders who governed, west coast of Africa

Expressionism

really anxious, a lot of conventions go away, twisted and in conflict, conveying tension, photography more widely used, doesn't mean as much to paint it exactly the way it looks, Emil Nolde (1867-1956), disillusionment with modern society, Henri Matisse, challenging more conventions, painters turned to acidic tones, violent figural distortions, and crude depictions of sexuality, Edvard Munch (1863-1944) and Egon Schiele (1890-1918), Pablo Picasso (1869-1954), cubists, vorticists, and futurists, embraced a hard, angular aesthetic of the machine age, uncertainty of the future

Social Darwinism

rise of the social sciences, influence of Darwinism on sociology, psychology, anthropology, and economics, new ways of quantifying and interpreting human experience, lot of people don't like Darwin in biology but like it in social applications, used to explain differences in society, way to not feel bad about advantages one group have over the other, don't feel guilt because you inherited stuff because you got that through your good genes, Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) applied individual competition to classes, races, and nations, coined the expression "survival of the fittest", condemned all forms of collectivism—the individual who "fit" was all-important, popularized notions of social Darwinism were easy to comprehend, integrated into popular vocabulary, jJustified the natural order of rich and poor, nationalists used social Darwinism to rationalize imperialism and warfare, used to justify racial hierarchy and white superiority

Nationalism in the Balkans

rising nationalism divides the disintegrating Ottoman Empire, loses lost of chunks of territory, some newly formed countries, uprisings in Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Bulgaria (1875-1876), reports of atrocities against Christians, led to the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878), Treaty of San Stefano terminated the conflict, forced the Turkish sultan to surrender all of his European territory, great powers intervened, Treaty of Berlin (1878) said Bessarabia to Russia, Thessaly to Greece, Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian control, Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania become independent states, independent kingdom of Bulgaria (1908), Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina

Civilizing Ideal of Imperialism

showed grand nature of the empire, vigor to republic by being able to bring progress to other places, command to go and teach all nations, high moral purpose, highlight contrast between colonial backwardness and European civility and cultural superiority

Social Democratic Party

split in 1903, Bolsheviks (majority group) called for a central party organization of active revolutionaries, rapid industrialization meant they did not have to follow Marx, Mensheviks (minority group) had a gradualist approach, reluctant to depart from Marxist orthodoxy, Lenin was leader of the Bolsheviks while in exile, coordinated socialist movement, Russia was ripe for revolution

Alexander III (1845-1894, r. 1881-1894)

steered the country toward the right, stern repression, curtailed power of the zemstvos, increased authority of the secret police

Changes in Scope and Scale

technological changes created changes in scope and scale of industry, technology as cause and consequence of the race toward a bigger, faster, cheaper, and more efficient world, rise of heavy industry and mass marketing, national mass cultures, watched as Europe divided the globe, feats of engineering mastery, ideals of modern European industry, changes: population grew constantly, food shortages declined, populations less susceptible to illness, lower infant mortality, advances in medicine, nutrition, and personal hygiene, improved housing and sanitation

Alexander II (1818-1888, r. 1855-1881)

the "Tsar Liberator", tightened restrictions, set up zemstvos, provincial land and county assemblies (1804), curtailed the rights of zemstvos, censorship of the press, assassinated by a radical

Kulturkampf (Cultural Struggle)

three problems: divide between Catholics and Protestants, growing Social Democratic Party, divisive economic interests of agriculture and industry, attempt to unite Germany culturally, Northern Germany was Protestant and now have some small Catholic German states in the south, would they be loyal to Germany?, tries to restrict catholicism, Bismarck unleashed an anti-Catholic campaign, appealed to sectarian tensions over public education and civil marriages, passed laws that imprisoned priests for political sermons, banned Jesuits from Prussia, campaign backfired, Catholics develop their own party which was pretty successful, Catholic Center Party won seats in the Reichstag in 1874, Bismarck negotiated an alliance with the Catholic Center, ends up angering liberals throughout Germany because they think it is an overreach, have a lot of sympathy

Romanticism Overview (1780s - 1850s)

touched all arts and permeated politics, marked as reaction against classicism of the 18th century and Enlightenment, stressed emotion, freedom, imagination, passion, irrationality, we are good because we are emotional, prized intense individual experiences and considered intuition and emotion to be better guides to truth and human happiness than reason and logic

Russo-Japanese War (1904-05)

wanted to endorse nationalism and get islands in dispute with Japan, thought they could win because Japanese were Asians and thought war would be easy, Japan had recently industrialized, win big and gives them a huge boom, helps lead to the revolution of 1905

Creation of German Empire

January 18 1871 in Hall of Mirrors at Versailles German Empire proclaimed, all German states except Austria declared allegiance to William I who would be the emperor or Kaiser, April of that year in Frankfurt there was a treaty with French and Germans that ceded Alsace to new German Empire and forced France to pay, Prussian Kaiser, prime minister, army and most of bureaucracy stayed intact but now reconfigured as German nation-state, not what Prussian liberals wanted, revolution from above rather than from below, optimists believed the empire would evolve different political direction

Karl Marx's Socialism (Marxism) Overview

Marx seen as father of modern socialism, barely known in early 1800s, but reputation rose after 1848 revolutions, influenced greatly by Malthus and Riccardo, wave of revolutions and confrontation seemed to confirm theory of history and make emphasis on cooperation, experimental communities and peace reorganization seem naïve, took up disparity between public proclamations of progress and worker daily experiences in systematic and scholarly way, inexhaustible reader and thinker with a broad range, insights from many places like British economics, French history, German philosophy, wove others' ideas that labor was source of value and property was expropriation into a new theory of history that was a critique of liberalism, differed from utopian socialists by identifying industrial laborers as revolutionary class and linking revolution to a vision of human history as a whole, because of his assumptions about economic base of society and idea of dialectic his theory of history is called dialectical materialism

Utopian Visions

Robert Owen was a wealthy industrialists who became a reformer, bought a large cotton factory in Scotland and organized the mill and town according to principles of cooperation, New Lanark organized decent housing and sanitation, good working conditions, child care, free schooling, system of social security for workers, advocated general reorganization of society based on cooperation and mutual respect, Charles Fourier, French, also tried to organize a utopian community based on abolition of wage system, division of work according to natural inclinations, complete equality of sexes, and collectively organized child care and household labor, Flora Tristan, charismatic socialist, toured France talking to workers about wonders of principles of cooperation and equality of men and women, many men and women followed other leaders into experimental communities, many took the vision seriously, saw this as a measure of the unhappiness in early industrialization and conviction that society could be organized along radically different lines

National Workshops

belief that everyone in France that everyone has the right to work, if you don't have work - government will provide you work with a wage that is substantial for survival, by the end - they were producing goods that were unwanted and spending too much money, liberals in the government cut it off, caused riots in june called the June Days, great amount of unrest, puts unrest between middle class liberals and working class radicals, ends provisional government

Italy Revolution

unified but lot of land under occupation from foreign powers, patchwork of small states, northern is Austria, Papal states under Pope, only part truly Italian is Piedmont-Sardinia, large italian culture, unification not broadly accepted, Tuscany Parma and Modena ruled by Habsburgs, like Germany want unification, idea of unification stays, revolutions fail but italians all begin to percolate over time, all italians want it even if they have different ways of getting it, liberal impulse: many shared Mazzini's commitment but not methods, hoped to merge governments into constitutional monarchy, 1848 raised hopes for political and social change and Italian unification, risorgimento Italian resurgence

Impacts of Suez Canal

opened 1869, showed abilities of western power and technology to transform the world, but at the cost of human lives, result of European involvement in Egypt, close financial relationships, purchase of shares was purchase of power, going to war to protect financial investments, made possible convergence of technology, money, politics and global strategy for imperial control, industrialization brought push to expand power and influence abroad

Victorian Britain and the Second Reform Bill (1867)

Britain was significantly less effected by the wave of revolutions, faced more demands to extend franchise beyond middle class, two groups: conservatives and liberals but neither fit into the working class, liberal party starts to favor universal male suffrage, industrial expansion sustained growing stratum of highly skilled and relatively well-paid workers who were almost all male, workers concentrated within building engineering and textile industries, turned away from tradition of militant radicalism, favored collective self-help in cooperative societies or trade unions, major role was to accumulate funds for insurance against old age and unemployment, saw education as tool for advancement and patronized mechanics' institutes and similar institutions, created pressure for electoral reform, some argued for right to vote in name of democracy, some said they were responsible workers respectable and upstanding members of society with strong religious convictions and patriotic feelings, unquestionably loyal to the state and deserved vote and direct representation, many workers joined with middle-class dissenting reformers in the Liberal party, dissenters had long faced discrimination of denied posts, denied access to education, resented paying taxes to support Anglican church, community of dissent crossed class lines and this was vital to Liberal party politics, countrywide campaign for new reform bill, House of Commons was responsive, backed by some conservatives like Benjamin Disraeli (prime minister) who argued political life would be improved, not disrupted by including aristocrats of labor, idea that labor aristocracy are leaders of working class, have some wealth and would appreciation political stability, gets support from both parties, Disraeli got a bill through Parliament that reached further than anything of his opponents, 1867 Reform Bill doubled franchise, extended voting rights to any men who paid poor rates or rent of 10 pounds or more per year in urban areas (skilled workers) and rural tenants paying 12 pounds or more, not universal but reduced property requirements, lot of workers would come into the liberal party but would ultimately destruct the liberal party and create Labor party, redistributed seats with large northern cities gaining representation at expense of rural south, allowed all responsible working class men to participate, success of the bill points to influence of Chartist movement from 1840s, reform bill was silent about women, decade after the bill marked height of British liberalism, opened doors to political participation, accomplished peaceful restructuring of political institutions and social life, made it clear everything wasn't open to everyone, insisted female individuality would destabilize family life, opposition to women's suffrage showed idea that casting a ballot was a privilege only for specific social groups in return for their contributions to society, expansion of franchise made new constituencies with new ambitions Paced way for socialist and labor politics

Congress of Vienna

1814 European powers met at Congress of Vienna to settle questions of post-Napoleonic political orders and determined territorial spoils, group included Louis XVIII of France, two year meeting with one interruption when Napoleon escapes, attempt to contain everything back in, first time multiple heads of state converge and attempt high level negotiations directly, lavish balls and celebrations that went along with the Congress and said to appear like a time before that of noble life the violent revolutions, task was to reinforce monarchial regimes against powerful social and political forces, Russian Tsar Alexander I and Austrian diplomat Klemens von Metternich dominated the Congress, France and Britain send foreign ministers, Prussia sends their head of state, idea that the Five Great Powers will dominate: Great Britain, France, Russia, Prussia, Austria, HRE is completely gone, representatives from every state in Europe, series of meetings where the big five are making all the decisions, after the fall of France Russia became most powerful continental state, will be the most backward and biggest, others want to check Russia's power

Destruction of Holy Alliance

Austria's refusal to support Russia cost Russia support of powerful former ally, Russia asks for help but neither help, Bismarck keeps putting them off, Austria says no, war embarrassed France and left Russia and Austria weaker, opened advantage for Bismarck in 1860s, say the alliance was more about internal affairs

Edmund Burke

conservative, wrote "Reflections on the Revolution in France" became big for conservatives, didn't oppose all change, argued that British should let North American colonies go, opposed natural rights which he thought were dangerous abstractions, believed enthusiasm for constitutions misguided and Enlightenment emphasis on conquering the power of reason was dangerous, counseled deference to experience, tradition and history

Women in the Reform Bill

important minority insisted that liberalism should include women's enfranchisement, advocates mobilized woman suffrage movement, built a lot on earlier participation in reform campaigns, big supporter: John Stuart Mill, one of most brilliant, committed and influential defender of personal liberty, was a utilitarian, developed expansive notions of human freedom, 1859 wrote "On Liberty" which was classical defense of individual freedom in face of state and tyranny of the majority, coauthored with lover and eventual wife Harriet Taylor essays on women's political rights, law of marriage and divorce, "Subjection of Women" 1869 published after Taylor died argued women had to be considered individuals on same plane as men and women's freedom was a measure of progress, pushed for suffrage, was an international success and "On Liberty" became a defining text of Western liberalism, doesn't get any political support

Revolution in Latin America

Spanish empire in Latin America could not be restored, Napoleon's conquest of Spain in 1807 had shaken the Spanish empire, local elites in the colonies took advantage of the weakness to push for independence, Rio de la Plata (Argentina) was first to succeed and declared independence in 1816, monarchist general from Rio de la Plata named José de San Martin led an expedition to liberate Chile and Peru, same time Simón Bolívar was a republican leader who sparked uprisings from Venezuela to Bolivia, Bolívar and Martin joined together, Bolívar was more radical and envisioned mobilizing free people of color and slaves and Indians to fight the Spanish, Bolívar's goal was to create Pan-American republic like the USA, political revolts unleashed violent social conflicts and civil war, elite landowners who only wanted freedom from Spain opposed groups who wanted land reform and end of slavery, ultimately radical movements were repressed and newly independent Latin American nations were dominated by alliance of conservative landowners and military officers, Britain and USA prevented European powers from intervening in Latin American revolutions, 1823 Monroe Doctrine said European powers meddling in the Americas would be seen as hostile, Britain saw new South American republics as potential trading partners and used its navy to keep Spain for getting involved, by 1820s Spanish empire was gone and ended an age that began in 1492, Brazil's independence in 1823 ended era of Portuguese colonialism in South America, demonstrated the circular relationships that bound Atlantic world together, would inspire nationalists in Europe who wanted to overthrow the conservative Concert of Europe

William Wordsworth

poet that took up themes of nature, simplicity and feeling in "Lyrical Ballads", saw poetry as a spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings, emphasized ties of compassion that bind humankind regardless of social class, considered nature to be most trustworthy teacher and source of true feeling

Garibaldi was the Sword

wanted from the bottom up, went through fighting to unite, took to action his ideas and desires for unification, was a guerrilla fighter who had been exile twice, even when he was old, committed to achieving national unification through popular movement

Slavery, Enlightenment and Revolution

Enlightenment thinkers persuaded many that slavery contradicted natural law and natural freedom, French revolutionaries denounced tyranny of a king who would enslave them but refused to admit free people of color to assemblies, revolution in Haiti showed that slavery could be defeated and broken, loss of slave-based sugar production created opportunity for expansion in other places like Brazil, in those areas slavery expanded in production of sugar, gold and coffee

Slow Path to Abolition

abolitionists movement did emerge in England, aimed to abolish slave trade, 1780s and forward there were pamphlets and books detailing horrors of slave ships to a more and more sympathetic audience, leaders like William Wilberforce believed slave trade was immoral and hoped banning it would improve conditions for the enslaved, didn't want to make revolt, 1807 reform movement got Parliament to pass bill declaring African Slave Trade contrary to principles of justice, humanity and sound policy, prohibited ships from participating, USA joined and ten years alter Portuguese did as well, argued slavery was becoming less profitable and the decline made humanitarian concern easier to accept, some argued it was expanding, some believe economic factors undermined slavery, Adam Smith argued free labor was more efficient, claimed slavery was wasteful and cruel, culture with high literacy and political traditions in activism the calls for British Liberty mobilized a lot of many, religious revivals supplied a lot of energy for abolitionist movement, Amazing Grace was written by a slave trader turned minister John Newton, moral and religious dimensions of the struggle made it acceptable for women, issue spoke to laborers whose sometimes brutal working conditions and limited political rights, oppose slavery and insist labor be dignified, honorable and minimally free resonated with a lot of social classes, rebellions and conspiracies also shook support especially after Haiti, 1800 slaves rebelled in Virginia, 1811 uprising in Louisiana, 1822 conspiracy in South Carolina, 1816 rebellions in Barbados, 1831 month long in Jamaica, rebellions had no chance of succeeding and usually erupted only when some crack in system opened, divisions within white elite or presence of sympathetic outsider, rebellions increased slaveholder sense of vulnerability and isolation, insisted slavery was vital to survival, aftermath of Great Reform Bill 1832 emancipated 800,000 slaves in colonies, emancipation came to French colonies in 1848, Latin America slavery was dependent on demographics, economics and politics of breaking from empires, most of mainland Spanish American slavery was a secondary importance owed to the relative ease of escape and presence of other sources of labor, struggle for independence escalated nationalist leaders recruited slaves and free people of color to fight the Spanish and promised emancipation, new nations passed emancipation measures in stages but eliminated slavery by middle of the century, 40% of Cuban population was enslaved, Cuban independence movement would have made a slave revolution and that gave an incentive for Cuba to remain under Spain, Spain needed profitable sugar industry and couldn't afford to alienate the planters, combination of slave rebellion in Cuba and liberal revolution in Spain brought abolition beginning in 1870s, 40% of Brazil population also enslaved but they won independence and broke away from Portugal with ease in 1822, slavery endured until 1888

Citizenship and Sovereignty 1830 - 1848

in aftermath of French Revolution a lot of debates about citizenship, sovereignty and social inequality, France Belgium and Poland there were political movements that challenged post-Napoleonic settlement which led to revolt in 1830-32, 1840s threat as many British feared conflicts over voting rights and treatment of poor may lead to a similar cause, political leaders in Britain ultimately succeeding in negotiating reforms that prevented rebellion

William Blake

poet that had fierce critique of industrial society and factories, championed individual imagination and poetic vision, saw them as transcending limits of material world, imagination could be awaken sensibilities and sustain belief in different values, could break humanity's "mind-forged manacles", his poetry paralleled early socialist efforts to imagine a better world, looked back to the past where he thought society was more organic and humane

Romantic Politics: Liberty, History and Nation

Victor Hugo plays poetry and historical novels focused sympathetically on experience of common people, Delacroix paintings gave revolutionary face to Romanticism, political life no longer preserve of social elites and commoners in street could embrace new freedoms, also be conservative, one French conservative emphasized primacy of religious emotions and feeling that religion was woven into national past and could not be ignored without threatening culture as a whole, broad and popular religious revival and renewed interest in medieval literature, art and architecture which drew heavily on religious themes, early 19th century nationalism took emphasis on individuality and turned it to a faith in uniqueness of individual cultures, Johann con Herder influential nationalist thinker argued civilization came from culture of common people (this opposed philosophe's ideas), insisted each nation must be true to its own particular heritage and history, interest in history and lives of ordinary led to new types of literary and historical works, Brothers Grimm traveled across Germany to study native dialects and folktales, Friechrich Schiller retold story of William Tell to promote national consciousness, Gioacchino Rossini turned the poem into an opera that promoted Italian nationalism, British Sir Walter Scott retold history of Scotland, Pole Adam Mickiewicz wrote a national epic as a vision of Polish past that had been lost, after 1848 nationalist enthusiasm overwhelmed political debates that divided conservatives from liberals and socialists

Age of Ideologies Overview

hoped the age of revolutions was over, big backlash against the French Revolution, time of great change and foundation for the wonderful and awful things that will come in 1900s, influence and impact of French and Industrial Revolution, ideas are still there and happening, Austrian foreign minister Klemens von Metternich a very influential conservative diplomat called revolution "sickness", "plague" and "cancer", saw revolution as producing war and disorder, said peace depended on avoiding political turmoil and reinforcing power of conservative monarchies, 1815 - 1848 saw legitimacy of monarchies challenged, the events we associate with the nineteenth century (1815 - 1914), conservative efforts to restore were only partially successful because effects of the 1700s were impossible to reverse, expansion of informed public continued, liberalism's fundamental principles (equality before the law, freedom of expression, consent of the governed) were still present, threat in the emotions from popular nationalism, liberal nationalists believed sovereignty could only be exercised by citizens acting as one nation, direct opposed conservative monarchy who believed authority came from God and not the people, political opposition to conservative order was now infused with more radical ideologies, some were okay with a constitutional monarchy, others accepted the idea of representation but believed voting was a privilege just for the wealthy property owners, republicans were more radical, called for universal male suffrage and a complete end to monarchy, socialists argued that political reform was not enough to free the people from want and exploitation, thought justice was only possible with radical reordering of society that distributed property equitably, imagination and sense of possibility were defining characteristics, romanticism was a break with Classicism and formality, prized subjectivity, feeling and spontaneity rather than reason, search for a new means of expression

Bismarck after Seven Weeks' War

played power politics with eye to public opinion, wars before had strong public support, Prussian victories weakened liberal opposition to king and Bismarck, after Austrian defeat liberals gave up battle on budgets, military and constitutional provisions, also wanted support of the masses, understood Germans didn't always support business elites, bureaucracies in small states and Austrian Habsburgs, Constitution of North German Confederation looked like a more liberal political body with bicameral legislature, freedom of the press and universal male suffrage in lower house, structure gave Prussia and conservative emperor decisive advantage

Eastern Questions: International Relations and Decline of Ottoman Power

questions of national identity and international power were from contests over territory, war and diplomacy drew and redrew boundaries of European nations, rise of new nations like German Empire posed a set of challenges to continental order, another issue was waning power of older regimes, Crimean War lasted 1853 - 1856 was an attempt to cope with most serious collapse, as Ottoman Empire lost grip on provinces Ottoman weakness would draw Europe into war, was for territorial gains, strategic interests, alliances and balance of power, occurred before the unification of German and Italian states, structured the system of Great Power politics that guided towards WWI

Revolution Overview

sequence of revolution and repression, roots of revolution lay in economic crisis, social antagonisms and political grievances, shaped by nationalism, liberal goals: representative government, end to privilege, economic development, also wanted some form of national unity, showed nationalism's power to mobilize opponents of a regime and potential to splinter revolutionary alliances and override allegiances and values

Territory, The State and Serfdom: Russia

serfdom was starting to draw significant protest from intelligentsia under Catherine the Great, after 1789 and 1848 abolition of serfdom in other places made it more urgent, abolishing serfdom became part of larger project of building Russia as a modern nation, both schools of thought agreed serfdom must be abolished, Russian nobility opposed emancipation, debates about lords being compensated for the loss and how serfs would survive checked progress of the issue, Crimean War broke the impasse, after the war Alexander II pushed the issue, will be a reformer Persuaded serfdom would only continue to prompt violent conflict and that the war has sapped Russian strength and contributed to their defeat, undertook state reforms and expanded territory, expansion of railroads that connected all parts of the empire, eventually build railroad from St. Petersburg to Pacific Ocean, pressed East and South, invaded and conquered several independent Islamic kingdoms along former Silk Road in central asia and expanded into Siberia in search of natural resources, diplomacy brought many commercial concessions from Chinese that led to founding of Siberian city Vladivostok in 1860, racial ethnic and religious differences made governing difficult, most cases didn't try to assimilate populations, acceptance of ethnic particularity was pragmatic response to difficulties of governing a heterogeneous population, attempted to impose Russian culture but this was disastrous, powerful centrifugal forces pulled against genuine unification

Principle of Concert of Europe

symphony that will coexist, called to secure the peace, recognition that war is really bad, its expensive and wasteful, creates instability, Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia pledged to cooperate in suppression of any disturbances, France officially joined the conservative alliance in 1818, Alexander I called for "Holy Alliance" in 1818 which was dedicated to justice, Christian charity and peace, Austria, Prussia and Russia, call this because they see themselves as divine kings, harshest and most repressive areas, all are different parts of Christianity, Protestant vs Catholics is basically gone, British foreign minister was skeptical and said it was a peace of sublime mysticism and nonsense but agreed that the powers should defend their conception of authority centered on legitimacy, ruler was legitimate if his power was guaranteed by claims of divine right, international treaties and support from recognized peers, recognition of the international community, principle of intervention powers reserve the right to intervene in another country's affairs if it will throw off stability and order, opposition to liberal ideas of political representation and national self-determination were very clear, King Leopold of Belgium was placed on the throne by the powers in 1831, saw that war threatened to be a conflict of principles sparked by revolutionary ideas

Conservative's view of Nationalism

were wary in general, conservatives in multi-ethnic empires saw it as dangerous, saw constitutions as instrumental whereas conservatives saw them as dangerous abstraction, idea of national unity threatened control of local aristocratic elite, so many small groups within and it threatens a break in the empire

Ludwig von Beethoven

composer and his work was filled with principles of classical music composition, idea of instrumental music without vocal accompaniment was more expressive of emotion made, glorification of nature and Romantic individuality was clear in his work, enthusiastic about the French Revolution but was disillusioned by Napoleon, started to lose his hearing at 32 and by 1819 he was completely deaf, intensely personal crisis that produced internal catastrophe drove him to retreat to interior of own musical imagination, compositions later in his life expressed powerfully felt alienation and extraordinary and heroic creativity in face of extreme hardship

Politics of Slavery after 1815

conflicts about citizenship, sovereignty and equality were also linked to transnational debate about slavery, 1770s slavery was legal everywhere, by 1848 it was only legal in southern USA, Brazil and Cuba, debate about slavery was fundamental because it challenged defenders of citizenship rights to live up to claims of universality that was central to Enlightenment political thought

Reform Bill of 1832

eliminated rotten boroughs and reallocated 143 parliamentary seats, power given to areas that were filled with people, mostly from rural south to industrial north, more representation for the people, middle class has more politic power, expanded the franchise but only one in six men could vote, landed aristocrats had influence reduced but not destroyed, modest reform brought liberals and members of middle class into junior partnership with landed elite

Mazzini was the Soul

father of idea of unification, spirit that got things started, 1831 founded society Young Italy which was anti-Austrian and in favor of constitutional reforms, dedicated to Italian unification, one of best known nationalists at the time, spoke in Romantic tones of awakening the people and common mission to bring republicanism to the world

Giuseppe Garibaldi

guerrilla fighter who had been exile twice, went to Latin America and fought with their independence movements, went to United States, committed to achieving national unification through popular movement, fast spreading peasant revolts in Two Sicilies which got a boost from Garibaldi, his troops came from north and south and were middle class, workers and artisans, took Sicily and continued onto the mainland, November 1860 had taken Naples, now looked to Rome where French troops were stationed, rising popularity put him at collision with Cavour

Role of Nationalism and Changes to Conservatism in Italian Unification

notion and practice of conservatism changes after revolutions of 1848, nationalist issue with a conservative approach, nationalism was primary motivator for the cause, but moderate nationalists took a conservative approach, before conservatism was in opposition to nationalism, now it works together with nationalism to instill pride and excitement in the people, brought first connections between conservatism and nationalism, start to view the positives of nationalism that can help their cause, use nationalism to spread their own agenda, nationalism from the top, working from government powers in a proactive way rather than a reaction to events, will still want a monarchy, it will have a weaker representation but it is mostly one powerful leader, personification of the kingdom, unite under military ideas because everyone of all status look the same in army, drift away from reliance on religion because they have found a new interconnecting force

Austria and Denmark in German Unification

other "German" power was Austria, lot of influence within German Confederation especially over Catholic regions in the south, Bismarck saw a distinct difference between Austrian and Prussian interests and exploited Austria's economic disadvantages and internal ethnic issues, inflamed long dispute with Denmark over Schleswig and Holstein two provinces with Danish and German people, claimed by German Confederation and Denmark, 1864 Danish king tried to annex the provinces which prompted German nationalist outcry, Bismarck labeled it as a Prussian issue and persuaded Austria to join them in a war with Denmark, war forced Danish ruler to cede the provinces to Austria and Prussia, alliance between the two easily fell apart, 1866 declared war on Austria claiming Prussia as defender of larger German interests, conflict was known as Seven Weeks' War and ended in Prussia victory, Austria gave up claims to the provinces and surrendered Venetia to Italians and agreed to dissolve German Confederation, Bismarck created North German Confederation which was a union of all German states north of Main River

Theories of Race

Arthur de Gobineau (1816-1882), Inequality of the Races (1853-1855), race as the master key to understanding the world's problems, racial question overshadowed all others, slavery proved the racial inferiority of the slave, Houston Stewart Chamberlain (1855-1927), making racial theory more scientific, tied racial theories to Darwinism and Herbert Spencer, races change (evolve) over time, Francis Galton (1822-1911), eugenics: the science of improving racial qualities, selective breeding, Karl Pearson (1857-1936), systematic study of intelligence and genius, rhetoric of progress, the civilizing mission, and race, provided a rationale for imperial conquest

Karl Marx

published first volume of Das Kapital in 1867), attacked capitalism in terms of political economy, systematic analysis of production, the Marxist appeal provided a crucial foundation for building a democratic mass politics, made powerful claims for gender equality, promise of a better future

Steel

between the 1850s and 1870s, the cost of producing steel decreased, steel industry dominated by Germany and the United States, innovations at mass production level, before for smaller stuff, now technology is at place where can make huge things (skyscrapers)

Russian Marxism

organized as the Social Democratic Party, concentrated on urban workers, Russian autocracy would give way to capitalism, capitalism would give way to a classless society

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

"classical conditioning", random stimulus can produce a physical reflex reaction, adds to uncertainty of humans, takes away idea that we consciously make all decisions, control away from us, that we are programed, mechanistic, messes with peoples ideas of who we are and our place in the world, behaviorism: creates a response that you don't know is happening, body is taking over, eschewed mind and consciousness, focused on physiological responses to the environment, will be conditioned to associate something with something else, important treatment in psychological disorders today

Post-Impressionism

Paul Cézanne (1839-1906) and reducing natural forms to geometric equivalents, emphasis on subjective arrangement of color and form, art as a vehicle for an artist's self-expression, Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) and Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890) explored art's expressive potential with greater emotion and subjectivity

Belgium in 1830

1815 Congress united Belgium and Holland to form United Provinces as a buffer state against France, Belgians never accepted this and the 1830 revolution energized British opposition, Brussels rebelled and forced Dutch troops to withdraw, great powers agreed to give Belgian independence and neutrality a provision that stayed until 1914, not as much need for a buffer, king is seen as legit because he is related to the royals of the area, economy suffered because cities were separated from Atlantic trade in Dutch ports, religious divisions between Catholic provinces of Belgium and Protestant Holland reinforced the division, French speaking elites of Belgium supported independence but Flemish speaking Belgians continue to have a sense of cultural distinctiveness

William I

1858 William I became prince regent of Prussia, led troops against revolutionaries of 1848, became king in 1861 and ruled until 1888, under him Prussia remained conservative but decade of industrial growth expanded size and confidence of middle class, by late 1850s had an active liberal intelligentsia, engaged press and liberal civil service dedicated to political and economic modernization, helped forge liberal political movement that won majority of elections to lower house and confidently confronted the king, liberals in Prussia were very opposed to high levels of military spending, William wanted to expand standing army, reduce role of reserve forces and ensure military matters were not under parliament control, opponents in parliament thought the king made military his own private force or state within a state, 1859 - 1862 relations got worse, liberal protests were not answered and they refused to approve regular budget, faced with crisis William named Otto von Bismarck minister-president of Prussia (didn't answer to parliament), became a turning point in history of German nationhood

End of Serfdom

1861 ended serfdom with decree, emancipation decree was reform on massive scope but produced limited change, legal rights to 22 million serfs and authorized title to portion of land they worked, prices are extremely high, required state to compensate landowners, large-scale landowners inflated their compensation claims and managed to retain a lot of their land, land granted to peasants was mostly poor quality and insufficient to sustain themselves or families, but it was better than before, had the idea they could be free, newly liberated serfs had to pay installments for their land which was granted to a village commune to collect payments, pattern of rural life didn't change much, system of payment kept peasants in villages

Ireland

British deal with Irish Question, asks we have all these people that we don't want to let go of by they want to leave, potential answer that fails: 1860s Ireland gets enfranchisement, at first no Catholics and still property requirements, over time laws in Britain will apply to Ireland, vote will eventually spread, eventually drop property requirements, become more politically involved, with the Budget and all the new programs go to Sinn Féin and the Irish Republican Brotherhood, put support behind the budget and are supposed to be able to rule themselves with own parliament and executive in return, still part of the empire, people in the north don't really like this and don't want to be independent, north will form political and militia resistance in Ulster Volunteers, lot of people are worried about war at the time, Home Rule tabled in 1913 to be talked about later, Irish radical nationalists began to favor armed revolution, development of IRA as a result and first violence in 1916 uprise, turn to terrorist style attacks until Britain grants them independence (later)

Opium Wars

Chinese banned opium imports to hopefully help the problem, 1839 first opium war, dispute was over larger issues of sovereignty and economic status, first war was 1839-42, British overpowered Chinese in first part and Treaty of Nanking compelled Chinese to give trading privileges and Hong Kong, after second war Britain got more ports and privileges and could send missionaries, then other countries demanded rights, France, Germany and Russia start using Chinese labor, Japanese overpowered in Sino-Japanese War and Japan gained land and power, Chinese government had to make taxes higher which destabilized regime further, heightened popular hostility towards foreigners, war devastated agricultural lands and huge death tolls, all the disorder and inability to control let Europeans take more direct control

France: The Embattled Republic

Franco-Prussian War (1870) a humiliating defeat for France, government of the Second Empire collapsed, period of increased conservatism, trying to seize control from the outside provinces, the Third Republic, new constitution (1875), triumph of democratic and parliamentary principles Class conflict, Dreyfus Affair (1894), Dreyfus convicted of selling military secrets to Germany, captain in French army and Jewish, sent to Devil's Island, verdict was questioned and documents were proven to be forgeries (1896), émile Zola (1840-1902) backed Dreyfus, lasted the French establishment in "J'accuse" (I Accuse), Dreyfus eventually freed in 1899 and cleared of all guilt in 1906, consequences: separation of church and state in France, republicans saw church army as hostile toward the republic, originally ran public schools, now lost that control, people are outraged at hearing this, see as overreach of conservativism

Women's Organizations

General German Women's Association, pressed for educational and legal reforms, votes became the symbol for women's ability to attain full personhood, middle-class women founded clubs, published journals, organized petitions, middle-class is much larger, they build up the movement, tend to be education and developed experience from reform movements, have time because not working are growing reform movements on child labor and charity work, pushes them for the deamnd for the right to vote

Revolution in Germany

Germany Confederacy, weak legislative body called Frankfurt Assembly, only used to deal with German economic issues, Prussia was on the rise, but were shaken from Napoleon wars, looking for a way to regain strength and size, after Congress they make reforms, reforms imposed from above, abolition of serfdom and estate system (1807), University of Berlin founded, military: shifted promotions from being based on birth to be based on merit, business and education: both strengthened and more education and more money causes a surge of middle class in Prussia, growing middle class swept up in ideas of liberalism and nationalism, continues these reforms but resists liberalizing things politically, Prussia tied to establish itself as leading independent national power, Zollverein (1834) established customs union, free trade with German states, uniform tariffs, by 1840s all states except Austria, political clubs with students and other radicals joining middle-class reform groups, new demands for representative government, demand reforms from King Frederick William IV, tries to go towards liberal cause, reverted authoritarianism, crushed revolt, opposed constitutionalism, shaken by violence

Southeastern Europe: Greece and Serbia

Greeks and Serbian revolted against the Ottoman Empire, conservative European powers were more tolerant of this rebellion, Ottoman defeat of Napoleon in 1798 strained Ottoman hold in eastern Mediterranean, Serbs in Balkans revolted 1804, with help of Russians established hereditary rule by Serbian prince in 1817, partial independence, Orthodox Christian principality with a minority of Muslims, inspired the Greeks, formal independence in 1878, Greek war for independence: 1821 - 27, Ottoman empire's borders began to seek independence, ethnic Greeks living all over the empire, before 1800s revolts usually didn't want separation and resolved by redistributing tax burdens or putting in legal reforms, now European powers more likely be involved which resulted in independent states and a weaker Ottoman power, French and British saw area as arena of commercial competition, Russians saw as natural place to exert foreign influence, Greek revolt gained support from Britain, widespread sympathy for Greeks across Europe, christians in Europe saw as ongoing struggle between Christianity and Islam, secular observers saw as struggle between pre-Christian European heritage and Ottoman Empire, celebrating the Greeks went along with demonizing Ottomans, struggle in Greece was brutal and massacres of civilians were often, 1822 Greeks invaded island of Chios and proclaimed independence, Ottomans came to retake the island and Greeks killed prisoners and fled, Ottomans took revenge slaughtering thousands of Greeks and selling 40,000 into slavery, romantic poets and artists joined to show horrors with tons of sympathy for the Greeks, Greek independence depended on great power politics, 1827 British French and Russians sided with the Greeks, forced Ottomans to concede and grant Greek independence, new nations were fragile, Serbia couldn't survive without Russian protection, neither broke close links with Ottomans, European powers recognized regional stability depended on continued existence of Ottomans and collapse would mean serious threat to European peace, in pursuing own self-interests contributed to weakening Ottoman authority

State and Nationality: Centrifugal Forces in Austrian Empire

Habsburgs were weaker with different situation and resources, delicately balanced, multiethnic dual monarchy called Austria-Hungary, ethnic nationalism was powerful in Habsburg monarch in 1848, state with combination of military repression and tactics that divided enemies was more powerful, abolished serfdom but didn't little else, Hungarians were basically reconquered, administrative reforms created new and more uniform legal system, rationalized taxation and imposed single-language policy that favored German, issue of managing ethnic relations was increasingly difficult, subject nationalities protested powerlessness of local diets, military repression and cultural disenfranchisement, Czechs in Bohemia grew more alienated by policies that favored German minority, in response they became more insistent on Slavic identity which was welcomed by Russia who were the sponsor of pan-slavish, Hungarians (also called Magyars) were the most powerful of subject nationalities and wanted to reclaim autonomy they almost had, internal and constitutional affairs were separated, Ausgleich or Settlement allowed Hungarians to establish own constitution, own legislature and own capital with combining Buda and Pest

Critics of Imperialism

Hobson and Lenin criticized imperialism as an act of greed and antidemocratic arrogance, Joseph Conrad argued that imperialism signified deep problems, Pan-African Congress (1900), problem of the twentieth century is the problem of race

Moderate Working Class in Britain

Independent Labour Party (1901), workers form own party, more aggressive than the now moderate liberal party, end the Liberal party, people of the party will either go to conservative party of Labour, inspired by Germany, push for 1906 welfare legislation, still party of working class and nationalistic, push for larger navy, Germany is building up and the building would provide a ton of jobs, but this is all super expensive, will develop taxes that people will hate to pay for this, David Lloyd George (1863-1945) and the People's Budget of 1909, progressive income and inheritance taxes (estate tax), don't have enough seats to do it on their own

British Rule of India

India center of British Empire, the jewel, conquest happened in 1750s, focal point of new expanded global power, under control of British East India Company, Company had own military of European and Indian divisions, right to collect taxes, legal monopolies over trade, India never became settler state, company rule repressive and enforced by military, governed some areas directly and other with alliances with local leaders, sometimes just controlling goods and money, indirect rule meant finding indigenous collaborators and maintaining goodwill, offered economic privileges, state offices and military positions, two policies one to westernize and one to defer to local culture, many Christian missionaries, some turned reform zeal to legal and political change, other warned not to meddle, British never agreed on any single cultural policy

Overview of Changing World

Marinetti and futurism, radical renewal of civilization through "courage, audacity, and revolt", beauty of speed, heroic violence of warfare, radically new world, second industrial revolution, new demands in the political arena, socialist mobilization of industrial workers, white suffragists demand the franchise, challenge of the twentieth century

Communist League and Manifesto

Marx and Engels joined a small international group of radical artisans originally called League of the Just, 1847 was renamed Communist League, asked Marx to draft statement of principles, published in 1848 as "The Communist Manifesto" Engels was a coauthor, manifesto laid out theory of history in short form imported the view of history as dynamic process with an inner logic moving toward human freedom, broad appeal to workers, describes communism as hidden haunting and radical, most groups operated in secret, this also appealed to workers, manifesto outlines ideas and beliefs, at the end says they can no longer be secretive, Hegel said historical process didn't unfold in simple or predictable way, said history proceeded dialectically or through conflict, Hegel saw conflict as one between ideas: thesis produced antithesis and clash between the two created distinctive and new synthesis, look at stages, each stage has something different and unique, see the next stage as a reaction, and the following as a synthesis of the two, said that natural but limited freedom of savage encountered opposite in constraints imposed on person by family and developing institutions of society, result of the clash was new and superior freedom of individuals in society protected by moral customs law and the state, looks broadly at themes, admired revolutionary accomplishments of capitalism, argued for a revolution and it would need to be radical (violent, volatile), bourgeoisie created more impressive and colossal productive forces than other generations combined, revolutionary character of capitalism would undermine economic order, capital was more concentrated a growing army of wageworkers would become more aware of their economic and political disenfranchisement, struggle between competing classes was central to industrial capitalism, manifesto predicted recurring economic crises caused by capitalism's unending need for new markets and cyclical instability of overproduction, workers would seize state, reorganize means of production, abolish private property and create a communist society based on egalitarian principles, bourgeois would never voluntarily give up their powers, ultimate revolution would abolish division of labor, end class conflict that was the motor of history, only have a single political party, this would eliminate bias, needs to be international, interests of workers anywhere is the interests of workers everywhere (but only if fully industrialized), nationalism and national borders are bad they are often what leads to war, wars often fall on shoulders of the workers, most taxes and highest casualty rates

Principles of Conservatism

Most important concept of Congress was legitimacy, broad appeal as a general antievolutionary policy, code for the new order Congress wanted to impose, conservatives aimed to make legitimate and solidify monarchy authority and hierarchical social order, didn't believe the old order would survive completely intact, believed that monarchy guaranteed political stability, nobility were rightful leaders of the nation and both needed to play active role in public life, insisted that nobility and crown share a common interest, believed change has to be slow, incremental and managed so it strengthens the structures of authority, conserving the past and cultivating tradition would ensure an orderly future, other conservatives: Joseph de Maistre and Louis-Gabriel-Ambrose Bonald, French writers wrote elaborate defenses of absolute monarchy and the Catholic Church, De Maistre blamed the critique of the Church for the French Revolution, said individualism ignored the bonds and collective institutions that he thought held society together, saw monarchy, aristocracy and Church as mainstays of social and political order, broadly based revival of religion expressed popular reaction against revolution and emphasis on order, discipline and tradition, exercised influence beyond immediate circle, emphasis on history and awareness of the past became more central to social thought and artistic visions

Crimean War 1853 - 1856 Course

October 1853 Turkey declared war and were also persuaded they would be supported by British, war became disaster for Turks who lost entire fleet of ships in November, Russian success alarmed British and French who saw Russian expansion as a threat to their interests in the Balkans and route to India, France and Britain declared war on Russia in March 1854, Russian supplies and troops take much longer because they do not have railroads around there, nothing to connect, September 1854 they arrived on peninsula of Crimea and went towards naval base at Sevastopol which they wanted to siege, France, Britain and Ottomans also had support of Italian state Piedmont-Sardinia (get involved with aspirations in becoming a nation-state), war was generally short and conduct was devastating, conditions on Crimean peninsula were die and disastrous mismanagement of supplies and hygiene by troops led to epidemics, have invention and development of modern nursing, constant continuous care of wounded, hydrate men and clean wounds, fighting was bitter, notoriously inept strategy by the British of "charge of the Light Brigade", British cavalry unit was slaughtered, combat often settled by bayonets, French and British were tougher and dominated the seas but Russia didn't give clear victory, Sevastopol didn't fall until September 1855, nothing was conquered and seized, was a nightmare for public, prelude to WWI as a lot of the tactics were introduced first here, lots of charges and not a lot of land gained, conflict ended by treaty in 1856, was short, ineffective and bloody

Religion and Its Critics

Roman Catholic Church on the defensive, Pope Pius IX issued the Syllabus of Errors in 1864, condemned materialism, free thought, and religious relativism, convoked a church council (first one since the late sixteenth century), doctrine of papal infallibility, denounced by the governments of several Catholic countries, Pope Leo XIII brought a more accommodating climate to the Church, acknowledged that there is good and evil in modern civilization, added a scientific staff to the Vatican, opened archives and observatories, protestants had little in the way of doctrine to help them defend their faith, pragmatism (Charles Peirce and William James), truth was whatever produced useful, practical results, if belief in God provided mental peace, then that belief was true

Britain: From Moderation to Militancy

Second Reform Bill (1867), Liberal and Conservative political parties, fighting for same voters, both became incredibly moderate towards trade and economic issues, conservatives adopt liberal positions, sway for both, less agreesive on stances, new laws, legality of trade unions, rebuilding large urban areas, elementary education for all children, male dissenters can attend Oxford or Cambridge, 75 percent of adult males enfranchised by 1894, Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881)— Conservative and William Gladstone (1809-1898)—Liberal, both offered moderate programs that appealed to a widening electorate, problems in Britain, liberal parliamentary framework began to show signs of collapse, nationwide strikes of coal and railway workers

Final Steps in Italian Unification

Venetia was still in hands of Austrians until 1866 when Austria was defeated by Prussia and forced to let go of their last Italian state, Rome resisted conquest largely because of military protection Napoleon III gave to the pope, 1870 outbreak of Franco-Prussian War compelled Napoleon to withdraw his troops, September 1870 Italian soldiers occupied Rome, July 1871 Rome became capital of united Italian kingdom, Parliament passed Law of Papal Guarantees to define and limit pope's status, act defied by reigning pope, following popes continued to close themselves off in the Vatican until 1929 with series of agreements, 1871 Italy was a state, minority of Italian population spoke Italian, most used local and regional dialects, gap between increasingly industrialized north and poor and rural south remained, prime ministers had to contend with economic and social inequalities from this, rising tensions between landlords and agricultural workers, lingering resentments of centralized northern oriented state, regional differences and social tensions made nation building an on going process

French Anti-Semitism

a new form of radical right-wing politics (nationalist, antiparliamentary, and anti liberal), a byproduct of the high level of conservative actions, merged three strands of anti-Semitism, christian anti-Semitism (Jews as Christ killers), economic anti-Semitism (Rothschild as representative of all Jews), racial thinking (Jews as an inferior race, about blood), idea of blood purity in Imperialism, seeing Jews as different racially, not really French or German, mix of religious and economic, christian usury laws that said sin to trade money, Jews were original money lenders, mix of Catholics and industrialists who fear rise of Jewish bankers, leads to the Jewish Question, develop whenever there is a problem with a population, question: what do we do with the Jews?, have people who don't like them and have some who are sympathetic and worry they will never be accepted, an ideology of hatred, Jews in the army subverted national purpose, mass culture corrupted French culture, Jews and wealth, La Libre Parole (Free Speech, 1892), the Anti-Semitic League, and Jewish France (1886), Third Republic showed that the radical right and anti-Semitism were plainly political forces

Building the Nation State

aftermath of revolutions of 1848 new nation states were built or consolidated often by former critics of nationalism, since French Revolution conservative politicians associated nationhood with liberalism, constitutions, reforms, new political communities, then things shifted, states and governments took national initiative, promoted economic development, pressed social and political reforms, wanted to create base of support, consolidated government power and built nation from above

Bismarck and Prussian Conservatism

always saw himself as pragmatist, doing stuff for Germany and its stability, not as great it times of calm, tries to appeal to liberals by promoting free trade, offers liberal policies, sought to create the centralizing institutions of a modern state, safeguarding the privileges of Germany's national interests, conservative upper house (Bundesrat) and the democratic lower house (Reichstag), executive power rested solely with William I (1797-1888, r. 1861- 1888), king and kaiser (emperor), cabinet ministers answered only to the kaiser, cultural struggle, drops that, goes back to conservatism and drops the culture struggle, new coalition, agricultural and industrial interests as well as socially conservative Catholics, liked the protection stuff and didn't want competition, gets rid of free trade, Social Democrats as the new enemies of the empire, angers the working class, Bismarck passed antisocialist laws in 1878, expelled socialists from major cities, emerged from political working class, Bismarck wanted to limit them by having conservatives support welfare, want to show that conservatives will be protector of the working class

Marx's Application of Theory of Conflict

applied Hegel's theory of conflict in a different way, began with material social and economic forces, says yes it is stages but it is about material things, largely deterministic, something predetermined, according to materialist vision world history passed through three major stages each with a conflict between social groups that divisions were linked to underlying economic order, master versus slave in ancient slavery, lord versus serf in feudalism and bourgeois capitalist versus proletariat (poor, landless, industrial laborer) in capitalism, but there is a change that bourgeois sees the labor as largely disposable, whereas other would ease up because they saw the value of their labor, in others times there was a slight paternalistic view of protecting your laborers but now it ends at payment, brings the laborers together in ways that are unlike that of slaves or serfs before, says if factory work is so efficient there has to be a cap on demand and how about everyone works but works fewer hours , seeing other sides, there is an excess of labor Malthus and Riccardo says the bourgeois will always have this advantage, said class struggle was motor of human history, believed the feudal stage ended in 1789 with French Revolution

Role of Industrialization in Imperialism

backdrop of industrialization, liberal revolution and rise of nation-states, gives resources and markets, industrialization made greater demand for raw materials from far locations, convinced economic developments, science and tech would spread, have principles of democratic nations which made justification difficult, justified this by saying investments in infrastructure and social reforms would fulfill mission to spread civilization, less independent entrepreneurial stuff my merchants and more settlement and discipline, legal distinctions on racial and religious grounds to organize relations, defending empires was a difficult process, breach loading riffle made possible to imperialize, much quicker, dramatic change and makes wars much more bloody, more accurate bullets and faster pace, extremely effective, gatling gun father of machine gun, steamboat critical to reach areas of Asia and Africa, had navigable rivers and could transport materials resources and products, quinine flowers that could fight malaria

Changes in Definition of a Nation

based on what counted as a nation, who demanded a nation and what did the demand mean, usually aligned with liberalism against conservative states that dominated Europe, became more clear that nationalism could be molded to fit any ideology, meaning of nation changed over time, term comes from to be born and suggests common birth, 1500 it designated aristocracy who shared noble birthright, highlights the development of the late 1700s and early 1800s, French Revolution redefined nation to mean sovereign people, claimed that a nation and not the king was the sovereign power, new political community but not territory or ethnicity, took this from Rousseau's argument that a regenerated nation based on equality of members was more just and more powerful, revolutionaries built a national state, national army, and national legal system whose jurisdiction was above regional powers of nobility and local courts, after French Revolution nation became the collective image of modern citizenry, up until 1848 liberalism and nationalism are intertwined

Impact of Previous Defeats on Austrian Empire

beaten by Piedmont-Sardinia 1859 and Prussia 1866, 1866 war forced emperor Franz Josef to renegotiate structure of the empire, to hold off revolution agreed to new federal structure Dual Monarchy, now had a more common system of taxation, common army, and made foreign and military policy together, Francis Joseph was emperor of Austria and king of Hungary

Serbia

become inspired by independence movements, some who live in Austro-Hungary who want to break away and be part of Serbia, ethnic nationalism, big factor of WWI

Women Writers, Gender and Romanticism

belief in individuality and creativity went in many directions, became cult of artistic genius, inexplicably and uniquely creative individual who saw things others couldn't, led people to seek experiences that would create intense emotions and spark imagination and creativity, ranged from foreign travel to use of opium, Romantic style encouraged daring to defy conventions like Lord Byron, the Shelleys, and George Sand, Sand was living as a women writer, taking lovers at pleasure and disguising as a man, women stimulated new thinking about gender and creativity, common at the time to assert men were rational and women emotional or intuitive, many Romantics accepted gender differences as natural and some exalted superior moral virtues of women, since Romantics put a lot of emphasis on emotions as an essential part of artistic creation, some female writers and painters used this to claim a place for themselves, Germaine de Stael moved from France to Germany and was a key part of popularizing German Romanticism in France, allowed Madame de Stael to describe herself as a genius, suggested that men could be emotional and that feelings are part of common human nature, for literate middle-class Romanticism gave a way to express own search for individual expression and feeling in writing and thinking about love, reached beyond small circles of artists and writers into everyday writing and thoughts

Otto von Bismarck Background

born into Junker class of conservative, land-owning aristocrats, fiercely opposed liberal movement in 1848, not a nationalist, before all else a Prussian, didn't institute domestic reforms because he favored rights of a group but because he thought the policies would unify and strengthen the state, brought other German states under Prussian domination because he believed union in some form was inevitable and Prussia had to seize it, acknowledged that he admired power, thought of himself as destined for greatness, reputation for cynicism arrogance and uninhibited frankness in expressing his views, said "man cannot create or control tide of time, can only move in same direction and try to direct it", defied parliamentary opposition, dissolved parliament when they wouldn't pass the budget, claimed that constitution hadn't been designed to subvert the state, had decisive foreign policy, played national card to preempt liberal opponents at home and make German nation building an accomplishment and extension of Prussian authority

European Economic Benefits of Instability in China

boxer rebellion 1900, secret society of young men trained in martial arts, antiforeigner and anti-missionary, spark for widespread uprising in North, rebellion mobilized global response, Great Powers of Europe came together to tear China apart, demanded indemnities, new trading concessions, and reassurances, rebellion showed vulnerability of imperial power, in process Europeans propped up corrupt and fragile governments to protect themselves, by 1900 almost all of Asia divided except for Japan, imperial rivalries drove European powers to press influence and economic advantages, encouraged development of nationalist feeling with local populations

Women's Rights

by 1884, Germany, France, and Britain had enfranchised most men, women relegated to status as second-class citizens, women pressed their interests through independent organizations and forms of direct action, right to vote was the idea that you are a complete person, more than political goes with morals, 1900 had property rights, divorce rights and access to education, more developed countries, greater rights to women, but still not enough, not taken seriously the right to vote

Electricity

by the 1880s, alternators and transformers produce high-voltage alternating current, Edison invented the incandescent filament lamp in 1879, lighting cities, massive public transit, expand where people could live, had gas lamps before and now less dangerous and have brighter lights

Klemens von Metternich

called the architect of peace, he organizes it all, witnessed the popular violence of the French Revolution while studying at University of Strasbourg in 1789, left him with lifelong hatred of revolutions, main concern was checking Russian expansionism and preventing political and social change, favored treating defeated French with moderation, remained an archconservative who restored harsh repressive tactics like secret police and spying, peace was enormously effective and helped to prevent a major European war until WWI

Berlin Conference

called to settle matter of control of Congo River basin, chaired by Bismarck, established rules for new phase, Britain, France and Germany had a settlement that said valley open to free trade and commerce, slave trade run by Islamic kingdoms suppressed, Congo Free State set up, denied control of the area from any single country

Redefining Womanhood

campaign for women's suffrage helped redefine Victorian gender roles, increasing visibility of women, middle-class women and work, worked as social workers and clerks, nurses, and teachers, British women established their own colleges at Oxford and Cambridge in the 1870s and 1880s, women, politics, and reform, poor relief, prison reform, temperance movements, abolition of slavery, education, the "new" woman, demanded education and a job, claimed the right to be physically and intellectually active, new woman as image, few women actually fitted the image created by artists and journalists, opposition: never exclusively male opposition, Mrs. Humphrey Ward— women in politics would sap the strength of the empire, christian commentators criticized suffragists for moral decay, others argued that feminism would dissolve the family

Romantic Painting

carried themes of nature and imagination, British John Constable and J. M. W. Turner developed more emotional and poetic approaches to depicting nature, Constable aimed to capture the poetry of a rainbow, Turner made subjective paintings that were unconventional, critics said there were incomprehensible, French Theodore Gericault and Eugene Delacroix produced different paintings but were still preoccupied by subjectivity and creative process, Romantic experiments in art paved way for later development of modernism, art that depicts crazy people, jealousy, anger, the rugged individual, paintings of man against the world, conquering, appreciating nature, power an fury of nature in competition with ideas of Enlightenment, nature is wild and powerful, creative and destructive and both are important, subtle religious things that are not as direct and central to the piece, historical scenes that show the power of nature, glorification of the past, looking back fondly, good old times idea, romanticized the image of knights, lots or ruins, old empires, lots of nationalism with figures rising from the ruins, highly critical of technology and science because they saw effects of industrialization, painting for broader middle class and not just elite, country life and glorifying it, imaging that country life was nice easy and peaceful, interest in occult, exotic and macabre, gothic scenes

The First Russian Revolution (1905)

causes: loss of the Russo-Japanese War, Tsar is ineffective authoritarian, rapid industrialization had transformed Russia unevenly, low grain prices resulted in peasant uprisings, student radicalism, Russian inefficiency, radical workers organized strikes and demonstrations, Bloody Sunday (January 22, 1905) was culmination of the revolution, two hundred thousand workers led by Father Gapon demonstrated at the Winter Palace, guard troops killed 130 and wounded several hundred, protest grew, merchants closed stores, factory owners shut down factories, lawyers refused to hear cases, autocracy had lost control, Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto, guaranteed individual liberties, creates Russian legislature of the Duma, makes the legislature so that representatives are picked from different districts and most districts are made favorable to him, get gets to nominate some, moderately liberal franchise for the election of a Duma, genuine legislative veto powers for the Duma, by the time the people realize that the legislation wasn't really people power the revolutionary fervor dies out, Nicholas failed to see that fundamental change was needed, 1905-1907: Nicholas revoked most of the promises made in October, deprived the Duma of its principal powers, Peter Stolypin (1862-1911) and the Stolypin reforms (1906-1911), agrarian reforms for the sale of 5 million acres of royal land to peasants, granted peasants permission to withdraw for the mir, canceled peasant property debts, legalized trade unions, established sickness and accident insurance, Russian agriculture remained suspended between emerging capitalism and the peasant commune

Thought Overview

challenges to rationality by Pavlov, Freud, and Nietzsche, psychology, irrational and animalistic side of human nature, objective (scientific) understanding of human behavior, anxiety over the value and limits of human reason

French Interest in Africa

colonialism in Africa started before age of imperialism, Algerian conquest and had control of important cities on Mediterranean Sea, Algeria became settler state, not all were French, new creole communities outnumbered Algerians, economic activity for Europe's benefit, 1870s made colony a department of France, gave settlers full rights, power to pass laws in Algeria, divide and rule strategy that treated groups differently, after defeat in Franco-Prussian War became more adamant about benefits of colonialism, reinforce international influence, superior notions with commitment to economic and tech progress and liberation from many things, under Jules Ferry got Tunisia, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, carried civilizing mission into colonies, Federation of French West Africa 1895, loosely organized administration, French control uneven, dealt lightly with local leaders, established own courts and laws only in cities, aimed to rationalize economic exploitation and implement careful management and development of resources, enhance value of region, schools, railroads, academies, stuff like that, mostly served French interests, not often successful, didn't have enough money and resources to complete their plans, massive peasant resistance, resorted to forced labor, turned blind eye to slave labor, investment in colonialism was cultural and was symbol of nation's modernity, power and world leadership

Sigmund Freud (1856-1936)

considered father of modern psychology, before it was something only studied and in clinical sense, earliest to work with clients and develop ideas of asking questions and having them explore own psyche, also way he viewed people, stage theory: idea that humans develop in stages, first to suggest this, behavior largely motivated by unconscious and irrational forces, unconscious drives and desires conflict with the rational and moral conscience, the psyche, Id: undisciplined desires for pleasure and gratification, superego: the conscience and common sense (conditioned by morality and culture), ego: basically brain, operates logically, area where the conflict between id and superego is worked out, said when any is not working correctly that is where mental illness comes in, need a balance

Zionism: Theodor Herzl (1860-1904)

considered the Dreyfus Affair to be an expression of a fundamental problem, Jews might never be assimilated into European culture, endorsed Zionism—building a separate Jewish homeland outside Europe, Zionism as a modern nationalist movement, The State of the Jews (1896) convened the first Zionist Congress in Switzerland in 1897

Liberalism

core was commitment to individual liberties or rights, believed most important function of government was to protect liberties, protection would benefit all, promote justice, knowledge, progress and prosperity, three components, equality before the law which meant ending traditional privileges and restrictive power of rank and hereditary authority, government needed to be based on political rights and consent of the governed, believed individuals should be free to engage in economic activities without interference from state or community, roots of legal and political liberalism was in work of John Locke who defended Parliament's rebellion against absolutism and inalienable rights of British people, developed by Enlightenment writers and influenced by founding texts of American and French Revolutions, freedom from arbitrary authority, imprisonment, and censorship, freedom of the press, right to assemble and deliberate, individual rights and that they were inalienable and should be guaranteed by a written constitution, constitutional monarchy instead of hereditary, agreed that a monarch who abused power could legitimately be overthrown, advocated direct representation in government for those who had property and public standing to be trusted with responsibilities of power, didn't require democracy, 1800 liberals torn between belief in rights and fears of political turmoil, considered property and education essential prerequisites for participation in politics, wealthy liberals opposed extending suffrage to common people, demand for universal male suffrage was too radical as was suffrage of women or colored people, liberalism inherited the contradictions of the Enlightenment, belief in individual liberty collided with vested economic interests, determination to preserve order and property and increasingly scientific theories of racial inequality, believed government should have consent of citizens but more likely to support restricted qualification for citizenship, remained suspicious of direct democracy and wanted constitutional safeguards

Poland in 1830-32

crisis for the Concert of Europe, revolt then spread to Poland which was governed by Russian tsar's brother Constantine, Poland had its own parliament, relatively broad electorate, a constitution and basic liberties of speech and the press, Russian head of state increasingly ignored these liberties but the 1830 French Revolution tipped the state into revolt, revolutionaries included aristocrats, students, military officers and middle-class people, drove out Constantine, about 50,000 lost on each side but there are more Russians, within less than a year Russia retook Warsaw and conservative tsar Nicholas crushed the revolt and put Poland under military rule, still considered a kingdom, lose all civil liberties, many Poles leave

New Ideologies in Politics

debates about citizenship, sovereignty and slavery were very lively, debate about political change with groups with incompatible world view, modern political ideologies of conservatism, liberalism, socialism and nationalism began to form, didn't have parties as we know them today, more clearly defined groups and competing ideologies took shape during this period, ideology: coherent system of thought that claims to represent the workings and structure of the social order and its relationship to political powers and institutions, compete with each other of how the world is or should be, ongoing battles about the legacy of the French Revolution brought the ideologies to the front, Industrial Revolution and social changes that came with the political and social thought led to development of socialism as a political and social project

British Romantic Poetry

developed first in England and Germany as a reaction to the Enlightenment, early Romantic's developed ideas from dissenters like Rousseau, another poet: Samuel Taylor Coleridge, poetry had key theme of view of nature that rejected abstract mechanism of 18th century Enlightenment thought, nature was not a system to be dissected by science but a source of sublime power that nourished human soul, more poets came in later: Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, lives and loves often appealed to readers, Byron was an aristocrat, rich, handsome and defiant of convention, Byron's love affairs gave Romantics reputation as rebels against conformity but hardly carefree, Byron rebelled against political leaders in Britain and labeled them as corrupt and repressive, Byron defended working-class movements and fought in war for Greek independence, Shelley emphasized themes of individual audacity in "Prometheus Unbound", defied all powerful god, stole fire for humanity and was punished, Shelley's poem celebrated selfless mythic hero comparable to Christ, he described need for overthrow of tyranny in the name of new political ideal of struggle and hope

Economic, Nationalistic/Strategic and Cultural Causes of Imperialism

driven by interests of wealthy men, taxpayers subsidized armies, journalism increase public enthusiasm, finance and business distorted conceptions of real national interests, Lenin believed was best understood on economic ground but thought it was integral part to "late stage" of capitalism, forced to invest and search for new markets, more extensive pressure for expansion of imperialism, economic pressure were just one cause, expected colonies to produce profits, hopes contributed to expansionism, emphasis on strategic and nationalist motives, rivalries made more determined to control more areas, link between imperialism and nation building, showed military power, power of national economy, strength of people, force of laws, power of culture, strong national community could assimilate others, continuation of desire for unity, cultural dimensions, arms against slave trade, famine, disorder and illiteracy seemed a reason to invade Africa and a duty and proof of superiority, helped show how central empire building was to self image of West, motives all overlapped, economic helped convince policies that strategic matters at stake, different constituencies had different visions and purposes and benefits of imperialism, less of a long range plan and instead series of quick responses to different situations, goals and intentions shaped by social changes in other countries

Russia: the Road to Revolution

economic boom ends around 1890, 1900 there is a recession and Russia gets hit hard, internal conflicts and an autocratic political system, threatened by Western industrialization and Western political doctrines, Russian industrialization (1880s-1890s), state-directed industrial development, serfs emancipated in 1861, no independent middle class capable of raising capital, heightened social tensions, workers left their villages temporarily to work and then returned for planting and harvest, hurts growing middle class and farmers, legal system has no recognition of trade unions or employers' associations, outdated banking and finance laws

Franco-Prussian War 1870-71

final step in completion of German unity, hoped conflict would arouse German nationalism in Bavaria, Wuttemburg and other southern states outside of the confederation, diplomatic tempest concerning right of Prussian ruling family to occupy Spanish throne made chance to foment a Franco-Prussian misunderstanding, King William agreed to meet with French ambassador to discuss Spanish succession, France made a mistake asking for the royal family to be excluded from the Spanish throne, Bismarck took the chance, edited the telegraph to make it look like William had rebuffed the French ambassador, report reached France nation reacted with calls for war, Bismarck published evidence that he claimed proved French aspirations for Rhineland, once war declared south states came to help Prussia and war was soon over, France couldn't match professionally trained and well equipped army, war started in July and ended in September with captured of Napoleon III, forces continued to hold out through the winter but the imperial government had collapsed

Charles Maurice de Talleyrand

french prince has a strong supporting role, been a bishop and a revolutionary and survived the Terror in exile in the USA, became Napoleon's foreign minister, and then Louis XVIII's foreign minister, really good at manipulating things, at first France is kept out because they initially causes the problems, starts to sow dissention with the smaller powers and the larger powers decide it is easier to let him in

The Frankfurt Assembly

full of middle class professionals and academics, historians call it the Professors Assembly, push idea of German unification, most moderate liberals so not looking to establish a republic or socialism, wanted Germany united under a strong king and with a liberal constitution, but don't have resources sovereign power or single legal code, nationalist question "Great German" position and "Small Germany", left out lands of Habsburgs, don't want Austria because they are too divided, look to Frederick William IV to give him the crown, belief that he would be strong enough to hold it and would be grateful for power and create a liberal constitution, he refuses because he is a divine right guy so he doesn't want a crown from a parliament, thought it was unfair to steal power from smaller German states, delegates left assembly disillusioned, popular revolution, peasants ransacked tax offices and burned castles, workers smashed machines, citizen militias, newspapers and political clubs, failure is important because idea of unification still simmers in Germany and shows figures that they need to change their strategy in order for Germany to unite

Marxism

goes through many interpretations after Marx dies, styles will develop and look at realities of situation, development of labor unions help gain access to politics and better wages, push and achieve two things Marx says they will never get, have more people in working class able to vote, now have political representation and better wages

Marx's Background and Start

grew up in Rhine near French border, family was Jewish but father converted to Protestantism so he could work as a lawyer, studied law briefly at University of Berlin but then went to philosophy, really interested in the ideas of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, with Young Hegelians (group of rebellious students) appropriated Hegel's concepts for radical politics, repudiated all religious affiliations and was atheist, his radicalism made it impossible for him to have a job at a university, became a journalist writing articles about peasants "stealing" wood from forests that were once common land, edited "Rhineland Gazette" a liberal paper that criticized legal privilege and political repression, shut down by Prussian government and sent Marx to exile in Paris then Brussels and then London, in Paris studied early socialist theory, economics and history of French Revolution, began lifelong intellectual and political partnership with Friedrich Engels, Engels was son of textile manufacturer in Rhineland and was sent to learn business with merchant firm in Manchester, Engels worked in family business until 1870, wrote denouncing miserable working and living conditions in Manchester and the systematic inequalities of capitalism "The Condition of the Working Classes in England" 1844

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)

ideas about philosophy, not most popularly read philosopher, begin to move philosophical thought away from traditional views (from Enlightenment and Romanticism), says everything liberals and conservatives hold sacred are meaningless (democracy and religious institutions), ultimately constrain us from being our truest selves, nihilism and idea that nothing matters is a part but not completely, middle-class culture dominated by illusions and self-deceptions, rejected rational argumentation, bourgeois faith in science, progress, and democracy as a futile search for truth, ridiculed Judeo-Christian morality for instilling a repressive conformity, themes of personal liberation, believe there are "supermen" who will rise above and use art and strong personally developed character to lead mankind, mankind doesn't believe the way true belief is, we've twisted it, it's it just what you do, becomes popular in WWI when faith in reason and emotion is shattered, will inspire existentialists

Guiseppe Mazzini

leading Italian nationalist, grand vision for Italian unification, leads revolution movements - fighting and political, travels over Europe looking for support, begins group called Young Italy, can't join if older than 30 - seen as a youth movement, from Genoa in Piedmont, began political career as member of Carbonari which is underground society pledged to resist Austrian control, 1831 founded society Young Italy which was anti-Austrian and in favor of constitutional reforms, dedicated to Italian unification, one of best known nationalists at the time, spoke in Romantic tones of awakening the people and common mission to bring republicanism to the world, Young Italy clubs multiplied, favored tactics: plotting mutinies and armed rebellions, 1834 launched invasion of kingdom of Sardinia but it fizzled and drove him to exile, republican vision of united Italy clashed with goals of potential allies

Radicalism and Republicanism

left of liberalism, pressed further than a constitutional monarchy and demanded a government by the people, expanded franchise, democratic participation in politics, distinction was dependent on criteria used to define citizenship, more committed to political equality and advocated more open definitions of citizenship regardless of wealth or social standing, sympathized openly with Jacobins in the French Republic, more likely to support civilian militias, free public education and civic liberties like free press and right to assemble, very few republicans supported allowing women to vote, virtues needed for citizenship (rationalist, sobriety, independence of mind) were thought to be masculine traits, emphasized direct democracy and political equality

Thomas Malthus and David Riccardo

liberal economists, Malthus say population growing exponentially and food production grows arithmetically, need to allow natural forces to decrease population, encouraged the smaller sizes of family, "Essay on the Principles of Population", takes this further and Riccardo makes Iron Law of Wages, updating the ideas of Smith by taking into consideration industrialization, realizing competition didn't apply to everything like farming, mining, labor heavy jobs that were unskilled and semi-skilled, people at bottom wages always at lowest possible point, would be paid only just enough so they would come to work and no more, believed governments should do nothing to help the poor, Riccardo sees it as a cycle: when the economy is good and fewer people looking for jobs economy will grow, larger people more poverty so the next generation will have less children, then the next group will be fine, if you help the poor, increase poverty because number of jobs can never keep up with growing number of people

Crimean War 1853 - 1856 Causes

lot of stuff going on, strengthen and weaken alliances, by 1850 Ottoman Empire is crumbling, root cause was Eastern Question and decline of Ottoman Empire, crisis that provoked the war was religious, French and Russian claims to protect religious minorities and holy places of Jerusalem within Muslim Ottoman Empire, lots of Jesus places controlled, managed and protected by Russian clergy, because of Russian aggression they kick out Russians and give protection rights to France, 1853 three way dispute with France (Roman Catholics), Russia (Eastern Orthodox) and Turkey devolved into Russian confrontation with Turkish sultan, Russians moved into Ottoman governed territories of Moldovia and Walachia, confident Turkey would be unable to resist and concerned others may take advantage, Russians were persuaded they would be supported by British, Russians see themselves as protectors of slaves, wanted more access to water to sail ships freely into Mediterranean, rest of Europe don't want this, France and Britain don't want Russia to be any stronger, will have alliance of countries that come to aid Ottomans

Revolt against Restoration

lot of this revolt was clandestine, Italian peninsula the Carbonari vowed to oppose government in Vienna and the conservative allies, some called for constitutions and representative government and others praised Bonaparte, Carbonari influence spread through southern Europe and France, members met in secret and identified each other through rituals, veterans of Napoleon's armies and military officers were prominent in these ranks, in Naples, Piedmont, Spain and Spanish empire opposition to the Concert of Europe turned to revolt when restored monarchs betrayed promises of reform, Metternich responded by making Austria, Prussia and Russia take a strong stand against revolution, Troppau Memorandum (1820) conservative regimes pledged to help each other suppress revolt, Austria dealt with the Italian revolts, France sent troops to the Iberian peninsula to crush revolutionaries and restore the authority of King Ferdinand

Revolutions and Nation Building Overview

lots of revolts like crazy amount, most symbolic: March 13, 1848 Metternich forced to resign as minister of state while crowd outside celebrated his departure, conservative balanced system of international relations swept aside with enthusiasm for liberal political ideals and popular anger, Metternich had to flee to England where King Louis-Philippe already was, 1848 revolutions strongly linked to powerful forces of change from French Revolution, last wave of revolutionary movements that started at the end of 18th century, first part of new movement with huge consequences for 20th century, large issues: revolutionary regime change, territorial expansion, economic development, debates on who deserved citizenship, nation had taken on new identity, new radical idea that nations of like peoples and states should be congruent with one another, 1789 -1848 commonly associated nationalism with liberalism, upheavals of 1848 marked high point in the period of liberal revolution and their failure marked the end of the age, end of 19th century conservative governments mobilized people by invoking nationalist themes, only socialism went against the nationalist movement as Marx thought German, British and French workers had more in common with each other, even socialist movements developed nationalist political contexts making socialism in one state different that it in the next, after 1848 was shift in connections between liberalism, nationalism and nation building, territorial changes, France, Britain, Russia and Austria overhauled their bureaucracies, expanded electorates, and reorganized relations among ethnic groups, Russian tsar abolished serfdom, balance of power in Europe shifted towards state that were earliest to industrialize and most successful in building strong centralized states, changing relations between states and those they governed

Habsburg Lands

many ethnic and language groups: Germans, Czechs, Magyars, Poles, Slovaks, Serbs, and Italians, nationalist sentiment strongest among Polish aristocrats, Habsburgs played Polish serfs against Polish lords, Hungarian nationalist claims advanced by the small Magyar aristocracy, Lajos Kossuth (1802-1894) was member of the lower nobility, published transcripts of parliamentary debates, campaigned for independence and a separate Hungarian parliament, wanted to bring politics to the people (staged political "banquets"), Pan-Slavish: Russians, Poles, Ukrainians, Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Macedonians, and Bulgarians, desire for a union of Slavic-speaking people, resented oppressive Russian rule

Meaning of Liberty and Freedom

meant different things in different countries, in colonies liberal parties demanded freedom from foreign rule, in southeast and central Europe it meant eliminating feudal privilege and allowing at least educated elite access to political power, more rights for local parliaments, representative national political institutions, issue of a constitutional representative government, in Russia, Prussia and France liberty meant political freedoms like the right to vote, assemble, and print political opinions without censorship, in Great Britain liberals focused on expanding franchise on economics and free trade and reforms aimed to create limited and efficient government

Late 19th Century Liberalism

middle-class liberals found themselves on the defensive after 1870, mass politics upset the balance between middle-class interests and traditional elites, trade unions, socialists, and feminists all challenged Europe's governing class, government's response was a mixture of conciliation and repression, what was required was a distinctly modern form of mass politics

Citizenship and Community: Nationalism

most difficult to grasp, at best it brings people together, at its worst it puts people against others, early 1800 nation became symbol of legal equality, constitutional government, unity, or end to feudal privileges and divisions, conservatives disliked the term, national unity and creation of national political institutions threatened to erode power of local aristocrats, new nations rested on constitutions which conservatives saw as abstract and dangerous, nationalism became a rallying cry for liberals because it was associated with political transformation, celebrated the achievements and political awakening of the common people, went along with demands for economic modernity by liberals, economists like Friedrich List wanted to develop national economies and national infrastructures so they are larger, stronger, better integrated and more effective systems of banking, trade, transportation, production and distribution, contrary to some liberal ideas in saying that in commitment to building nations there may be sacrifice of some measure of citizen's freedom, wrote as if national feeling was natural, inscribed in movement of history, national identity changed and developed historically, rested on political and economic developments, rising literacy, creation of national institutions like schools or military, new importance of national rituals, voting, holidays, village festivals, singing anthems, government sought to develop national feeling to link people more closely to the state, state-supported educational systems taught national language which fought centrifugal forces of traditional dialects, Italian became national language except only 2.5% of population spoke it, even a minority could define a national culture, political leaders associated nation with specific causes, ordinary activities helped people imagine and identify with other citizens, nation is imagined as limited, sovereign and a community because regardless of everything else there is a deep comradeship, different meanings of nationhood and various political beliefs and powerful emotions it tapped made nationalism unpredictable

Russia: The Decembrists

most major and initial revolt, 1825 Tsar Alexander died and group of army officers known as Decembrists led an uprising to push pace of reform, hoped that Nicholas I would be weaker and nicer, many were veterans of the Napoleonic Wars and feared Russia wouldn't live up to its promise to be the liberator of Europe without a change in its social and political order, during time in France to keep the peace, say all the degrees of freedom, serfdom contradicted the promise of liberation as well as the tsar's monopoly on power, peasants were enslaved and nobles were slaves to the tsar, failed to gain support from rank and file soldiers and without their support they couldn't succeed, Tsar Nicholas I interrogated with many soldiers and sentenced a lot of people to hard labor and exile to Siberia, the first Russians exiled to Siberia, five leaders were all young and leading members of the aristocratic elite, all sentenced to death, Tsar feared they would be seen as martyrs so they were hung at dawn behind the walls of a fortress in St. Petersburg and buried in secret graves, Alexander Herzen carried on the Decembrists' unresolved political legacy

Tory Party

reforms began with conservative Tory Party when Catholics and non-Anglican Protestants not allowed to participate in public life, refused to reform representation in House of Commons, landowners had used their power to return members of parliament who would serve their interests, argued that interests of landed property coincided with nation at large

Scramble for Africa Overview

scope and speed was astonishing, effects were profound, mastered logistical problems of transport and communication, learned how to keep out disease, new weapons, made armed resistance almost impossible, lots of indirect on the coasts because there is a higher concentration of people, south eastern part has a lot of direct with farmsteads more open grasslands with fertile lands, lot of wealth usually comes from herding because land isn't as valuable

Crimean War 1853 - 1856 Effects

negative effect for everyone but Sardinians, French and Sardinians it bolstered positive national sentiments, British and Russians it provoked waves of intense criticism, Ottomans get even weaker and have more pushing for independence (Serbia), Britain will enter "Splendid Isolation" only not getting into European wars but will move throughout the world, France will look for more successes, peace settlement dealt a blow to Russia, Russian influence drastically curbed in Balkans, Moldavia and Walachia united as Romania and became independent, go through periodic periods of modernization, will have another period thanks to the Crimean War, fought the war with mostly same methods and mentalities as Napoleonic Wars, brought innovations that forecast direction of modern warfare, first significant use of rifled muskets, underwater mines and trench warfare, rifles don't take as long to load and are more accurate, first tactical use of railroads and telegraphs, transportation and communication faster than ever before, war was covered by first modern war correspondents and photojournalists, most public war to date, London Times reporter William Howard Russell heaped criticism on government for the conditions, care and supply of troops became national scandal, public opinions will shift dramatically, produced dramatic changes in military's administrative and logistical systems, made heroes of individual doctors and nurses like Nightingale, Roger Fenton was most prominent and prolific war photographer and captured grim realities of camp life, introduced new level of realism and immediacy to conception of war

Economic Liberalism

newer with founding text "Wealth of Nations", attacked mercantilism in name of free markets, argument that economy should be based on system of natural liberty was reinforced by second generation of economists and popularized in journals, sought to identify basic economic laws: law of supply and demand, balance of trade, law of diminishing returns, argued that economic policy had to start by recognizing the laws, David Ricardo from Britain set laws of wages and ofrents in trying to determine long-run outcomes of fluctuations, believed economic activity should be unregulated, labor contracted freely, unhampered by guilds or unions or state interference, property unencumbered by feudal restrictions, goods should circulate freely which meant end to government-granted monopolies, trade barriers, import tariffs and traditional practices of regulating markets like invaluable commodities like grain, flour and corn, believed function of the state should be kept to minimum, argued markets couldn't function without states to preserve the rule of law and government's role was to preserve order and protect property but not interfere with natural play of economic forces

Types of Imperialism Overview

no one technique because were forced to shift strategies a lot, lawyers, guns and money, expanded dramatically, biggest show of this: scramble for Africa 1875 - 1902, also over China and Turkey, southeast Asia, central and south America, seen as developments in new stage of empire building

Darwin's Revolutionary Theory

oOrganic evolution by natural selection transformed the conception of nature itself, unsettling new picture of human biology, behavior, and society, similar to Copernicus in taking importance of man out and more on science and space, Jean Lamarck (1744-1829): behavioral changes could alter physical characteristics within a single generation, new traits could be passed on to offspring, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) doesn't come up with evolution but he collects a lot of evidence to back up the theory, offers all the evidence that leads to natural selection, The Origin of Species (1859), theorized that variations within a population made certain individuals better adapted for survival, drew on the population theories of Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), Malthusian competition led to adaptation and ultimately survival, Darwin used natural selection to explain the origin of new species, things just happened, not divinely inspired, applied theory to plant and animal species as well as to man, The Descent of Man (1871), human race had evolved from an apelike ancestor

Cultural Conflicts in India

often met resistance and protest, Great Mutiny - revolt of Indian soldiers on British army, soldiers were disciplined for not using cartridges greased with pork fat, involved social economic and political grievances, attacked law courts and burned tax rolls, protest debt and corrupt, annexed areas defended traditional leader, religious leaders took the chance to denounce missionaries and assault on local traditions, loyal Indian troops from the south come up and British soldiers from Crimean War, all burning and blood caught British public's attention, made them seem like heroes, transformed the state to only a resource source, India no longer had large production, now had to reorganize empire and develop new strategies, Company was abolished and replaced by crown, British Raj governed directly but also had collaborators and cooperative groups, largely left to Indian princes with British advisers, reorganized military, indigenous troops separated, sought to rule upper classes rather than be in opposition, civil service opened positions to Indian upper class, missionary activity not encouraged anymore, more secular reform projects, still had some lack on consensus on strategies, Viceroy of India: Lord Curzon, most prominent representatives of new imperialism in India, needed to see how central India was to make this work, became largest export market, India supplied: trade, balance of payments, human resources, laborers, indentured servants, engineers, land surveyors, clerks, teachers, merchants, indirect rule wanted to create Indian elite that would serve British interests, created British educated Indian civil servants and businessmen, provided leadership for nationalist movement against Britain, large economic gap forming

Changes in National Political Structure

opened the political process to new participants, efforts to expand the franchise (1860s-1870s), new constituencies of working-class men, labor's struggle with capital cast on a national scale, socialist organizations abandoned their insurrectionary radicalism and opted for reform

Anarchists

opposed to centrally organized economics and politics, advocated small-scale, localized democracy, similar foundations as Marxism, but different approaches to change, went beyond Marx who said government should have control of economy, don't trust government with anything, needs to be destroyed, need moderate justice system, can't trust them to run our lives, conspiratorial vanguard violence, limited appeal, generally in super repressive government where there is no way for expression or in weak government with limited voting participation, assassination of Tsar Alexander II (1881), Bakunin: "exemplary terror" could spark popular revolt

Orientalism

passion for theories and histories of distinctive cultures created broad interest in non-European cultures of North Africa, eastern Mediterranean, Arabian Peninsula, and southern and eastern Asia, scholars who went with Napoleon to Egypt collected information on history and culture, took Rosetta Stone, published "Description of Egypt" from 1809-1828 in 23 volumes, heightened growing interest in Eastern languages and history, political echoes of the cultural fascination was seen in great power rivalries with British incursion into India, Greek war for independence and French invasion of Algeria, cast the orient as contrasting mirror for own civilization, created a sense of own identity as Europeans, didn't really promote accurate understanding of diversity of cultures, painted landscapes with sensuous colors and emphasized sensuality, mystery and irrationality of Eastern peoples, fascination with medieval history and religion brought interest to medieval crusades, encouraged Romantic literature and art and helped crystalize sense of difference between East and West

Early Socialism

pointed out that giving men a vote wouldn't definitely mean the eradication of other forms of injustice and inequality, raised the social question and insistent it was an urgent political matter, offered responses and different ways of redistributing economic and social power, ranged from cooperation and new ways of organizing everyday life to collective ownership of means of production, system of thought and response to visible problems brought by industrialization: intensification of labor, poverty of working class neighborhoods, perception that hierarchy based on rank and privilege was replaced by one based on social class, thought problems of industrial society weren't incidental, came from core principles of competition, individualism and private property, didn't oppose industry and economic development, believed society could be industrial and humane, often utopian, Louis Blanc campaigned universal male suffrage with eye to giving working class men control of the state, French politician and journalist, instead of protecting private property and manufacturing class, would become banker of the poor, extend credit to those who needed it and establish associations of production, series of workshops governed by laborers that would guarantee jobs and security, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon proposed establishing producers' cooperatives, sell goods at a price workers could afford, working class credit unions, questioned "What is Property?, answer was property is theft, became a widely read socialist pamphlet, familiar to artisans, laborers and middle-class intellectuals like Marx

Role of States and Individuals in Partitioning and Colonizing Africa

pressured other powers to expand, Scramble for Africa happening, 1884 Berlin Conference made it easier, French and Portuguese increased holdings, Italy moved along Red Sea, Germany came in late because Bismarck reluctant, but didn't want Britain or France to dominate, fascinated by imperial adventure, French wanted to move west to east, later expedition to Fashoda, Britain was in south and east, all by one dude: Cecil Rhodes, diamond tycoon, colonial politician, imperial visionary, founded company DeBeers after lots of money from diamond mines, became prime minister of Cape Colony, two goals, one personal to build empire founded on diamonds that would funnel money to his company, imperial goal was British presence along eastern Africa (Cape to Cairo railway) and to make Britain self-sufficient, as each battle for advantages brought more of Africa under direct control, mix of direct and indirect foreign rule

Exotic Portrayals of Non-Europeans in Europe

propagandist literature, tins of boxes, background themes in ad posters, museums and fairs display products of empire, exotic people, imperialist songs, novels of the period, fantasy and adventure, adds mystery and fascination

Cavour

pursued ambitious and pragmatic reforms guided by the state, was prime minister, promoted economic expansion, encouraged construction of modern transportation infrastructure, reformed currency, wanted to raise Piedmont-Sardinia's profile in international relations, depended on diplomacy, cultivated alliance with Austria's rival Napoleonic France, 1858 secret meeting with Napoleon III who agreed to cooperate in driving Austrians out of Italy if Piedmont would cede Savoy and Nice to France, war with Austria provoked in 1859, after conquest of Lombardy Napoleon III withdrew concerned that he might lose the battle or antagonize Catholics who were alienated by Cavour's hostility towards the pope, Piedmont now couldn't expel Austrians from Venetia, made gains, annexed Lombardy, Duchies of Tuscany, Parma and Modena agreed by plebiscite to join the new state, end Piedmont-Sardinia had grown significantly and became most powerful state, worked to consolidate northern and central states, worried Garibaldi's forces would bring French or Austrian intervention, feared his irresistible prestige, preferred unification happened quickly under Piedmont-Sardinia without domestic turmoil or unpredictable negotiations, dispatched his army with Emmanuel to Rome, ordered Garibaldi to cede him military authority and Garibaldi obeyed

Role of Nationalism in Imperialism

really important, conflicts and bad results effect imperialism, lose something and get more enthused to go conquer other areas, all about nationalistic egos, replacement for European wars for a large chunk of time, nationalistic energies pushed into imperialism

British Radicalism and the Chartist Movement

reformers who were disappointed with narrow gains in 1832 pushed for expanded political reforms, attention was focused on petition called "People's Charter", six demands: universal white male suffrage, secret ballot, end to property qualifications as condition of public office, annual parliament elections, salaries for members of House of Commons, and equal electoral districts, organized committees across the country and it was eventually signed by millions, spread in climate of economic hardship in 1840s, tapped into local traditions of worker self-help but disagreed with tactics and goals, William Lovett believed in self-improvement and advocated a union of educated workers that could claim fair share of increasing industrial wealth, Fergus O'Connor appealed to impoverished and desperate workers by attacking industrialization and resettlement of poor on agricultural allotments, James Bronterre O'Brien openly expressed admiration for Robespierre and attacked big-bellied little-brained numbskull aristocracy, common goal was social justice through political democracy, Parliament rejected their petitions in 1839 and 1842, members of the movement resorted to strikes, trade union demonstrations and attacks on factories and manufacturers who imposed low wages and long hours or harassed unionists, push Parliament to make small reforms over time and that is why they do not have any revolt, movement people April 1842, inspired by revolutions on the continent, leaders planned major demonstration in London, 25,000 workers warried a petition with 6 million signatures to Parliament, special constables and regular army units were marshaled by Duke of Wellington to resist any threat to public order, in end only small delegation presented the petition, rain and unwillingness to battle put an end to the movement

International Economics

search for markets, goods, and influence fueled imperial expansion, trade barriers arose to protect home markets, all nations except Britain raised tariffs, interlocking, worldwide system of manufacturing, trade, and finance, near-universal adoption of the gold standard, most European countries imported more than they exported, relied on "invisible" exports: shipping, insurance, and banking, London as money market of the world, mass manufacturing and commodity production changed patterns of consumption and production

Spread of Socialist Parties

spread of socialist parties—and alternatives, Marxist socialism spread to social democratic parties in Germany, Belgium, France, Austria, and Russia, disciplined, politicized workers' organizations, aimed at seizing control of the state for revolutionary change, model of all socialist parties was the German Social Democratic Party (SPD, founded 1875), strove for political change within Germany's parliamentary system, eventually adopted an explicitly Marxist platform, before World War I, the Social Democrats were the best-organized workers' party in the world: explanations, rapid and extension industrialization, large urban working class, new parliamentary constitution, national government hostile to organized labor, no tradition of liberal reform, Britain: Labour Party (1901), remained moderate and committed to incremental reform, left wing looking for government regulation to help working class

Opium in China

started before period of imperialism, forced favorable trade agreements at gunpoint, set up treaty ports and established missionary work, confrontation with China brought by global ambitions and rising power, constant friction between China and Britain, opium was a direct link, one of few things Europeans could sell in China, because important to balance of trade, in capturing India got big opium growing areas and heavily involved in the trade, used silver from selling opium to buy Chinese goods, will help destabilize and open Chinese markets, production and export rose dramatically, more confrontation as Chinese Emperor didn't want opium, large and wealthy Chinese elite provided a lot of the market, will become dependent on other countries, other European countries get cities and have guaranteed markets

Overview of Austro-Hungarian Empire

succeeded for a time in making different type of political and culture space, Vienna developed reputation for intellectual and cultural refinement, product of the mix of peoples (Germans, Jews, Hungarians, Italians, Czechs, Poles, Serbs, Croats, Balkan Muslims), polyglot culture produced Bela Bartok who was a great composer, Gustav Mahler another composer, Sigmund Freud the doctor who helped shape modern psychology, Gustav Klimt a painter, Austria emperor's opposition to nationalism was geopolitical and a defense of different relationship between nation-state and culture, didn't want to build a nation-state on common cultural identity, tried to build state and administrative structure strong enough to keep everything from falling apart, played groups against each other sometimes, other times gave greater autonomy to others, eventually disconnected subject nationalities would appeal to other powers and balancing would be harder

British Women's Suffrage Campaigns

variety of political backgrounds, only conservatives are the only that argue against it, nervousness of what happens then?, women pioneer civil disobedience, Derby Day 1913, Emily Wilding Davidson, wanted to make serious and clear sacrifice but was Christian, put herself in harms way of a horse race, immediately killed by the king's horse, gains media attention, gives a lot of popularity to the cause, exploded in violence, Millicent Fawcett (1847-1929), National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (1897), composed of sixteen different organizations, movement lacked political and economic clout, Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928), ounded the Women's Social and Political Union (1903), adopted tactics of militancy and civil disobedience, women chained themselves to the visitor's gallery in the House of Commons, slashed paintings in museums, disrupted political meetings, burned the homes of politicians, British government countered this violence with repression, six-hour riot between suffragists and police in 1910, martyrdom of Emily Wilding Davison (1913), was moving towards suffrage but with WWI was pushed into supporting the war, took up the jobs of men when they went to war, after the war they got the right, Britain is first major country to give the right 1818, New Zealand was 1893, frontier country didn't have the luxury of sexism because stuff just needed to get done

Goals of the Congress

wanted to restore order by insisting that dynastic rulers were only legitimate political authority, recognized Louis XVIII as legitimate sovereign of France and confirmed restoration of Bourbon rulers in Spain and Two Sicilies, enact soft peace on France, doesn't get to keep anything it gained but doesn't lose any territory from before, boundaries are the same as 1789, don't want Louis to have to compete with the image of Napoleon in France, other monarchs had no interest in undermining the restoration, guiding principle of the peace was balance of power which said no country should be powerful enough to destabilize international relations, immediate goal was to build a barrier against renewed French expansion, strong enough to be a speed bump, Dutch Republic was restored as the Kingdom of the Netherlands, ceded the left bank of Rhine to Prussia and Austria expanded into Northern Italy, reorganized German states reducing the number to 39, Prussia and Habsburg Austria joined the states in a loosely structured German Confederation, Austria held the presidency as a check against Prussian attempts to increase regional influence, Bavaria, Württemberg and Saxony remained independent, nominally independent kingdom of Poland under the control of Tsar Alexander with large areas of former Polish areas given to Austria and Prussia, Britain demanded compensation and received French territories in South Africa and South America