exam 4

Mende female mask, fig. 21-20

African Masquerades The art of masquerade has long been a quintessential African expressive form, laden with meaning and of the highest importance culturally. This is true today, but was even more so in colonial times and earlier, when African masking societies boasted extensive regulatory and judicial powers. In stateless societies, such as those of the Senufo (Fig. 21-19) and Mende (Fig. 21-20), masks sometimes became so influential that they had their own priests and served as power sources or as oracles. Societies empowered maskers to levy fines and to apprehend witches (usually defined as socially destructive people) and criminals, and to judge and punish them. Normally, however—especially today—masks are less threatening and more secular and educational and serve as diversions from the humdrum of daily life. Masked dancers usually embody ancestors, seen as briefly returning to the human realm; various nature spirits called on for their special powers; or, in the case of the Baga, the Mother of Fertility (Fig. 21-20A). The mask, a costume ensemble's focal point, combines with held objects, music, and dance gestures to invoke a specific named character, almost always considered a spirit. A few masked spirits appear by themselves, but more often several characters come out together or in turn. Maskers enact a broad range of human, animal, and fantastic otherworldly behavior that is usually both stimulating and instructive. Masquerades, in fact, vary in function or effect along a continuum from weak spirit power and strong entertainment value to those rarely seen but possessing vast executive powers backed by powerful shrines. Most operate between these extremes, crystallizing varieties of human and animal behavior—caricatured, ordinary, comic, bizarre, serious, or threatening. Such actions inform and affect audience members because of their dramatic staging. It is the purpose of most masquerades to move people, to affect them, and to effect change. Thus masks and masquerades are mediators—between men and women, youths and elders, initiated and uninitiated, powers of nature and those of human agency, and even life and death. For many groups in West and Central Africa, masking plays (or once played) an active role in the socialization process, especially for men, who control most masks. Maskers carry boys (and, more rarely, girls) away from their mothers to bush initiation camps, put them through ordeals and schooling, and welcome them back to society as men months or even years later. A second major role is in aiding the transformation of important deceased persons into productive ancestors who, in their new roles, can bring benefits to the living community. Because most masking cultures are agricultural, it is not surprising that Africans often invoke masquerades to increase the productivity of the fields, to stimulate the growth of crops, and later to celebrate the harvest.

Tori Busshi, Shaka Triad, fig. 19-4 Unlike most ancient Japanese sculptors who remain anonymous, we know the name of the sculptor of the Shaka triad - he was

Among the earliest extant examples of Japanese Buddhist sculpture is a bronze Buddha triad (Buddha flanked by two bodhisattvas; Fig. 19-4) dated 623. Empress Suiko (r. 593-628) commissioned the work as a votive offering when her nephew, Prince Shotuku, fell ill in 621. When Shotuku died, the empress dedicated the triad to the prince's well-being in his next life and to his hoped-for rebirth in Paradise. The central figure in the triad is Shaka (the Japanese name for Shakyamuni, the historical Buddha), seated with his right hand raised in the abhaya mudra (fear-not gesture; see " Buddhism and Buddhist Iconography" ). Behind Shaka is a flaming mandorla (a lotus-petal-shaped nimbus) incorporating small figures of other Buddhas. The sculptor, T ori, known as Tori Busshi (busshi means "maker of Buddhist images"), was a descendant of a Chinese immigrant. Tori's Buddha triad reflects the style of the early to mid-sixth century in China and Korea, a style that featured elongated heads and elegant drapery folds forming gravity-defying, waterfall-like swirls. The vibrant patterns of Shaka's garment contrast with the serenity of his pose and expression.

Angkor Wat, Cambodia, fig. 17-25 Angkor Wat in Cambodia was constructed to associate Suryavarman II with his personal god __________________. b. Vishnu

Angkor Wat Founded by Indravarman (r. 877-889), Angkor is an engineering marvel, a vast complex of temples and palaces within a rectangular grid of canals and reservoirs fed by local rivers. Each of the Khmer kings built a temple mountain at Angkor and installed his personal god—Shiva, Vishnu, or the Buddha—on top and gave the god part of his own royal name, implying that the king was a manifestation of the deity. When the king died, the Khmer believed that the god reabsorbed him because he had been the earthly portion of the deity during his lifetime, so they worshiped the king's image as the god. This concept of kingship approaches deification of the ruler, familiar in many other societies, such as ancient Egypt . Two of the Khmer kings' monuments—Angkor Wat (Fig. 17-25) and Angkor Thom (Fig. 17-25A)—never fail to impress. Angkor Wat, built by Suryavarman II (r. 1113-1150), is the largest of the many Khmer temple complexes. It rises from a huge rectangle of land delineated by a moat measuring about 5,000 by 4,000 feet. Like the other Khmer temples, its purpose was to associate the king with his personal god, in this case Vishnu. The centerpiece of the complex is a tall stepped tower surrounded by four smaller towers connected by covered galleries. The five towers symbolize the five peaks of Mount Meru, the sacred mountain at the center of the universe. Two more circuit walls with galleries, towers, and gates enclose the central block. Thus, as worshipers progress inward through the complex, the towers rise ever higher, paralleling the towers of Khajuraho's Vishvanatha Temple (Fig. 17-14) but in a more complex sequence and on a much grander scale. Throughout Angkor Wat, stone reliefs glorify both Vishnu in his various avatars and Suryavarman II.

Master of the Symbolic Execution, Sapi-Portuguese saltcellar, Sierra Leone, fig. 21-8

Art historians have attributed the saltcellar shown here (Fig. 21-8), almost 17 inches high, to the M aster of the S ymbolic E xecution. The saltcellar, which depicts an execution scene, is the source of the artist's assigned name. A kneeling figure with a shield in one hand holds an ax (restored) in the other hand over another seated figure about to lose his head. On the ground before the executioner, six severed heads grimly testify to the executioner's power. A double zigzag line separates the lid of the globular container from the rest of the vessel. This vessel rests in turn on a circular platform held up by slender rods adorned with crocodile images. Two male and two female figures sit between these rods, grasping them. The men wear European-style pants and have long, straight hair. The women wear skirts, and the elaborate raised patterns on their upper chests surely represent decorative scars. The European components of this saltcellar are the overall design of a spherical container on a pedestal and some of the geometric patterning on the base and the sphere, as well as certain elements of dress, such as the shirts and hats. Distinctly African are the style of the human heads and figures and their proportions, the latter skewed to emphasize the head. It is unknown whether it was the African carver or the European patron who specified the subject matter and the configurations of various parts, but the Sapi works testify to a fruitful artistic interaction between Africans and Europeans during the early 16th century.

Huizong, Auspicious Cranes, fig. 18-11

Calligraphy and Inscriptions on Chinese Paintings Many Chinese paintings (Figs. 18-6, 18-9, 18-11, 18-14, 18-15, 18-19, and 18-20) bear inscriptions, texts written on the same surface as the picture, or colophons , texts written on attached pieces of paper or silk. Throughout Chinese history, calligraphy and painting have been closely connected. Even the primary implements and materials for writing and drawing are the same—a brush, ink, and paper or silk (see " Chinese Painting Materials" ). Chinese calligraphy depends for its effects on the controlled vitality of individual brushstrokes and on the dynamic relationships of strokes within a character and among the characters themselves. Training in calligraphy was a fundamental part of the education and self-cultivation of Chinese scholars and officials. Many stylistic variations exist in Chinese calligraphy. At the most formal extreme, each character consists of distinct straight and angular strokes and is separate from the next character. At the other extreme, the characters flow together as cursive abbreviations with many rounded forms. A long tradition in China links pictures and poetry. Famous poems frequently provided subjects for paintings, and poets composed poems inspired by paintings. Either practice might prompt inscriptions on artworks. Some inscriptions address the painting's subject. Others praise the painting's quality or the character of the painter. Some inscriptions explain the circumstances of the work. Later admirers and owners of paintings frequently inscribed their own appreciative words. Painters, inscribers, and even owners usually also added seal impressions in red ink (Figs. 18-14, 18-15, 18-19, and 18-20) to identify themselves. With all these textual additions, some paintings that have passed through many collections may seem cluttered to Western viewers. However, the historical importance given to these inscriptions and to the works' ownership history has been and remains a critical aspect of painting appreciation in China.

Daoism

Daoism or 道教 (dào jiào) is one of China's major religions indigenous to the country. The primary belief is in learning and practicing "The Way" (Dao) which is the ultimate truth to the universe.

Castillo (Pyramid) at Chichen Iza, Mexico, fig. 20-8

Dominating the main northern plaza of Chichén Itzá today is the 98-foot-high pyramid (Fig. 20-8) that the Spaniards nicknamed the Castillo (Castle), an extraordinary structure that incorporates in its form references to both the Underworld and the Sun (see " The Underworld, the Sun, and Mesoamerican Pyramid Design" ). In 1937, excavations within the Castillo revealed an earlier nine-level pyramid inside the later and larger structure The Maya believed that Heaven and earth consisted of 13 layers, with the earth the lowest. Below, the Underworld, or Xibalba (the Place of Fear), had nine levels, ruled by gods of the dead who subjected humans to various tortures. Most Maya resided in Xibalba forever after they died. However, when divine Maya rulers died, they would descend to the bottom of the Underworld and then rise to Heaven. Maya architects found a brilliant but simple way to incorporate references to Maya cosmology in the design of their pyramid-temples. Many Maya pyramids, including the Castillo (Fig. 20-8) at Chichén Itzá, have nine levels. No one doubts that the nine stepped stories symbolize the nine Underworld layers. The form of the Castillo, however, is also tied to the solar year. Atop the pyramid, which is oriented to the four cardinal points, is a temple dedicated to Kukulcán, the Maya equivalent of Quetzalcoatl, the Teotihuacáno and Aztec feathered-serpent god. The north side of the Castillo has 92 steps and the other three sides 91 steps each for a total of 365, the number of days in a solar year. At the winter and summer equinoxes, the sun casts a shadow along the northern staircase of the Castillo. Because of the structure's silhouette and the angle of the sun, the shadow takes the shape of the serpent-god slithering along the pyramid's face as the sun moves across the sky. The Castillo thus refers in its form to the sun in Heaven, the Underworld, and the feathered serpent. Solar as well as Underworld imagery is a common feature of Mesoamerican architecture. At El Tajín, for example, the Pyramid of the Niches (not illustrated) has a total of 365 niches on its four sides.

Fan Kuan, Travelers Among Mountains and Streams, fig. 18-10

Fan Kuan For many art historians, the Song era is the golden age of Chinese landscape painting, which first emerged as a major subject during the Period of Disunity. Although many of the great Northern Song masters worked for the imperial court, F an K uan (ca. 960-1030) was a Daoist recluse (see " Daoism and Confucianism" ) who shunned the cosmopolitan life of Bianliang. He believed that nature was a better teacher than were other artists, and he spent long days in the mountains studying configurations of rocks and trees and the effect of sunlight and moonlight on natural forms. Song critics lauded Fan and other leading Chinese painters of the day as the first masters of the recording of light, shade, distance, and texture. In Travelers among Mountains and Streams (Fig. 18-10), Fan painted a vertical landscape of massive mountains rising from the distance. The overwhelming natural forms dwarf the few human and animal figures (for example, the mule train in the lower right corner), which the artist reduced to minute proportions. The nearly 7-foot-long silk hanging scroll cannot contain nature's grandeur, and the landscape continues in all directions beyond its borders. Fan showed some elements from level ground (for example, the great boulder in the foreground), and others obliquely from the top (the shrubbery on the highest cliff). The shifting perspectives direct viewers' eyes on a vicarious journey through the mountains. To appreciate the painted landscape fully, observers must focus not only on the larger composition but also on intricate details and on the character of each brushstroke. Numerous "texture strokes" help model massive forms and convey a sense of tactile surfaces. For the face of the mountain, for example, Fan Kuan employed small, pale brush marks, the kind of texture strokes the Chinese call "raindrop strokes."

hanging scrolls

Fan Kuan's Travelers Among Mountains and Streams, from the Northern Song period in China, is in which format? Selected Answer: Answers: a. Hanging scroll

Kenzo Tange, 1964 Olympic Stadium, Tokyo, Japan, fig. 19-21

Hamada Shoji Another modern Japanese art form that has attracted great attention worldwide is ceramics, which has ancient roots in Japan. A formative figure in Japan's folk art movement, the philosopher Yanagi Soetsu (1889-1961), promoted an ideal of beauty inspired by the tea ceremony. He argued that true beauty could be achieved only in functional objects made of natural materials by anonymous craftspeople, such as the Shino water jar (Fig. 19-16). Among the ceramists who produced this type of folk pottery, known as mingei , was H amada S hoji (1894-1978). Although Hamada espoused Yanagi's selfless ideals, he still gained international fame and in 1955 received official recognition in Japan as a Living National Treasure. Works such as his plate (Fig. 19-22) with casual slip designs are unsigned, but connoisseurs easily recognize them as his. This kind of pottery is coarser, darker, and heavier than porcelain and lacks the latter's fine decoration. To those who appreciate simpler, earthier beauty, however, this dish holds great attraction. Hamada's artistic influence extended beyond the production of pots. He traveled to England in 1920 and, along with English potter Bernard Leach (1887-1978), established a community of ceramists committed to the mingei aesthetic. Together, Hamada and Leach expanded international knowledge of Japanese ceramics, and even now, the "Hamada-Leach aesthetic" is part of potters' education worldwide, underscoring the productive exchange of artistic ideas between Asia and the West today—discussed more fully in Chapter 16.

Hinduism

Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life,[note 1] found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the "oldest religion" in the world,[note 2] and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, "the eternal law" or the "eternal way"[4] beyond human origins.[5] Scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion[note 3] or synthesis[6][note 4] of various Indian cultures and traditions,[7][note 5] with diverse roots[8][note 6] and no founder.[9] This "Hindu synthesis" started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE,[10] following the Vedic period (1500 BCE to 500 BCE).[10][11]

Eagle Transformation Mask, fig. 20-25

Kwakwaka'wakw Among the numerous groups who settled the Northwest Coast are the Kwakwaka'wakw of southern British Columbia. Kwakwaka'wakw religious specialists wore masks in their healing rituals and in dramatic public performances during the winter ceremonial season. The animals and mythological creatures represented in masks and a host of other carvings derive from the Northwest Coast's rich oral tradition and celebrate the mythological origins and inherited privileges of high-ranking families. The artist who made the Kwakwaka'wakw mask illustrated here (Fig. 20-25) meant it to be seen in flickering firelight, and ingeniously constructed it to open and close rapidly when the wearer manipulated hidden strings. He could thus magically transform himself from human to eagle and back again as he danced. The transformation theme, in myriad forms, is a central aspect of the art and religion of the Americas. The Kwakwaka'wakw mask's human aspect also owes its dramatic character to the exaggeration and distortion of facial parts—such as the hooked beaklike nose and flat flaring nostrils—and to the deeply undercut curvilinear depressions, which form strong shadows. In contrast to the carved human face, but painted in the same colors, is the two-dimensional abstract image of the eagle painted on the inside of the outer mask.

Namdaemon, Seoul, Korea, fig. 18-24 The Namdaemun in Seoul, South Korea, was designed as d. gateway

Namdaemun, Seoul Public building projects helped give the new Korean state an image of dignity and power. One impressive early monument, built for the new Joseon capital of Seoul, is the city's south gate, or Namdaemun (Fig. 18-24). It combines the imposing strength of its stone foundations with the sophistication of its intricately bracketed wood superstructure. In East Asia, elaborate gateways, often in a processional series, are a standard element in city designs, as well as royal and sacred compounds, all usually surrounded by walls, as at Beijing's Forbidden City (Fig. 18-1). These gateways served as magnificent symbols of the ruler's authority, as did the triumphal arches of imperial Rome (Figs. 3-32 and 3-53).

Phoenix Hall, Kyoto, Japan, fig. 19-7 The Phoenix Hall at Byodoin, Japan, is a physical metaphor for which of the following? Buddha's palace in his Pure Land

Phoenix Hall, Uji During the middle and later Heian period, belief in the vow of Amida, the Buddha of the Western Pure Land, to save the faithful through rebirth in his realm gained prominence among the Japanese aristocracy. Eventually, the simple message of Pure Land Buddhism—universal salvation—facilitated the spread of Buddhism to all classes of Japanese society. The most important surviving monument in Japan related to Pure Land beliefs is the Phoenix Hall (Fig. 19-7) of the Byodoin, a Heian Buddhist temple complex at Uji. Fujiwara Yorimichi (990-1074), the powerful regent for three emperors between 1016 and 1068, built the temple in memory of his father on the grounds of his family's summer villa south of Kyoto. Dedicated in 1053, the Phoenix Hall's elaborate winged form evokes images of the Buddha's palace in his Pure Land, as depicted in East Asian paintings (Fig. 18-8) in which the architecture reflects the design of Chinese palaces. By placing only light pillars on the exterior, elevating the wings, and situating the whole on a pond, the Phoenix Hall builders suggested the floating weightlessness of celestial architecture. The building's name derives from its overall birdlike shape and from two bronze phoenixes decorating the ridgepole ends. In eastern Asia, people believed that these birds alighted on lands properly ruled. Phoenixes are also associated with empresses. The authority of the Fujiwara family derived primarily from the marriage of daughters to the imperial line.

Moai on Rapa Nui (Easter Island), fig. 20-27

Rapa Nui Some of the earliest datable artworks in Oceania are also the largest. This is especially true of the colossal sculptures, called moai (Fig. 20-27), of Rapa Nui (Easter Island) in Polynesia, one of the last areas in the world to be settled. Polynesian societies typically are highly stratified, with power determined by heredity. Indeed, rulers often trace their genealogies directly to the gods of creation. Most Polynesian societies possess elaborate political organizations headed by chiefs and ritual specialists. The Rapa Nui moai are as much as 50 feet tall and weigh up to 100 tons. They stand as silent sentinels on stone platforms ( ahu ) marking burial or sacred sites used for religious ceremonies. Most of the moai consist of huge, blocky figures with fairly planar facial features—large staring eyes, strong jaws, straight noses with carefully articulated nostrils, and elongated earlobes. A number of the moai have pukao —small red scoria (a local volcanic stone) cylinders that serve as a sort of topknot or hat—atop their heads. Although debate continues, many scholars believe that lineage chiefs or their sons erected the moai and that the sculptures depict ancestral chiefs. The moai, however, are not individual portraits but generic images that the Easter Islanders believed had the ability to accommodate spirits or gods. The statues thus mediate between chiefs and gods, and between the natural and cosmic worlds. Archaeological surveys have documented nearly 1,000 moai erected on some 250 ahu. Most of the stones are soft volcanic tuff and came from the same quarry at Rano Raraku. Some of the sculptures are red scoria, basalt, or trachyte. After quarrying, the Easter Islanders dragged the moai to the ahu sites and then positioned them vertically. Given the extraordinary size of these monoliths, their production and placement serve as testaments to the achievements of this Polynesian culture. According to one scholar, it would have taken 30 men one year to carve one of these colossal sculptures, 90 men two months to transport it from the quarry to the ahu site (often several miles away), and 90 men three months to position it vertically on the platform.

Seated Buddha, from Sarnath, India, fig. 17-7

Sarnath Under the Guptas, artists formulated what became the canonical image of the Buddha. A fifth-century statue (Fig. 17-7) from Sarnath is a characteristic example. The Buddha wears a monastic robe covering both shoulders, as in earlier Gandharan examples (Fig. 17-5A), but it clings tightly to his body. The statue's smooth, unadorned surfaces conform to the Indian notion of perfect body form and emphasize the figure's spirituality. The Buddha's eyes are downcast in meditation, and he holds his hands in front of his body in the Wheel-turning gesture, preaching his first sermon. Below the Buddha is a scene with the Wheel of the Law at the center between two deer symbolizing the Deer Park at Sarnath. Buddha images such as this one, which inject sensuality into the Roman-inspired Gandharan style, became so popular that temples housing Buddha statues largely superseded the stupa as the norm in Buddhist sacred architecture.

habuko (splashed-ink) painting A Japanese habuko style picture, like this one by Sesshu Toyo, often hovers on the edge of legibility. Which of the following describes this style best?

Selected Answer: b. broad, rapid brush strokes, sometimes dripping the ink on the paper Answers: a. careful brush strokes and application of ink OLHAR 16

Sesshu Toyo, Splashed-ink (habuko) landscape, fig. 19-12

Sesshu Toyo Muromachi painting displays great variety in both style and subject matter. Among the most celebrated Muromachi artists was the Zen priest S esshu T oyo (1420-1506), one of the few Japanese painters who traveled to China and studied contemporaneous Ming painting. His most dramatic works are in the splashed-ink ( haboku ) style, a technique with Chinese roots. The painter of a haboku picture pauses to visualize the image, loads the brush with ink, and then applies primarily broad, rapid strokes, sometimes even dripping the ink onto the paper. The result often hovers at the edge of legibility, without dissolving into sheer abstraction. This balance between spontaneity and a thorough knowledge of the painting tradition gives the pictures their artistic strength. In the haboku landscape illustrated here (Fig. 19-12), images of mountains, trees, and buildings emerge from the ink-washed surface. Two figures appear in a boat (to the lower right), and the two swift strokes nearby represent the pole and banner of a wine shop.

Which of the following objects represents a unique hybrid of African and Portuguese influences?

d. Sapi ivory salt cellar

Taj Mahal, Agra, India, fig. 17-19

Taj Mahal Monumental tombs were not part of either the Hindu or Buddhist traditions, but had a long history in Islamic architecture. The Delhi sultans had erected tombs in India, but none could compare in grandeur to the fabled Taj Mahal (Fig. 17-19) at Agra. Shah Jahan (r. 1628-1658), Jahangir's son, built the immense mausoleum as a memorial to his favorite wife, whose official title was Mumtaz Mahal (1593-1631), or "Chosen of the Palace." Taj Mahal means "Crown Palace," and the mausoleum eventually became the ruler's tomb as well. It figures prominently in official histories of Shah Jahan's reign (see " Abd al-Hamid Lahori on the Taj Mahal"). The dome-on-cube shape of the central block has antecedents in earlier Islamic mausoleums and other Islamic buildings, but modifications and refinements in the design of the Agra tomb converted the earlier massive structures into an almost weightless vision of glistening white marble. The Agra mausoleum seems to float magically above the broad water channels and tree-lined reflecting pools punctuating the fountain-filled garden leading to it. Reinforcing the illusion of the marble tomb being suspended above water is the absence of any visible means of ascent to the upper platform. A stairway does exist, but the architect intentionally hid it from the view of anyone who approaches the memorial. The Taj Mahal follows the traditional char-bagh ("four-plot") plan of Iranian garden pavilions, which symbolized the Koranic Garden of Paradise. Today, however, the mausoleum appears to stand at the northern end of the garden on the edge of the Yamuna River, rather than in the center of the formal garden, as it should in a char-bagh plan. Originally, the gardens extended to the other side of the river, and the Taj Mahal did, in fact, occupy a central position. The tomb itself is octagonal in plan and has typically Iranian arcuated niches (Fig. 5-12) on each side. The interplay of shadowy voids with light-reflecting marble walls that seem paper-thin creates an impression of translucency, further enhanced by the pietra dura inlay (Fig. 17-20) of precious and semiprecious stones in the masonry walls. The pointed arches lead the eye in a sweeping upward movement toward the climactic dome, shaped like a crown ( taj ). Four carefully related minarets and two flanking triple-domed pavilions enhance and stabilize the soaring form of the mausoleum. The designer—probably U stad A hmad L ahori (d. 1649), Shah Jahan's chief court architect—achieved this delicate balance between verticality and horizontality by strictly applying an all-encompassing system of proportions. The Taj Mahal (excluding the minarets) is as wide as it is tall, and the height of its dome is equal to the height of the facade. The mausoleum is a unique and brilliant fusion of Islamic and Hindu elements.

Terracotta Army of the First Emperor of Qin, Shi Huangdi, fig. 18-3

The First Emperor's Army in the Afterlife One of the greatest archaeological discoveries ever made anywhere came to light in 1974 when farmers digging a well in a village near Lintong in Shaanxi Province discovered some broken terracotta statues. Chinese excavators soon concluded that they belonged to the immense burial mound of Qin Shi Huangdi, China's "First Emperor." Like many other powerful monarchs throughout history, during his lifetime Shi Huangdi began construction of his home in the eternal afterlife. For this ambitious undertaking, he conscripted more than 700,000 laborers. The First Emperor's tomb remains unexcavated, but Chinese archaeologists believe that it contains a vast treasure-filled underground funerary palace designed to match the fabulous palace the emperor occupied in life. The historian Sima Qian (136-85 bce) described both palaces, but scholars did not take his account seriously until the discovery of pits around the tomb containing life-size painted terracotta figures (Fig. 18-3) of soldiers and horses, as well as bronze horses and chariots, which probably numbered 8,000 or more. The terracotta army served as the First Emperor's bodyguard deployed in perpetuity outside his tomb. Today, the Lintong army consists of about 2,000 statues of cavalry, chariots, archers, lancers, and hand-to-hand fighters. The huge assemblage testifies not only to the power and wealth of Shi Huangdi but also to a high degree of organization in the Qin imperial workshop. Manufacturing this army of statues required a veritable army of sculptors and painters, as well as a large number of huge kilns. The First Emperor's artisans could have opted to use the same molds over and over again to produce thousands of identical soldiers standing in strict formation. In fact, they did employ the same molds repeatedly for different parts of the statues, but assembled the parts in many different combinations. Consequently, the stances, arm positions, garment folds, equipment, coiffures, and facial features vary, sometimes slightly, sometimes markedly, from statue to statue. Additional hand modeling of the cast body parts before firing enabled the sculptors to differentiate the figures even more. The Qin painters undoubtedly added further variations to the appearance of the terracotta army. The result of these efforts was a brilliant balance of uniformity and individuality.

Serpent Mounds, Ohio, fig. 20-20 This Mississippian Serpent Mound can be found where? b. Ohio

The Mississippians also constructed effigy mounds (mounds built in the form of animals or birds). One of the largest and best preserved is Serpent Mound, a twisting earthwork on a bluff overlooking a creek in Ohio. It measures nearly a quarter mile from its open jaw (Fig. 20-20, top right), which seems to clasp an oval-shaped mound in its mouth, to its tightly coiled tail . Both its date and meaning are controversial. For a long time after the first excavations in the 1880s, archaeologists attributed construction of Serpent Mound to the Adena culture. Radiocarbon dates taken from the mound, however, indicate that the Mississippians built it much later. Unlike most other Woodlands mounds, Serpent Mound contained no evidence of burials or temples, but it may have had religious significance. The Mississippians associated serpents with the earth and the fertility of crops, and the serpent is an important motif in Mississippian art. Nonetheless, some researchers have proposed another possible meaning for the shape of Serpent Mound. The date suggested for it is 1070, not long after the brightest appearance in recorded history of Halley's Comet in 1066. Could Serpent Mound have been built in response to this important astronomical event? The serpentine form of the mound may replicate the comet streaking across the night sky. Whatever its meaning, an earthwork as large and elaborate as Serpent Mound could only have been built by a large labor force under the firm direction of a powerful elite eager to leave its mark on the landscape forever.

Colossal Olmec head, fig. 20-2

Which has been a proposed identity of the giant Olmec heads? d. Olmec rulers Four colossal basalt heads (Fig. 20-2), weighing about 10 tons each and standing between 6 and 10 feet high, face out from the plaza. Archaeologists have discovered more than a dozen similar heads at San Lorenzo and Tres Zapotes. Almost as much of an achievement as the carving of these huge heads with stone tools was their transportation across the 60 miles of swampland from the nearest known basalt source, the Tuxtla Mountains. Although the identities of the colossi are uncertain, their individualized features and distinctive headgear and ear ornaments, as well as the later Maya practice of carving monumental ruler portraits, suggest that the Olmec heads portray rulers rather than gods. The sheer size of the heads and their intensity of expression evoke great power, whether mortal or divine.

Flying Horse, bronze, fig. 18-5

Wuwei Flying Horse Another Han tomb of special interest is that of Governor-General Zhang, discovered in 1969 at Wuwei. The tomb contained almost 100 cast-bronze sculptures of horses, chariots, and soldiers—a miniature version of the life-size army (Fig. 18-3) guarding the tomb of the First Emperor of Qin. The figurine illustrated here (Fig. 18-5) represents a distinctive breed of horse from Turkestan. It differs from all the others in Zhang's tomb because it is not prancing or standing still but galloping, or, more accurately, flying because one hoof rests on a swallow with spread wings. The sculptor posed the horse with its head tilted to one side but presented the animal's body in a pure profile. The Wuwei horse has an elegant silhouette, with its legs spread widely and its tail lifted behind it like a fifth leg, balancing the curved neck and the rear left leg. Zhang's airborne horse suggests that the journey from his tomb will take him heavenward to an immortal afterlife.

terracotta

a type of earthenware, is a clay-based unglazed or glazed ceramic,[4] where the fired body is porous. Terracotta is the term normally used for sculpture made in earthenware, and also for various utilitarian uses including vessels (notably flower pots), water and waste water pipes, roofing tiles, bricks, and surface embellishment in building construction.[5] The term is also used to refer to the natural, brownish orange color, of most terracotta, which varies considerably.

Tower at Great Zimbabwe, fig. 21-6 Based on the African symbols found at Great Zimbabwe, which of the following would explain this tower in the form of a granary?

a. It is symbolic of royal power and of the king as dispenser of the grain Great Zimbabwe The most famous southern African site of this period is a complex of stone ruins at the large southeastern political center called Great Zimbabwe. First occupied in the 11th century, the site features walled enclosures and towers dating from about the late 13th to the middle of the 15th centuries. At that time, Great Zimbabwe had a wide trade network. Finds of beads and pottery from Mesopotamia and China, along with copper, gold, and ivory objects, underscore that Great Zimbabwe was a prosperous trade center well before Europeans began their coastal voyaging in the late 15th century. Great Zimbabwe was a royal residence with special areas for the ruler, his wives, and nobles, including an open court for ceremonial gatherings (the royal hill complex). At the peak of the empire's power, as many as 18,000 people may have lived in the surrounding area, with most of the commoners living outside the enclosed complex reserved for royalty. Although the habitations themselves have not survived, the walls of the enclosures remain. They are unusual for their size and the excellence of their stonework. Some sections are 32 feet tall and 17 feet thick in the lowest courses. The Great Enclosure (Fig. 21-6) houses one large and several small conical, towerlike stone structures, which archaeologists have interpreted symbolically as masculine (large) and feminine (small) forms, but their precise significance is unknown. The form of the large tower suggests a granary. Grain bins were symbols of royal power and generosity, as the ruler received tribute in grain and dispensed it to the people in times of need.

Machu Picchu, Peru, fig. 20-17 Why is Machu Picchu of such great archaeological importance?

a. It lay undisturbed since the time of the Ink The Inka were gifted architects, and their masons were masters of shaping and fitting stone. As a militant people, they selected breathtaking, naturally fortified sites and further strengthened them by building various defensive structures. Inka settlement planning reveals an instinctive grasp of the harmonious relationship of architecture to site. One of the world's most awe-inspiring sights is Machu Picchu (Fig. 20-17), which perches on a ridge between two jagged peaks 9,000 feet above sea level. Invisible from the Urubamba River Valley some 1,600 feet below, the site remained unknown to the outside world until its rediscovery in 1911. In the very heart of the Andes, Machu Picchu is about 50 miles north of Cuzco and, like some of the region's other sites, was the estate of a powerful mid-15th-century Inka ruler, probably the emperor Pachacuti (r. 1438-1472). Though relatively small and insignificant compared to its neighbors (its resident population was a little more than a thousand), Machu Picchu is of great archaeological importance as a rare undisturbed Inka settlement. The accommodation of its architecture to the landscape is so complete that the buildings seem a natural part of the mountain ranges surrounding the site on all sides. The Inka even cut large stones to echo the shape of the mountain beyond. Terraces spill down the mountainsides and extend even up to the very peak of Huayna Picchu, the great hill just beyond Machu Picchu's main plaza. The Inka carefully sited buildings so that windows and doors framed spectacular views of sacred peaks and facilitated the recording of important astronomical events.

Which of the following best explains the sexually explicit images found at the Vishvanatha Temple, India? d. Both a. and c

a. They suggest fertility and the propagation of life. a. They suggest fertility and the propagation of life. c. They serves as protectors of the sacred precinct.

Kongo Nkisi n'Kondi (power) figure, fig. 21-12 Kongo nkisi n'kondi figures are believed to do which of the following?

a. heal the sick or inflict harm Kongo The Congo River formed the principal transportation route for the peoples of Central Africa during the 19th century. Some of the most distinctive African artworks of that period come from Kongo—for example, the large standing statue (Fig. 21-12) shown here. It represents a man bristling with nails and blades—a Kongo nkisi n'kondi (power figure). These figures, consecrated by priests using precise ritual formulas, embodied spirits believed to heal and give life, or sometimes to inflict harm, disease, or even death. Each statue had its specific role, just as it wore particular medicines—here protruding from the abdomen, which features a large cowrie shell. The Kongo also activated every image differently. Owners appealed to a figure's forces every time they inserted a nail or blade, as if to prod the spirit to do its work. People invoked other spirits by repeating certain chants, by rubbing the images, or by applying special powders. The roles of power figures varied enormously, from curing minor ailments to stimulating crop growth, from punishing thieves to weakening enemies. Very large Kongo figures, such as this one, had exceptional ascribed powers and aided entire communities. Although benevolent for their owners, the figures stood at the boundary between life and death, and most villagers held them in awe. Compared with the sculptures of most other African peoples, this Kongo figure is relatively naturalistic, although the carver simplified the facial features and magnified the size of the head for emphasis.

The Qin Dynasty ruler Shi Huangdi (First Emperor of China) is remembered for which of the following?

b. His construction of the Great Wall. c. The army of life-sized terracotta figures in his tomb. d. Both b. and c.

Basawan and Chatar Muni, Akbar and the Elephant Hawai, fig. 17-17 How is the story about the wild elephant from the Akbarnama an allegory for Akbar's early years as a ruler?

b. It indicated his ability to take charge of an unruly state Akbar the Great The first great flowering of Mughal art and architecture occurred during the long reign of Babur's grandson, Akbar (r. 1556-1605), called the Great. Akbar enlarged the imperial painting workshop to about a hundred artists and kept them busy working on a series of ambitious projects. One of these was to illustrate the text of the biography he had commissioned Abul Fazl (1551-1602), a member of his court and a close friend, to write. One of the full-page illustrations (Fig. 17-17), or so-called miniatures (see " Indian Miniature Painting" ), in the emperor's personal copy of the Akbarnama (History of Akbar) was a collaborative effort between the painter B asawan, who designed and drew the composition, and C hatar M uni, who colored it. The painting depicts the episode of Akbar and Hawai, a wild elephant that the 19-year-old ruler had mounted and pitted against another ferocious elephant. When the second animal fled in defeat, Hawai, still carrying Akbar, chased it to a pontoon bridge. The enormous weight of the elephants capsized the boats, but Akbar managed to bring Hawai under control and dismount safely. The young ruler viewed the episode as an allegory of his ability to govern—that is, to take charge of an unruly state. For his pictorial record of that frightening day, Basawan chose the moment of maximum chaos and danger—when the elephants crossed the pontoon bridge, sending boatmen flying into the water. The composition is a bold one, with a very high horizon and two strong diagonal lines formed by the bridge and the shore. Together these devices tend to flatten out the vista, yet at the same time, Basawan created a sense of depth by diminishing the size of the figures in the background. He was also a master of vivid gestures and anecdotal detail. Note especially the bare-chested figure in the foreground clinging to the end of a boat; the figure near the lower right corner with outstretched arms sliding into the water as the bridge sinks; and the oarsman just beyond the bridge who strains to steady his vessel while his three passengers stand up or lean overboard in reaction to the surrounding commotion..

Lion capital of column set up by Ashoka, Sarnath, India, fig. 17-3 The columns set up by Ashoka at Sarnath, India had elaborate capitals with carved lions. What did they once support?

b. The Buddhist Wheel of the Law. Maurya Dynasty The dynasty that Chandragupta Maurya founded after his victory over Seleucus in 305 bce encompassed a vast territory corresponding roughly to India today. The capital was Pataliputra (modern Patna). The greatest Maurya ruler was Ashoka (r. 272-231 bce), who left his imprint on history by converting to Buddhism and spreading the Buddha's teaching throughout and beyond India (see " Ashoka's Sponsorship of Buddhism"). Ashoka formulated a legal code based on the Buddha's Law ( dharma ; see " Buddhism" ) and inscribed his laws on towering monolithic stone columns set up throughout his kingdom. Ashoka's pillars reached 30 to 40 feet high and were the first large-scale stone artworks in India. The pillars penetrated deep into the ground, connecting earth and sky, forming an axis mundi ("axis of the universe"), a pre-Buddhist concept that became an important motif in Buddhist architecture. The columns stood along pilgrimage routes leading to monasteries at sites associated with the Buddha and on the roads leading to Pataliputra. Crowning Ashoka's pillars were elaborate capitals, also carved from a single block of stone. The finest (Fig. 17-3) is 7 feet high and comes from Sarnath, where the Buddha gave his first sermon and set the Wheel of the Law into motion. Stylistically, the Sarnath capital owes much to ancient Mesopotamia and Persia, but its iconography is Buddhist. Two pairs of back-to-back lions (texts often refer to the Buddha as "the lion") stand on a round abacus decorated with four wheels and four animals symbolizing the four quarters of the world. The lions once carried a large stone wheel on their backs. The wheel ( chakra ) is a reference to the Wheel of the Law but also indicated Ashoka's stature as a chakravartin ("holder of the wheel"), a universal king imbued with divine authority. The open mouths of the four lions facing the four quarters of the world may signify the worldwide announcement of the Buddha's message.

Katsushika Hokusai, The Great Wave off Kanagawa, ukiyo-e landscape, fig. 19-19 Which of the following best describes the Japanese artist Hokusai's Great Wave off Kanagawa?

b. The wave is flat, graphic and in the foreground. c. It has a low horizon line typical of Western painting. d. Both b. and c. Katsushika Hokusai Landscape painting—long revered as a major genre of Chinese and Korean art—emerged in the 18th century in Japan as an immensely popular subject with the proliferation of inexpensive multicolor woodblock prints. One of the foremost Japanese landscape artists was K atsushika H okusai (1760-1849). In The Great Wave off Kanagawa (Fig. 19-19), from Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji, the huge foreground wave dwarfs the artist's representation of the distant mountain. This contrast and the whitecaps' ominous fingers magnify the wave's threatening aspect. The men in the boats bend low to dig their oars against the rough sea and drive their long vessels past the danger. Although Hokusai's print draws on Western techniques and incorporates the distinctive European color called Prussian blue, it also engages the Japanese pictorial tradition. Against a background with the low horizon typical of Western painting, Hokusai placed in the foreground the wave's more traditionally flat and powerful graphic forms, mainly curved triangles.

Krishna and Radha in a Pavilion, fig. 17-21 In Krishna and Radha in a Pavilion, which of the following describes the setting of the lovers' tryst?

c. a lush garden at night with lightning flashes

Which of the following describes gopuras, a very popular structural motif found in temple complexes southern India, like this one at Madurai?

c. immense gateway towers

The Silla Crown, found in a tomb near Gyeongju, Korea, has upright structures of gold and jade that may symbolize

c. life and supernatural power

Seal from Mohenjo-daro, Pakistan, fig. 17-2 The small seal discovered at Mohenjo-daro (in present-day Pakistan) uses which figure to communicate the Indian practice of meditation?

d. a three-faced figure wearing a horned headdress seated in a yogic posture Indus Seals Surprisingly, archaeologists have discovered little art from the long-lived Indus Civilization, and all of the objects found are small. The most common are steatite seals with incised designs. They are similar in many ways to the seals found at contemporaneous sites in Mesopotamia. Most of the Indus examples have an animal or tiny narrative carved on the face, along with an as-yet-untranslated script. On the back, a boss (circular knob) with a hole enabled insertion of a string so that the owner could wear the seal or hang it on a wall. As in Mesopotamia, the Indus peoples sometimes used the seals to make impressions on clay, apparently for securing trade goods wrapped in textiles. The animals most frequently represented include the humped bull, elephant, rhinoceros, and tiger—always shown in strict profile (see " How to Represent an Animal" ). Some of the narrative seals indicate that the Indus peoples considered trees sacred, as both Buddhists and Hindus did later. Many scholars have suggested religious and ritual continuities between the Indus Civilization and later Indian culture. One of the most elaborate seals (Fig. 17-2) depicts a male figure with a horned headdress and, perhaps, three faces, seated (with erect penis) among the profile animals that regularly appear alone on other seals. The figure's position—folded legs with heels pressed together and arms resting on the knees—suggests a yogic posture. Yoga is a method for controlling the body and relaxing the mind used in later Indian religions to yoke, or unite, the practitioner to the divine. Although most scholars reject the identification of this figure as a prototype of the multiheaded Hindu god Shiva as Lord of Beasts (Fig. 17-10), the yogic posture proves that this important Indian meditative practice began as early as the Indus Civilization.

During the Ming Dynasty in China, which was considered the most prestigious painting genre?

d. landscape paintings

Teotihuacan, Mexico, fig. 20-3 Which of the following is commonly suggested as the reasoning behind Teotihuacan's layout?

d. related to astronomical phenomena No Olmec site can compare in size, grandeur, or complexity with the late Preclassic site of Teotihuacán (Fig. 20-3), northeast of Mexico City, a densely populated metropolis that fulfilled a central civic, economic, and religious role for the region and indeed for much of Mesoamerica. The city covers 9 square miles, laid out in a grid pattern with the axes oriented by sophisticated surveying. Its major monuments date between 50 and 250 ce. At its peak, around 600 ce, Teotihuacán may have had a population of 125,000 to 200,000, making it the sixth-largest city in the world at that time. Hundreds of years later, the Aztecs gave Teotihuacán its current name, which means "the place of the gods." Because the city's hieroglyphs remain largely undeciphered, the names of many major features of the site are unknown. The Avenue of the Dead and the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon are Aztec designations that do not necessarily relate to the original names. North-south and east-west axes, each two miles in length, divide the grid plan into quarters. The main north-south axis (Fig. 20-3), the Avenue of the Dead, is 130 feet wide. It is not a continuously flat street, however, but is broken by sets of stairs, giving pedestrians a constantly changing view of the surrounding buildings and landscape.

Rhe regalia of the Hidatsa Warrior Pehriska-Ruhpa represents

his life story, affiliations, and military accomplishments

Buddhism

is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India, from where it spread through much of Asia, whereafter it declined in India during the middle ages. Two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars: Theravada (Pali: "The School of the Elders") and Mahayana (Sanskrit: "The Great Vehicle"). Buddhism is the world's fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, known as Buddhists.[web 1][5]