Exam 2

Schengen

Schengen refers to the agreement in 1985 to get rid of internal broder checks between EU member nations as a way of making the single market more efficient.

Treaty of Paris (EU)

Created the European Coal and Steel Community

European System of Central Banks (ESCB)

The European System of Central Banks is one of two overlapping spheres of the European Central Bank. The European System of Central Banks includes the European Central Banks, and the central banks of all member states regardless of if they use the Euro. The Eurosystem is the ECB and all central banks of memeber states that use the Euro. This term is important to understanding European politics for multiple reasons. The first is that by having both the ESCB and the Eurosystem it demonstrates the concept of multispeed integration in which member states are at different places when it comes to harmonization with European policy. Second the member nations that are part of the ESCB but not the Eurosystem are all in eastern or central europe which shows the divide between the east and the west that still exists, and the economic inequality that exists between these two groups of states. The eastern european countries have not been able to beenfit as much from the policies of the EU which creates divisions and tensions within the community.

Value added tax (VAT)

A value added is a tax on the value added at every stage of the production process. This term is important to understanding European politics for many reasons. The first is that different taxation policies in member states, like policies on VAT, were considered to be a fiscal barrier to the single market. Since EU integration is almost always justified through the impacts policy has on the single market and trade, the SEA decided to create policy that would alleviate the policy differences on VAT. By deciding on a common policy for VAT, EU politicians and bureaucrats made buying products across Europe easier. This not only made the economy more efficient, but beasue EU citizens had an easier time buying products from different countries it also meant that a common material culture could be created. The single market not only makes EU countries wealthier, it also makes it easier for EU citizens to identify as Europeans because they see the benefits within it.

EU presidency.

Although there is not a single president of the EU each of the main institutions does have a president. There is the president of the Commission, the council of ministers presidency, the president of the EP, and the president of the European council. The president of the Commission is selected by national leaders and approved by the EP, the council of ministers presidency is controlled by states, not a single person, and in actuality forms a 3 member team because the current state in charge works closely with the predeccessors and incumbent, the president of the EP is selected by the majoirty of MEPs, and the president of the European council is selected by national leaders. Out of all of these the presidency of the Commission or the presidency of the council of ministers is the most powerful. The Commission president is able to hand out the policy portfolios to the commissioners selected by the national members, and they tend to be the public face of the EU. The presidency of the council of ministers is powerful in the fact that it gets to control the policy initatives of one of the most powerful EU institutions.

Boris Johnson

Boris Johnson is the current PM of the UK, he is a coservative, and also helped complete the separation of the UK from the EU. Johnson is important in understanding European politics in many ways. First, he was a big proponent of the UK leaving the EU and was the PM who helped complete the deals that led to the completion of this spearation. Second, Boris Johnson also butchered the early response to COVID and was very late to the game when it came to banning mass gatherings.

Brexit

Brexit refers to the decision to leave the European Union made in 2016 by a referendum. This term is important to European politics for a few reasons. One, it represents the distant and troubled relationship that the UK has always had with the EU. The UK was unable to join the EU until 1973, because other countries, particularly France were uninterested. The UK has also constantly been given opt-outs of programs because they did not want to join them. For example, the UK absolutely refused to sign on to the Social Charter until Blair had become PM. They have also been concerned with the ECJ because it challenges the concept of parliamentary supremacy because the ECJ could strike down laws. This decision is also important because it impacts many of the core policies and issues of the EU. For example, it will be a blow to the CAP, because rural UK was a majorer exporter of certain agricultural products. It also decreases the influence of the EU in international issues because the EU has now lost a permanent seat on the UN security council. However, as discussed in class, because the UK got so many opt-outs, the impact of England leaving the EU might not be so big of a deal.

Cohesion

Cohesion refers to policies that the EU engages in to help level the economic and social playing field between the member nations of the EU. This term is important to European politics for many reasons. The first is that the fact that cohesion policies like the EBRD and the Social Fund have to exist demonstrates the rifts within the EU, particuarly between the North and South and the East and West. These divisions not only are seen in economic issues like differences in infrastructure and unemployment rates, but it also a cultural thing too, this makes further integration and supranationalism more difficult. Cohesion policy is also important to European politics because it is representative of how barriers in the single market are the reason why EU gets involved in social policy issues. Economics is the driver of EU integration.

Conciliation

Conciliation refers to the step in the ordinary legislative procedure in which representatives come together from the Council of Ministers and the Commission in order to hammer out differences in the proposals they want to accept. This term is important for understanding European politics in a couple of ways. First, the fact that a conciliation process exists or even the ordinary legislative process exists demonstrates the way in which the European Parliament has slowly grown in power relative to the Council. Before this process was laid out in Maastrict, the EP only had the consent or consultation process in which they could accept or reject, and sometimes ask for amendments. With this process, they are able to act more and more like a legislative body. The other reason this step is important is that allowing this process to happen is a step in the right direction for the EU when it comes to solving its democratic deficit issue. One of the major critiques of the EU is that citizens do not have a lot of direct influence on the proposals that are created or on who is in charge, by giving the EP, which is the only directly elected institution, power over this process, it gives voters more of a say in what goes on in the EU.

European Economic Community

Created in 1957 by France, West Germany, Italy and three Benelux countries with the goal of creating a single European market. It would do this by trying to continuously remove the barriers to the free movement of goods, capital, services, and labor. This was finally achieved in the 1993 when the single market was finalized. This term is important to understanding European politics because the EEC has been the driver of integration and supranationalism for the EU. Although memebr nations have been way of giving up sovereignty in other areas, such as criminal law or social policy, the EEC is one of the oldest examples of the EU engaging in supranationalism. The EEC has also been a crucial part in creating a common European identity because as barriers to movement were reduced people were being to buy and consume similar products, they were able to travel and study abroad more easily, companies began to merge together. Furthermore, the creation of the EEC and its goals has given the EU a way to sneak into other policy areas such as environmental issues and workers rights because the ECJ has rules that these policies influence the single market. Therefore, the EEC has not only been the most supranationalistic policy, it has also driven integration in other areas.

European Community (EC)

Created in 1957 by the 6 founding members. It was an economic association that included 3 institutions: The European Economic Community, the European Coal and Steel Community, and Euratom. In 1993, it became one of the 3 pillars of the EU, and was dissolved into the EU in 2009 by Lisbon. This term is important when understanding European politics because these economic institutions that made up the European Community would be the driver of integration and supranationalism. Economic areas are the first policies in which member nations are comfortable with giving up sovereignty and would allow the EU to eventually create integration in other policy areas.

Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty/TEU)

Created in 1993, the Treaty on the European Union created the 3 pillars, European Communities, Common Foreign and Security Policy, and Justice and Home Affairs. The goal of it was to deepen integration by creating a European citizenship and further integrate European economic and monetary policy. This term is important for understanding European politics in many ways. First, it created an EU citizenship which not only made it easier for workers to move around and have rights in different member states, it also provides a foundational base for creating a common European identity which is crucial for further integration. Second, it kickstarted the process of deepening EU integration on the economic side of things by starting to work on the process of creating a central bank, which started its work in 1998, and to begin the process of creating a common currency. These are important to integration because they make the single market run more efficiently and it was a massive cessession of soveriengty. Finally, Maastricht demonstrated how even though some areas were becoming more and more integrated, like economic issues, member states were still extremely hesistant to give up sovereignty on issues of CFSP and JHA because those policies were decided on using unanimity and not QMV.

Treaties of Rome (1957)

Created the European Economic Community and Euratom Created the goal of completing the single market Common agriculture and transport policy European social fund and European Investment Bank Changes to the institutions created for the ECSC

Directorates General (DGs)

DGs are part of the European Commission and represent the different policy areas that the EU handles. For example, there is a DG that handles agriculture, one that handles comeptition, etc. This term is important to understading European politics in many ways. The first is that the DGs are very representative of the amount that the EU relies upon and has built up the bureaucracy. One of the major complaints of Eurosceptics is that the EU is way too bogged down by a bureacuracy that is not very transparent and is wasteful. However, the DGs also demonstrate how much the EU relies on expertise. The Eurocrats who make up the DGs go to special schools and take specific tests and compete against a lot of other people to get the jobs that they do. Therefore, the policies the DGs create are based on expert opinions. The Eurocrats who make up the DGs have also helped to build a common European identity because they have created this kind of bureaucratic culture in which people from member nations all know each other, and make deals and proposals over lunch, and all live in the same areas.

Deepening

Deepening refers one of the ways that people see the EU evolving in the future. Deepening would mean that EU would stop adding members, and would instead focus on increasing integration and cooperation amongst member states. This term is important for European politics in many ways. First, by engaging in deepening instead of widening, the EU would be able to spend the time fixing its weak spots such as its foreign policy and cohesion with eastern european members. However, its also important to note that deepening beyond economic issues into the political and social realm is difficult because it requires member states to give up sovereignty that they may not be willing to give up, especially if it involves important culutural issues.

Economic and Financial Affairs (ECOFIN)

ECOFIN is one of the ten councils that make up the council of ministers. It is one of the most important and meets up monthly. This council works on economic policy, policies reagrding the euro, and along with the EP, passes the budget of the EU. ECOFIN is important to European politics because it demonstrates how economic issues are the driver of european integration. The fact that it is considered one of the most important councils demonstrates how much time and effort the EU puts into issues such as the euro, the single market, and the budget.

European Political Community/Cooperation (EPC)

EPC can refer to the European Political Community or the European Political Cooperation. The European Political Community is a reference to a plan in the early 1950s to create a European federation, however, those plans were shelved after the European Defense Community had failed to come about. The European Political Cooperation refers to a time period in the 1970s in which foreign ministers from different states were having regular meetings to try to create a common set of policies for ambassadors, especially those in the Middle East. It was the replaced by the Common Foreign and Security Policy with the passing of the Maastricht treaty. This term is important when studying European politics because it demonstrates the evolution of the EU and how intergovernmentalism has always been an obstacle to further integration. The failure of the EPC in the 1950s demonstrates how there has always been a tension between intergovernmentalists and supranationalists over how much the EU should be integrated. Clearly, in the 1950s, there was not enough appetite for political integration and the focus and support was mainly behind economic integration. However, the ability for the European Political Cooperation to come to fruition shows how Europeans have become more comfortable with collaborating in other areas besides economics. However, it is important to note that foreign policy still remains one of the weakest links of the EU because member states are unwilling to give up sovereignty in these areas still.

Erasmus

Erasums is an EU education policy that encourages students and faculty from universities within the EU and some countries outside the EU to move around to different universities in other countries. This policy has been helped along by the Bologna Process which has made credit transfers for university degrees much simpler. The reason this policy is important to understanding European politics, is that social and education policies like this one, have been crucial in creating a common European identity. Younger generations who have grown up with Erasmus have been able to study and live abroad much more easily than previous generations. By forming a common European identity, the EU is getting closer and closer to forming a federal like government because one of the key components of a federal government is that everyone shares a common identity. Furthermore, Erasmus has helped in the economic world because it makes it easier to taked their educational qualifications to different parts of the EU and people feel more comfortable speaking and living within these different countries for work.

functional integration

Functional integration, otherwise known as functionalism, was a theory created by David Mittrany. Essentially, Mittrany believed in creating peace by pieces, which meant that countries who are wanting peace and cooperation should start with small and uncontroversial areas, like postal services, and eventually cooperation will expand. This term is important to European politics for a couple of reasons. First, this theory does a good job of demonstrating the process that the EU had gone though. Government leaders started off with the cooperation of coal and steel, then the entire single market, and is now starting to get involved in foreign and social policy. However, this theory is also important because Mittrany was concerned about the consequences of regional integration. He believed it would just lead to tensions between regions instead of countries. Mittrany was not entirely wrong. The expansion and power of the EU has ruffled the feathers of both Russia and the United States, with tensions between them being more difficult than ever.

Harmonization

Harmonization refers to the process of creating common laws, standards, and regulations across the EU, it is typically done in reagrds to the single market. This term in important in understanding European politics for a couple of reasons. First, since harmonization is usually done around standards that have to do with the single market it is indicative of how much integration of the EU is driven by economics. For example, the reason that proposals were getting created on workers rights and healthcare was not because they felt it was simply the right thing to do, it was because harmonization of these laws would remove barriers to the completion of the single market. Another reason why this term is important is that it is also indicative of how the EU has slowly integrated over time and is becoming more and more supranational. Instead of using the community method that Monnet wanted to use, harmonization meant that countries can still maintain their sovereignty.

Intergovernmental conferences (IGCs)

Intergovernmental conferences are meetings that take place between representatives of EU member states outside of the normal EU meeting framework. This term is important in understanding European politics for a couple of reasons. IGCs represent the ways that the EU is not as supranational as some may believe it to be. Since they are meeting outside of the EU framework all of the power lies with member states and their representatives, not with the more supranational aspects of the EU such as the Commission. IGCs almost always take place right before or during work on major pieces of legislation like treaties and major proposals. It demonstrates that national interests and fears of losing sovereignty still drive the process of the EU and can limit how much power the institutions have if work is allowed to happen outside of them.

Intergovernmentalism

Intergovernmentalism is the idea that decisions are made as a result of negotiations between sovereign member states. This term is important to understanding European politics in many was. The first is that some scholars see the EU and all of its institutions as existing on a spectrum from intergovernmental to supranational. This push and pull between the two extremes has had some impact on how the EU works. For example, institutions like the Council of Ministers and the European Council are much more intergovernmental and can be seen as representatives trying to get the best deal for their member nations. Whereas, people who work in the Commission or the ECJ are much more suprnational and they tend to make decisions that are the best for the EU and give the EU the most power. These debates about which is better have caused tensions within the EU, such as the empty chair crisis. It's also important to note that as time as passed, the EU has become more and more supranational and integrated over time. For example, what started off as removal on internal trade barriers, led to a common external tariff, which led to the reduction of barriers to movement, and eventually the creation of a common currency. Each step has also required that the EU write proposals on issues that are not necessarily related to the issues of the single market, like healthcare.

Justice and Home Affairs

Issues of Justice and Home Affairs began to pop up as the single market was heading towards completion in the 70s and as the Schengen area was completed. JHA tends to focus on areas relating to creating common policies and cooperation on judicial, police, and security needs. This term is important to understanding European politics for many reasons. The first reason is that JHA demonstrates the idea of spillover in which the integration of policies in one area, in this case economics, eventually necessitates the cooperation of policies in another, security concerns. In this case by removing barriers to movement and trade it became clear the countries would need to have some cooperation to keep EU citizens safe. This term is also important to European politics because it demonstrates the intergovernmentalism aspects of the EU and the inefficienies that can cause. For example, when Maastricht made JHA one of the pillars it still remained intergovernmental, meaning that policies could only be passed through unanimity because these issues are so deeply tied with soveriegnty. This does not mean JHA policies have been a total failure, for example, the EWS has made great strides in improving cooperation between member states on criminal issues. However, because this policy area remains so intergovernmental it makes it extremely difficult for the EU to respond to crises like the migration crisis of 2015.

Subsidarity

Subsidairty refers to the idea that the EU should only handle the policy areas in which it has been given authority or issues in which cooperation is the best solution. This term is important to understanding European politics in many ways. First, it demonstrates how member nations are very much wary of giving up power, especially in areas with lots of culutral importance such as law and education. Furthermore, because who controls policy changes between policy areas, it can make the procedures very complicated to understand.

Jean Monnet

Jean Monnet, along with Robert Schumann, was one of the founders of the insitutions that would become the EU after the end of WWII. This person is important to understanding European politics in many ways. First, Monnet was ardently against having just another intergovernmental organization that would be bogged down by nationalistic agendas. He was a federalist who wanted to see a supranationalistc EU that could prevent war from breaking out again. Although he did not get all that he wanted, for example the collapse of the European Political Community and the European Defense Community, he still managed to create the institutions that still exist in the EU today which have been massive drivers of integration. Second, Monnet's concerns about the French losing power is a trend that has continuosuly popped up throughout the history of the EU. For example, de Gaulle engaging in the empty chair crisis, France throwing a fit about the president of the ECB, and France wanting a protectionist policy for the CAP to protect French farmers. All of these moments would have a drastic impact on the shape of EU policies.

Liberal Intergovernmentalism

Liberal intergovernmentalism is a theory of European integration which argues that integration is the result of individual member states deciding at the national level how much they are willing to integrate and then they go to the European level to bargain and compromise. In this theory, individual states are the most important. This term is important when studying European politics. First, it does explain the institutions of the European Council and the Council of Ministers. In both of these institutions, national intersts are what drives the process of what these institutions are able to accomplish. However, it is also important to note that this theory can't really explain the work of the Commission, since the bureaucrats who make up this institution have created a common culture amongst themselves and create proposals that try to increase the authority of the EU. The way in which the theory both works and fails demonstrates how complex studying the EU is because it is a unique institution and there is no one theory that can perfectly encapsulate how it works.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

NATO refers to the agreement between 30 countries from North American and Europe that was signed after WWII which states that if any of their countries are attacked they will respond as well. This term is important to the EU for several reasons. The first is that NATO being signed after WWII allowed Europe the military security from the Soviet Union in order to begin constructing the institutions of the EU. Another reason why NATO is important to understanding European politics is it now represents a point of contetion between the US and the EU. After the Cold War, the US was hoping to spend less on military expenses and that Europe would start spending more, however the war on terror proved otherwise. Furthermore, the US has had to take charge on many of the issues NATO has gotten involved with since the Cold War because EU members do not put up a united front when it comes to foreign policy issues. Finally, involvement with NATO represents a division between EU members of those who want a closer relationship with the US, called Atlanticists, and those who want to distance themselves from the US, called Europeanists.

Neo-coporatism

Neo-corporatism refers to the way that individual European countries and the EU interacts with interest groups. In this form, the public is able to form whichever groups it likes, and the government will provide some sort of institution in order to hear their concerns. This is different from pluralism in which interest groups compete using their resources to get access to the government. This term is important to understanding European politics for many reasons. The first is that this theory explains the existence of the EESC which hears the concerns of industries, labor, and other interest groups. This committee has the ability to consult with the Commission as they are making proposals. However, it is also important to note that neo-coporatism exists on a spectrum. So although this group does have the ability to share its opinion to the Commission, there is nothing preventing the Commission from not writing its recommendations into the proposals. Furthermore, because the members of this committee are unpaid and the fact that globalization has tipped the power balance in favor of corporations, it is debatable how much power this institution has.

Neo-functionalism

Neo-functionalism took the theory of functionalism and applied it specifically to the study of European integration. The scholars who subscribe to this theory state that integration in one area, specifically economics, would snowball into integration into other areas like political and social areas. This term is important in understanding European politics. First, this theory does explain the process of what European politics has gone through. For example, in order to make the single market more complete, member states agreed to get rid of internal border checks, which led the member states to need to begin cooperation in police and immigration matters. However, it is also important to note that this theory does not account for how the EU has at time stagnated or seemed to regress. For example, during the immigration crisis, instead of cooperating with each other to help process all of the refugees, member states began to reinstate internal border checks. What this demonstrates is that there is no one theory that can explain how the EU works because it is a unique institution.

Pillars

Pillars refers to the 3 pillars that were created by the treaty of Maastricht. These pillars were the European communities, the common foreign and security policies, and Justice and Home Affairs. This term is important to understanding European politicis in important ways. First the fact that supranationalsim was the focus of the European communities, and that intergovernmentalism was the focus of the other two demonstrates how economics and the single market has been the policy area that has been the driver. Second, the creation the CFSP acknowledge that the EU was expected to play more of a role in the realm of international affairs, but the fact that it was more intergovernmental created the issue of foreign policy for the EU which still exists which is the inability to show a united front. Finally, the creation of JHA is important because it recognized that with Schengen, the EU needed to cooperate more on issues of policing, however, because it was and still is a very intergovernmental policy area it remains a weak point for the EU.

Competences/portfolios

Portfolio refers to the area of policies that a commissioner has been assigned to by the Commission president to oversee. For example, there will be a commissioner who oversees agricultural policy. This term is important to understanding European politics in many ways. The first is that although politics and lobbying does play a role in the which commissioners gets what policy, the president is also ensuring that the person they select has background and knowledge in the subject area. This demonstrates the way in which EU bureauracry is not really based in political bargaining, rather it is based in expertise, which leads to better and more efficient policy making. Another reason why protfolios are important to understand is that they demonstrate some of the differences between the member nations, particuarly those between the east and the west. As discussed in class, commissioners sent from eastern states often do not have the expertise to handle the major policy portfolios, like agriculture and budget, so they have been given some of the portfolios surrounding cultural issues.

Treaty of Amesterdam (1997)

Prepare EU for eastward expansion Shift policy goals to include issues such as criminal law, immigration, foreign policy, and unemployment

Central and Eastern European Countries (CEEC)

Refers to countries such as Czech Republic, Bulgaria, and Poland. They mainly joined the EU follow the fall of the Soviet Union. This term is important to understanding European politics in many ways. First, there is a massive cohesion issue when it comes to east and western European. Countries that are part of the CEEC often struggle to keep up with the social and economic policies set by the EU. A lot of the cohesion fund money goes to these countries in order to develop their infrastructure and help with unemployment. This lack of cohesion makes integration more difficult. Another reason why this term is important is that it shows the cultural and political divides that exist within the EU and harm integration. For example, these countries have seen a rise in right-wing authoritarianism that is more eurosceptical. These countries also more likely to restrict access to abortion, keep out Muslim immigrants, and are less likely to protect LGBTQ+ rights. All of these divides make it more difficult to pass proposals that the CEEC are willing or able to implement, and therefore makes integration more difficult.

European Bank for Reconstruction and Development

Started operating in 1991 after the fall of the Soviet Union. Owned by 61 shareholder countries. Their job is to help Eastern European countries transition into the free market. This term is important for understanding European politics in many ways. The main reason is that the EBRD can be seen as an example of cohesion policy, in which the founding members of the EU, are trying to spend money on things like infrastructure policy to level the playing field and allow for further integration of the single market. This term is also a good example of the divisions between the east and the west. Not only is western Europe more wealthy than the eastern portion, but their history of communism means they have different outlooks on all sorts of policies, not just economic. Finally, the EBRD and other massive monetary programs like it can explain why the EU is going through a phase of enlargement fatigue in which they do not want to have to spend even more money to help level the playing field of other countries.

Supranationalism

Supranationalism refers to the concept of individual states giving up soverignty to a higher governmental authority in order to cooperate on some policy that they all hope to benefit from. This term is important in understanding European politics. First, although there has been some set backs, such as the migration crisis, for the most part the EU has slowly shifted from an institution from intergovernmentalism to one that is supranational in nature. Institutions such as the European Parliamanet and the European Court of Justice have only increased their power over time. However, it is important to note that just because there are supranational elements does not mean that the EU is a government. Member states still have significant power in multiple policy areas, such as foreign affairs, that prevents the EU from having total control.

Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

The CAP is one of the most controversial and well-known policies of the EU. The goal of the CAP which started after the Treaty of Rome was to create a single market for agricultural goods and to guarantee prices for EEC farmers for their products. This term is important to understanding European politics for many reasons. One reason it is so important is that it is representative of how culture can shape policies that are seemingly unrelated. For example, France is extremely sensitive to changes in the CAP because food is such an important part of their culture, specifically their wine and cheese, and they wanted to ensure a more protectionist policy that would protect this cultural aspect. Another reason why the CAP is important is is representative of the struggles the EU is constantly dealing with, mainly the wealth gap that exists between the West and East. Small Eastern European farmers are not benefitting from this policy as much as they should be because of corruption in government and because of big agriculture. Finally, the CAP is also representative of how the EU is able to change their policies quite efficiently to meet new goals and issues. For example, the CAP has gone through many reforms so that less waste is created and to meet new envrionemental goals that are based around sustainable development.

Common commerical policy (CCP)

The CCP, which was established by the Treaty of Rome, helps along economic integration of the EU because it creates a single representative that deals with external trade deals. So instead of the US having to negotiate with every single country of the EU, the EU sends one representative to negotiate deals. This term is important to understanding European politics because it is representative of how integration of the EU has been truly driven by economics. The fact that these countries gave up their negotiation power is a sign of their willingness to give up some of their sovereignty so that they can have more international power. The CCP represents of the major achievements of the EU because of how much economic power they have gained since the end of WWII. The EU is the second largest trading power in the world after the United States, and this amount of economic power also means it has a lot of soft power to yield when it comes to other issues outside of economics, like security.

Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)

The CFSP has its origins in Maastricht as it was one of the 3 pillars that was created and was based around intergovernmentalism, in which all members had to agree on a policy before it was implemented. However, Lisbon abolished the pillar structure and create a high representative that is essentially the foreign minister for the EU. The CFSP mainly focuses on defense, counter-terrorism, and trying to prevent human atrocities. This term is important in understanding European politics because it is one of the weak points of the European Union. The CFSP has failed to create a strong front of foreign policy for the EU. One example of this was the issues in the Balkans in which the EU was slow to react and did not do a good job, forcing the US to take more of a leadership role. Furthermore, the CFSP is a good example of how fears about losing soveriegnty have slowed down the efficency and integration of the EU. Since EU members are slow to give up their power over foreign policy and contribute to a common military it has made it difficult for the EU to have influence in international affairs through hard power.

Committee of Regions (CoR)

The CoR is a group of 350 people from member states that are usually members of local government and are grouped based on political affiliation. They are an advisory group that provides opinions and recommendations to the Commission, EP, and CoM. They first stared meeting in 1994 to work on solving the wealth gap that exists between member states. This group is important to understanding European politics because they demonstrate how the EU has struggled with integration because of economic disparaties between member countries, specifically between the East and West. However, they also represent another issue, the democratic deficit, because even though these people have been elected in local areas, the Commission and other insitutions are not required to enact their opinions on proposals. Finally, they also represent the regionalism that exists within the EU because areas of member states that have wanted to become their own countries, such as Catalonia, use this as a forum to state their beliefs.

Court of First Instance (CFI)

The Court of First Instance, now called the General Court, was created by the SEA in order to help with the workload of the ECJ. This court is usually the first stop for cases dealing with the EU and they usually handle the less complex cases. This term is important for many reasons in understanding the European Union. The first is that the creation of the Court of First Instance in the first place is a remarkable step towards supranationalism. This is because the ECJ is one of the most, if not the most, supranationalistc institutions of the EU. For EU member states to agree to expand the power of this branch with the creation of this court demonstrates how far the EU has come in terms of integration. Another reason why this court is important is it helps build upon the acquis communautaire which again by constantly ruling and building upon it the General Court is deepening EU integration by building a set of common laws and precedents.

European Central Bank (ECB)

The ECB's framework was included in Maastricht and was officially in operation in 1998. It's single mandate is to ensure price stability by setting interest rates and controlling the reserves of the euro. This term is important to European politics for many reasons. The first is that the creation of the ECB encapsulates the idea that european integration is driven by economics and specifically the single market. The fact that so many countries were willing to give up their national currencies and control over fiscal policy in order to further integrate the single market is a massive achievement and shows how far the EU has come. Another reason why the ECB is important is because conflicts over the actions it has taken or how it should run demonstrates the ways in which the EU is still not fully comfortable with giving up sovereignty. For example, the battle France had over who should be the first president with the rest of the countries, demonstrates how national interests can really slow down the efficiency of the EU.

European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)

The ECSC was established by the Treaty of Paris in 1951 following WWII and is considered the origins of the EU. The main goal of the group was to pool together coal and steel resources to prevent any country from building up enough supplies to start another world war. This term is important to European politics for many reasons. First, it establishes the idea of supranationalism and integration, in which the EU is creating policies that member nations have to follow. Second, it is the origin of many of the important institutions that the EU has today, like the Court of Justice. Third, it creates the trend that integration of Europe will be based around economic issues. Economic issues, like the regulation of coal and steel trade, have been the backbone of integration, because integration into these areas necessarily creates more issues and ideas that lead into integration into other areas.

European Monetary System (EMS)

The EMS was established in 1979 and was the predecessory to the European Monetary Union. The goal of the EMS was to ensure that the value of all of the European currencies would stay stable and relative to each other so that trade was easier and it would prepare citizens to eventually use a single currency. This term is important to understanding European politics in many ways. The first is that the EMS demonstrates how EU integration and supranationalism is driven by economics and the single market. The reason that countries were willing to give up some sovereignty when it came to control of their monetary policy is that it offered them the benefit of easier trade with each other. The other reason this term is important is the psychological and cultural effect the start of this process had. By allowing Europeans the ability to start getting comfortable exchanging currency with each other in a more simple fashion and to make it easier to buy each other's products the EU is allowing citizens to start to build a common European identity. If they are all buying the same products and getting comfortable with the idea of using the same currency, it creates similar experiences that all Europeans can share that is not based on nationality.

Economic and Monetary Union

The EMU has its origins in 1969 when EEC leaders decided to take on monetary and economic cooperation at the same time. However, the rubber really meets the road when in 1989, Delores, the president of the European Commission, released his 3 stage plan to remove barriers to movement of capital, cooperation between central banks of different european countries, and finally having a common currency. This term is important when studying European politics because it demonstrates how economic cooperation has been the driver of European integration. By having the a common currency and to the ECB take control of monetary policy, the single market has been able to flourish because citizens do not have to worry about currency exchanges. However, the EMU also represents some of the ways that the EU has been rather inefficient at handling crises. For example, the EMU really floundered when it came to the eurozone crisis and particularly the Greek aspect of it. These issues created a lot of internal divisions and tensions.

Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM)

The ERM was set up in 1979 as a way to stabilize the exchange rates of the different European countries in order to make trade easier and to prepare the EU to eventually adopt a single currency. This term is important to European politics in many ways. The first is that it demonstrates the way in which European integration and supranationalism is driven by the single market and economics. The ERM was created so that trade amongst member nations would be easier and therefore people could buy prodcuts and services from each other with ease. This also had a psychological effect because as Europeans were able to buy the same products with ease it could start to build a common European identity. However, the issues with the ERM also demonstrates how there is not always continual progress towards integration but there are moments of regression. In the 1990s, the ERM got close to collapse and countries wanted to pull, many countries had economies that were overheating, and it took a lot of effort to correct for these issues. The ERM demonstrates how the EU is not consistenly heading towards supranationalism but has been faced with multiple crises that reverse progress.

Ratification crisis

The EU has had to deal with ratification crises multiple times, the most important were the ratification crisis of the failed EU constitution, and the ratification crisis caused by Ireland failing to accept both the treaty of nice and the lisbon treaty on the first referendum. In 2005, the EU failed to ratify a constitutional treaty because French and Dutch voters both turned it down. The failure of the constitutional treaty is important because it demonstrates how national interests and intergovernmentalism can hinder the process of integration and demonstrates that although the EU has become more supranational over time, individual members still hold significant power. The failure of Ireland to ratify the treaty, one time because of low voter turnout and the other time because of a false propaganda campaign demonstrates some of the more modern issues that the EU is dealing with. For example, the EU has always struggled with a democratic deficit, part of it is because the institutions of the EU don't provide much opportunity for citizen participation but also because EU citizens consider EP elections and referendums to be second-order. This hinders the creation of a common European identity. The failure of the treaty of Lisbon is also interesting because it is almost prophetic of what was to come with Brexit.

European Defence Agency (EDA)

The European Defense Agency was created in 2004. It is led by the high representative and has the goal of increasing cooperation between member states on areas of military and defense. This term is important to understanding European politics because the EDA and other agencies regarding foreign policy and security have been some of the weakest parts of the EU. Member nations are still very wary of giving up sovereignty in these areas, and it has shown in their inability to respond to the Gulf War, the Balkans, and to effectively handle the migration crisis.

European Parliament (EP)

The European Parliament is one of the 2 "legislative" bodies of the EU. Since 1976, it has been popularly elected, and the number of seats is based on the population of each country, with the largest getting 29. The EP also has budgetary and oversight duties. This term is important to understanding European politics for many reasons. The first is that the lack of power the EP has had demonstrates the way that national intrests and intergovernmentalism still play a massive role in the way that the EU works. The EP is not allowed to create its own proposals and it cannot control its own budget. Although, recent changes to the power of the EP such as its increased involvment in the passing of proposals through the ordinay legislative process and the ability to have standing in the ECJ, demonstrates how the EU has slowly become more supranational and less intergovernmental over time. Another reason why the EP is important in understanding European politics is that the elections for the MEPs are often considered second order to national elections. Many Europeans do not vote in these elections, and many are unaware the EP is directly elected. This represents how far the EU has still to go to build a common European identity.

European People's Party (EPP)

The European People's Party is the center-right party of the EP and is also the biggest political group of the EP. The party is a supporter of the EU and supranationalism, and its policy preferences line up with the policies of Christian Democrat Parties. This term is important to understanding European politics for many reasons. The first is the fact that MEPs are grouped not based by country, but are seated based on political ideology demonstrates the way that the EU has tried to move past national interests and build a common European political culture. However, because groups like the EPP do not campaign across Europe but use individualized platforms for each country, demonstrates the way that national interests still play a major role within the EU. Finally, the EPP and other major political group, the Socialists, have seen their popularity and power shrink to parties that are eurosceptic on both sides of the aisle. This demonstrates one of the major concerns of the EU currently, which is how much will these eurosceptic ideas change the the role and power of the EU.

European Social Fund (ESF)

The European Social Fund is the oldest financial instrument of the EU dedicated to cohesion, it was started in 1957. The fund was created as a way to help along the single market through cohesion. Cohesion policy is the EU trying to address social and economic differences between member nations in order to make integration more smooth. The European Social Fund specifically address unemployment and worker mobility. This term is important to European politics for many reasons. It demonstrates how one of the obstacles of the single market, which still exists today, is that member states are not equal in economic and social standards, this is especially true of southern and eastern Europe. This can cause tension between member states because the wealthier member states believe people from poor member states will come to their states, and the poorer member states are frustrated that they are not benefitting as much as the wealtheir states from the economic success of the EU. The European Social Fund is also important to understand because it demonstrates how the single market has forced the Europeanization of other policy areas besides trade because those policy areas directly impact the single market. Therefore, programs like these are only possible because the single market requires them to exist in order to run more smoothly.

Organization for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC)

The Organization for European Economic Cooperation was created in 1948 as a way to distribute the funds that the US had provided through the Marshall Plan to the 16 European countries who had accepted them. This term is important to European politics in many ways. First, it demonstrates how integral the United States was in providing a foundational base for European cooperation and eventually the EU. Through the Marshall Plan and NATO, the US was able to provide the resources and time needed for EU to create the framework of cooperation. The other important part about the OEEC is it demonstrates how much EU integration surrounded economics and capital. The first policy areas that European countries were willing to give up sovereignty in was issues of trade and finances, this program is a perfect example of this.

Single European Act (SEA)

The SEA was signed in 1986 with the goal of jumpstarting the completion of the single market after an economic slowdown in the 1970s. It included several provisions that were made to make the integration process more efficient such as reducing internal border checks, outlawing protectionism, and ensuring that most issues dealing with the single market would be voted on in the CoM using QMV. This term is important when studying European politics because it truly demonstrates how economics and the single market are the drivers of integration for the EU. Policies like the removal of internal border checks were not passed to attempt to build a common European identity, they were passed to make the movement of labor easier, however it had the side effect of deepening intgeration in other ways. The SEA is also important to European politics because it shone a light on how the lack of economic and social cohesion was making the completion of the single market more difficult. Therefore, the EU started to focus on social policies like worker's rights, unemployment, health care, etc. which further deepened integration.

Treaty of Nice

The Treaty of Nice was signed in 2001 with the goal of preparing the EU to enlargen to include Eastern European countries. This term is important to understanding European politics in many ways. First, it increased the size of the EP, it ensured that each state within the EU only had 1 commissioner, forcing the larger states to give up its 2nd commissioner, and it created the triple majority formula for the QMV (which was changed by Lisbon to a double majority because it was too difficult to pass anything). These changes decreased some of the intergovernmentalism aspects of the EU by forcing the states to cooperate more, and it changed the power dynamics of the EU by stating that all EU members states would have equal representation in the Commission. The other important part of this treaty is that the Ireland's refusal to accept it after the first referendum demonstrates how low voter turnout and national interests can impede the process of integration of the EU.

Western European Union

The WEU, a military alliance, expanded the membership of the WU when it was signed in 1954. The members of the WEU represented France, UK, West Germany, Italy and the Benelux countries. This term is important for many reasons in understanding European politics. First, the inability for Europe to take control of foreign policy through organizations like the WEU and to have to rely heavily on the US for hard power, demonstrates a weak spot of the EU. The EU has never been good at responding to military conflicts and it often creates large divides between member nations. Second, because the WEU was essentially subsumed into the EU through the Common Security and Defense Policy also demonstrates how the EU has grown from mainly economic integration into an institution that is getting involved in many different policy areas that require member nations to give up sovereignty.

Co- decision or the "ordinary legislative procedure"

The co-decision process which was laid out in Maastricht is now the most common way that proposals from the Commission are now accepted. This process requires that all proposals be read 2 times by both the CoM and the EP, and if the two institutions do not agree on a common proposal they must form a conciliation committee to work out the differences. This term is important to European politics in many ways. First, it demonstrates how over time the EP, which is one of the more supranational aspects of the EU, has increased its power relative to the CoM. Before this, the EP did not have as much say in the acceptance or rejection of proposals and it was difficult for them to change the content. Another reason this term is important is that by giving the EP, the only directly elected body of the EU, more of a say in policies, the EU may be able to overcome some of the democratic deficits and get people more interested in EU politics. Since many Europeans consider EP elections to be second order in comparison to national elections, giving the EP more power may allow people to recognize the importance of EU policy in their lives and begin to get more involved.

Community method

The community method refers to how Jean Monnet and some of the early founders who were more for European federalism believed the EU should work. The community method is European policies simply replacing national policies. This term is important to European politics for many reasons. The first is that the Community method demonstrates the tensions that existed between politicians when the framework for what would become the EU was being created in the aftermath of WWII. There were some, like Monnet, who wanted to jump immediately to full on supranationalism. However, other politicians like de Gaulle, were more in favor of intergovernmentalism in which member nations held on to their sovereignty and voluntary cooperation was the way to go. Obviously, the ECSC, combined a little bit of both of methods. Finally, this term is important because although the European Community did not forward with the community method it does not mean they were unaware of the benefit of having the same laws they all had to follow. Currently, the EU uses a process of Europeanization in which national laws are harmonized with EU laws.

Constitutional Treaty

The constitutional treaty refers to the failed attempt in 2004 to create a constitution for the EU, instead of just relying on the acquis. This term is important to European politics for many reasons. The first is that although the EU has made some really important strides when it comes to integration and supranationalism, the fact that the constitutional treaty was not passed after voters in France and Netherlands rejected it, demonstrates how intergovernmental the EU remains. Meaning, member states and EU voters are still afraid to gove up their sovereignty. However, just because the EU was unable to pass this constitution does not mean the EU does not have a common legal tradition. First, many of the major policy points that were within the constitution did get added to the Lisbon treaty that was passed 4 years later. Second, the EU does have legal rights and precedent that is held up through the acquis communautaire which is the body of laws that the ECJ rules upon and that member states must follow. Finally, the erasmus generation provides some hope that the citizens who make up the EU still have the desire to share a common European identity built around a sense of shared values.

Consultation

The consultation procedure refers to how proposals were usally accepted before the creation of the ordinary legislative process. After the Council would receive a proposal, they would ask Parliament to accept or reject, and any amendments they would like to make. The Commission would make these changes, and then the Council would either accept or reject the proposal. This term is important to European politics in many ways. The first is that it represents how much less power the EP had before the ordinary legislative process was created. By giving the EP, a more suprnational institution, less power over legislation than the Council of Ministers, it represented the hold that intergovernmentalism had over the EU. Furthermore the switch from consultation procedure to the ordinary legislative process as the most common form of passing a proposal is a way for the EU to start to address the democratic deficit.

Convergence Criteria

The convergence criteria refers to the criteria that member states must meet before joining the eurozone. The budget deficit must not be more than 3% of the GDP, public debt must be 60% or lower of the GDP, inflation rate must be within 1.5% of the average of eurozone memebrs with the lowest, and the long-term interest rate must be within 2% of the average of the countries with the 3 lowest. This term is important to European politics for many reasons. The first is that issues with not ensuring that members were upholding these standards, specifically Greece, played a major role in what made the eurozone crisis so bad after the 2008 recession. Furthermore, the fact that there are members of the EU who are not part of the eurozone, either because they choose not to or they cannot meet the standards, demonstrates multispeed integration and rifts within the EU.

General Affairs Council (GAC)

The council is made up of the ministers of European affairs. They hold meetings once a month and help the European Council prepare for meetings and follows-up on the decisions made in those meetings. They also handle issues of the budget, cohesion, and enlargement. This term is important to understanding European politics because it demonstrates not only how the councils that are part of the Councils of Minsters work, but also how the European Council works. The Council of Ministers is not just one council of all of the ministers of each member state, but the people present in the meetings depends on the issue at hand. For example, if there is a meeting on foreign policy it will the be the foreign ministers. This term is also important because it shows how the European Council runs. The European Council will delegate tasks to other institutions so that it does not get bogged down in the details and can help guide the big policy ideas. The GAC ensures that the European Council is able to do that by preparing for these meetings and helping to follow up on the details so that their decisions can be implemented by the other institutions.

Customs Union

The customs union refers to the agreement between EU members to not have tariffs on trade between each other and an agreement to have a common extrernal tariff with countries outside of the EU and countries not part of the customs union. This term is important to understanding European politics in many ways. First it demonstrates how integration and supranationalism within the EU is driven by the single market and making trade more efficient. Second, the fact that these countries allow for the Commission to represent their countries in external trade agreements is representative of how much sovereignty EU member nations have been willing to give up in the name of having more wealth from trade.

Empty chair crisis

The empty chair crisis refers to a period of time in 1965 when de Gaulle and other French members of the EEC began to boycott meetings which prevented anything from getting done. De Gaulle was upset by some the changes that were proposed by the EEC to make it more supranational. This included changes to give the EP more power, the switch to majority voting to make decisions, and changes in funding to the CAP that moved it away from EEC member nation contributions to mor independent sources. This term is important to European politics in many ways. It represents the inherent deabte within the EU between intergovernmentalism and suprnationalism. This term is also important because it tipped the power balance in favor of the council of ministers.

European Court of Justice

The judicial branch of the EU. It has its origins in the European Coal and Steel community which was created in 1951. There are 27 judges, one for each member state, that get a 6 year renewable term. This term is important when studying European politics because it represents one of the most, if not the most, supranationalistic aspects of the EU. What makes the ECJ so interesting is the fact that it essentially has the power of judicial review to strike down national laws and actions, along with EU institutional laws and actions that do not follow the acquis communataire. Furthermore, the court has ruled on some important cases that have helped the EU become more integrated and supranational. For example, in Flaminio Costa, the ECJ ruled the EU law is supreme to national law. What also makes it more supranationalistic is that although there is one judge for each member nation, the judges rule secretly and do not write dissents, therefore it is less beneficial for them to take nationalistic concerns into considerations, and rule on what is actually in EU law. It also acts as a sort of check against some of the EU institutions if they do not follow the rules laid out in the various institutions.

Qualified Majority Voting

The voting system within the Council of Ministers that for a proposal to pass it must have a double majority. It means that 55% of member states, 15, with at least 65% of the population, is needed to pass a proposal from the Commission or take certain actions. In order to block, there must be at least 4 member states with at least 35% of the population. This term is important to European politics in many ways. The first is that as time has passed, more and more policy areas are falling under the purview of QMV. For example, environmental regulations are now voted on in this way. By tracking which policy areas are now voted on using QMV, it is possible to note how much more integrated the EU has become. On the other hand, there are still many issues in which the EU still requires unanimity, like the ones dealing with foreign policy. It shows which areas the member states are still very sensitive to soveriegnty and these issues also tend to be the ones in which the EU is less effective.

Members of European Parliament (MEPs)

These are politcians who since 1976 have been elected through PR to represent EU citizens in the European Parliament. This term is important to European politics in many ways. First, the fact that MEPs are the only directly elected politicians in the EU demonstrates one of the main critiques of the EU which is the fact that it suffers from a democratic deficit. The ministers in the council of ministers, the commissioners and the bureaucrats in the Commission, and the judges are all selected by member state governments. Therefore, many people believe that a common European identity is not really possible until the EU gets citizens more directly involved with European politics. Another reason why this term is important is that although MEPs are seated based on party affiliation and not country, the campaigns they run are not cross-national. Instead, candidates and parties tailor each campaign to specific memeber nations. This demonstrates the way in which the EU has not fully integrated and remains intergovernmental, even in EU institutions that are more supranational in nature.

Benelux countries

These countries are Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg. They have been extremely important to European politicans for many reasons. The main reason is that these 3 countries are 3 out of the 6 founding nations of the EU because they were part of the European Coal and Steel Community, therefore they have had a massive influence on the institutions of the EU and have benefited tremendously from the wealth that the EU has created. Second, these countries, and specifically Luxebourg and and Belgium have been at the heart of the bureaucracy of the EU. 1 out 4 Eurocrats is Belgian and these countries have allowed for a Eurocrat culture to flourish. This demonstrates how the EU has slowly but surely moved from a cooperation between people of various different nationalities, to an institution that is slowly building a common European identity.

Copenhagen Criteria

These were the criteria created in 1993 to create a set of rules about who would be allowed to join the EU. The first is that the country must follow rule of law and respect human rights, the second is that they must have a market economy, and the third is they must have the ability to implement the acquis communautaire. This term is important to European politics for many reasons. The main reason is that these criteria is an attempt to define who is European enough to join the EU and who is not. This is an issue that has come up again and again, especially since the expansion of eastern european countries into the EU. The other important aspect of it is by these standards, Turkey, the country that has been an issue of debate for EU member nations, would not be able to join the EU. The country does not have a good record of human rights, the country also has more of an authoritarian government, and given the economic situation it would take awhile for Turkey to be able to implement the aquis. Finally, the copenhagen critiera is interesting because of the situation of countries like Hungary and Poland. These countries have been slowly slipping towards authoritarianism, and it begs the questions what is the point in which these countries are no longer meeting the criteria and what will be the consquences.

Committee of Permanent Representatives

This organization which is a group that is part of Council of Ministers, is made up of permanent representatives sent by the member states. There are two subsections of CORPER. Corper I and Corper II. Corper I is made up of the deputies of the permanent represenatives and they work with the less important councils. Corper II are the permanent representatives that do work for the General Affairs, JHA, and Ecofin councils. This term is important to understanding European politics because this is one of the most influential institutions within the EU. These permanent representatives do about 90% of the work for the CoM. They determine which proposals from the Commission are going to go to the actual councils for a vote. Furthermore, because they are selected and sent my individual memeber states they also represent the agendas for their state. This demonstrates how intergovernmental the EU still is, and the fact that they are not elected but are one of the most powerful institutions demonstrates the democratic deficit within the EU.

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

This refers to the agreement between the US, Mexico, and Canda to reduce barriers of trade. The reason this term matters to European politics is because it demonstrates how far along the EU has come and how it is not merely a trade agreement. Although reducing internal barriers is seen as the first step to regional integration, none of the next steps have truly taken place like creating a common external tarrif, meaningful cooperation in other policy areas, or a common currency. The EU has taken steps or has met all of these other steps, which shows just how unique an institution the EU is.

Democratic deficit

This refers to the perception and critiques that some people have of the EU which is that there is not enough direct voter control of EU politicians and proposals. This term is important to European politics in many ways. First, its important to note that there is some debate within the academic world on how much of an issue this deficit actually is, since voters do have a lot of indirect control because many of the important figures are selected by the national governments. However, the fact that there is this perpception also does have some impacts, specifically psychologically on EU citizens. The fact that EU citizens believe they do not have a lot of control over what happens in the EU can make it harder to build a common European identity. However, it is also important to note that the EU has taken some small steps to address this issue. In 1976, they created direct elections for the EP, and with Maastricht they allowed the EP to have more power when it comes to the passing of proposals and the content that is within them. Although, the fact that politicians have not taken more steps to address this deficit also demonstrates how intergovernmental the EU truly is and how concerned member states are about giving up sovereignty

acquis communautaire

This term refers to the common body of laws that the EU has built over time that member nations must follow. This term is crucial to European politics for many reasons. The first is that acquis communataire is representatives= of many of the federalist characteristics of the EU. Although the EU is not a government, the fact that member nations must follow EU law, and that as the ECJ has ruled, EU law is supreme to national law, demonstrates how the EU is not simply cooperation between member nations. The aquis communautaire is also important because studying how it has grown over the years to include more than just economic and trade policy, but to now include environmental laws and social policy, shows how the EU has become more supranational and integrated over time.

Lisbon treaty

This treaty that was signed in 2008, was a result of the failure of the EU to create a constitution. This term is important to understanding European politics in many ways. First, it tries to address some of the issues of the democratic deficit and voter disinterest by giving the European Parliament basically equal powers over Commission proposals. This increase in power demonstrates how the EU has slowly become more supranational over time. Another important part of the Lisbon treaty is that it tries to address one the major issues the EU had with foreign policy which is there was no single representative who handled EU external relations. The Lisbon Treaty created the high representative who was part of the Council of Ministers and the European Commission, and is the face of EU foreign relations. Finally, the Lisbon Treaty also reduced some of the intergovernmentalism of the Council of Ministers by changing the QMV formula from a triple majority to a double majority, and stating that almost all policy areas that the CoM deals with is handled using QMV.

Stability and Growth Pact (SGP)

This was signed in 1997 and forced countries that were accepted into the Eurozone to keep their deficits and public debt levels around the ones listed in the convergence criteria. This term is important to European politics in many ways. The main reason why this term is important to European politics is that it demonstrates how even though the EU members sign these agreements, implementation can still be incredibly difficult and fail. In this case, member states had failed to follow the rules of the SGP, which in the case of Greece, made the Eurozone crisis much worse. However, the situation with the SGP also shows the way in which the EU is decently good at addressing past mistakes. Following the fallout of the eurozone crisis, Eurozone members agreed to reforms that made financial monitoring for SGP rules being followed was stronger, gave the ECJ power to deliver sanctions against those who refused to enshire the SGP into national law, and required member states to follow the SGP by putting it into their constitions or national law.

unanimity

Unanimity refers to a voting procedure within the council of ministers in which all of the ministers for that particular issue have to agree on something in order for it to pass. This term is important to understanding European politics for a couple of reasons. First, over time decision making for the council of ministers has used QMV for more and more policy areas. As of right now there are only a few policy areas in which unanimity is required. Second, the policy areas in which unanimity is requried represent some of the weakeast points of EU policy, specifically common foreign and security policy.

Merger Treaty (1965)

Unified the institutions of the EEC, Euratom, and ECSC

widening

Widening refers to one of the two ways that politicians see the EU evolving in the future. Widening refers to adding more members to the EU. This term is important in understanding European politics for many reasons. First, if the EU did widen it may increase the power of the EU even more but it does come with signficant drawbacks. First, the countries that were most likely to be added, such as Turkery or Serbia, would require a lot more spending in the cohesion funds to get them on a level playing field. Second, not everyone wants to see these countries added to the EU because of these costs, and because the EU has slowed its expansion since adding multiple eastern european countries since 2007. Finally, if the EU did widen it would also cause some international issues, especially with Russia who sees EU expansion as a threat to his power.