FIT + Cooper + SAFMEDS (all) *NEW

Stimulus

"An energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells" (Michael, 2004, p. 7).

Reprimands

"No! Stop"

The Dead Mans Test

*"If a dead man can do it, it ain't behavior. And if a dead man can't do it, then its behavior"*

SD vs. MO

*"Repertoire-Altering Effect"* o They share 2 things: *Both occur BEFORE the behavior (i.e., antecedents) and have evocative functions (i.e., bring about behavior) o MO: Changes the value of a stimulus as a reinforcer Vs. o SD: A response in the presence of an SD must produce more reinforcement than it does in its absence Example: If you are not hungry, you do not want food (there is any MO for food). But when you are hungry (there is an MO) and when you pass a McDonalds, you go in to eat. The McDonalds restaurant is the SD

Codic

*3 Defining Features*: (1) Verbal SD: The response form is controlled by (i.e., antecedent to) a verbal stimulus; (2) Point-to-Point correspondence; (3) *NO* formal similarity

5 Typical Original Conditions of Functional Analysis

*4 Test Conditions and 1 Control Condition*: o Contingent Attention (Social Disapproval Condition) o Contingent Escape (Academic Demand Condition) o Alone o Tangible o Control (Play Condition) oThe conditions are presented systematically 1 at a time and in alternative sequence until a pattern of problem behavior emerges.

How do you know if the scenario presented to you on the exam is: A. Positive reinforcement B. Negative reinforcement C. Positive punishment D. Negative punishment

*A 3-Step Formula*: 1) What is the behavior? 2) Did the behaviors Increase (Reinforcement) or Decrease (Punishment)? 3) Is a stimulus Added/Increased + (Positive) or Taken Away/Reduced — (Negative)?

Advantages and Disadvantages of Reversal Design

*Advantages* o Clear demonstration of the existence or absence of a functional relation between the IV and DV o Enables us to count the amount of behavior change o Return to baseline tells us we need to program for *maintenance* *Disadvantage* o Irreversibility

Advantages and Disadvantages of Criterion Design

*Advantages* o Does not require reversal of improved behavior o Enables an experimental analysis within the context of a gradually improving behavior *Disadvantage* o The target behavior must already be in the person's repertoire o Not appropriate for analyzing the effects of a shaping program o It is NOT a comparison design

Advantages and Disadvantages of Alternating Treatments Design

*Advantages* o Does not require treatment withdrawal o Speedy comparison o Can be used to asses generalization of effects *Disadvantage* o Multiple treatment interference

Advantages and Disadvantages of Multiple Baseline Design

*Advantages* o Successful intervention does NOT have to be removed o Evaluates generalization o Easy to implement *Disadvantage* o Functional relationship is NOT directly shown o Effectiveness of IV is demonstrated, but not information regarding the function of the target behavior

Advantages and Disadvantages of Functional Analysis

*Advantages*: o Clear demonstration of variable that relate to problem behavior o Standard to which all other forms of FBA are evaluated *Disadvantages*: o May temporarily strengthen the problem behavior o May result in the behavior acquiring new functions o Difficult to use for serious, low frequency behaviors

Total-Task-Chaining (AKA: Total-Task Presentation; Whole-Task Method; Concurrent Chaining)

*All the steps* are trained in a learning trial

Behavior vs. Response

*Behavior*: Larger set/class of responses that share physical dimensions (e.g., hand flapping) or functions (e.g., study behavior) VS *Response*: A single instance of behavior

Ivan Pavlov

*Classical Conditioning* o Respondent conditioning with dogs o Published first studies in 1906

Form vs. Function of Verbal Behavior

*Form*: Formal properties of language involve their topographies (e.g., Classifying words as nouns, verbs, prepositions, etc) *Function*: Effects of the response

John Watson

*Methodological Behaviorism* (AKA: Stimulus-Response Behaviorism; S-R Psychology; Watsonian Behaviorism) o First person to describe behaviorism as a formal system in 1913 o Conducted the "Little Albert Experiment" in 1920. A rat was paired with a loud noise, resulting in Albert crying and showing fear when he saw the rat.

Alternative Treatments with Baseline and Final Best Treatment Phase

*Most widely used*

Free-Operant Avoidance

*NO WARNING*. A contingency in which responses at any time during an interval prior to the scheduled onset of an aversive stimulus delays the presentation of the aversive stimulus. Example: Because of your past history of driving your car on the freeway you take daily, you wake up one day and decide to take the back roads. You didn't check the traffic (no SD). Your avoidance behavior of not taking the freeway was free to occur at any time.

Punisher vs. Aversive Stimulus

*Punisher (SP)*: A Stimulus change that decreases the future frequency of the behavior that immediately precedes it Vs. *Aversive Stimulus*: Unpleasant stimulus

Burrhus Skinner

*Radical Behaviorism* o Coined the term in 1938 o Was named radical because it included *private events* into an understanding of behavior

Steady State Strategy

*Repeated exposure* of a given subject to a given condition while trying to eliminate extraneous influences on behavior and obtaining a stable pattern of responding before introducing the next condition

Skinners Elementary Verbal Operants that are Codics

*Textual* (the stimulus is visual and the response is speaking those words. e.g., reading a text form a friend) and *Transcription* (the stimulus is a spoken verbal SD and the response is writing that spoken verbal SD)

Exteroceptive

*Think 5 senses*: Hearing, seeing, touching, smelling, and tasting Example: Smelling smoke

Temporal Stimulus Class

*Time*-based stimulus changes that exist or occur prior to (i.e., Antecedents) the behavior of interest and stimulus changes that follow a behavior of interest (i.e Consequences)

Asking about stimulus preferences

*a. Ask the target person*: o Open-ended questions (orally or written) o Choice format "Which would you work for?" o Ranking objects on a list. *b. Ask Significant Others* *c. Offer a Pre-Task Choice*: o "What do you want to earn for doing the task?" Participant can choose 1 item from 2-3 items.

How to plan for generalization

1) *Select target Behaviors that will meet with natural contingencies of reinforcement*: Behavior for generalization must be functional for the individual. Follow the Relevance-of-Behavior Rule. 2) *Specify all desired variations of the Bx & the situations in which it should (and should not) occur after instruction has ended*: List all behaviors that need to be changed and all situations in which the behavior should/should not occur

9 Main UMOs for Humans

1) Food Deprivation 2) Water Deprivation 3) Sleep Deprivation 4) Activity Deprivation 5) Oxygen Deprivation 6) Sex Deprivation 7) Becoming Too Warm 8) Becoming Too Cold 9) Increase in Pain

Factors Affecting Stimulus Control

1. *Pre-attending skills*: Looking at the instructor, looking at the materials, listening to directions, and sitting quietly for short periods of time. 2. *Stimulus Salience*: Prominence of the stimulus in person's environment. *Increased salience makes things easier to learn*

3 Basic Methods of Stimulus Preference Assessment

1. Asking about stimulus preferences 2. Observation 3. Trial-based methods

5 Steps of Imitation Training

1. Assess & teach any prerequisite skills for imitation training. 2. Select models for training. 3. Pretest. 4. Sequence models for training. 5. Implement imitation training.

Guidelines for Shaping

1. Assess terminal behavior & available resources 2. Select the terminal behavior 3. Determine criterion for success 4. Analyze the response class 5. Identify the first behavior to reinforce 6. Eliminate interfering & extraneous stimuli 7. Proceed in gradual stages 8. Limit the number of approximations at each level 9. Continue reinforcement when the terminal behavior is achieved.

3 Components of Contingency Contracts

1. Behavior: Description of Behavior 2. Reward: Description of Reward 3. Data: Behavior data

What is legal, but unethical?

1. Breaking a professional confidence 2. Accepting valued heirlooms in lieu of payment 3. Engaging in consensual sex with a client over the age of 18

3 Purposes of Graphs

1. Communicate: *Communicates* our data 2. Assess: Helps us *assess* our data 3. I/D—IV/DV: Shows how the *DV and IV* are related to one another Acronym: CAID

Factors Affecting the Performance of a Behavior Chain

1. Completeness of the task analysis 2. Length or complexity of the chain 3. Schedule of Reinforcement 4. Stimulus Variation 5. Response Variation

7 Compound Schedules of Reinforcement

1. Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement 2. Multiple Schedules of Reinforcement 3. Chained Schedules of Reinforcement 4. Mixed Schedules of Reinforcement 5. Tandem Schedules of Reinforcement 6. Alternative Schedules of Reinforcement 7. Conjunctive Schedules of Reinforcement Acronym: CMCMTAC

6 Steps to a split middle line of progress

1. Count 2. Divide 3. Mid rate 4. Mid date 5. Quarter (quarterly intersect line of progress) 6. Split (split-middle line of progress)

Chaining Steps

1. Create & confirm the task analysis. 2. Assess baseline level of mastered steps. 3. Behavior Chaining Methods.

3 Procedures for Measuring Behavior

1. Event recording 2. Timing 3. Time sampling Acronym: ETT (Every Trippin' Time)

4 Basic schedules of INT Reinforcement

1. Fixed Ratio (FR) 2. Variable Ratio (VR) 3. Fixed Interval (FI) 4. Variable Interval (VI) Acronym: FVFV

5 Benefits of Graphs

1. Gives you immediate picture of an individual's behavior 2. Allows you to explore the interesting variations in behavior as they are occurring 3. Acts as a judgmental aid to help you interpret the results of a study or treatment 4. Acts as a *conservative method for determining the significance of behavior change*, because a behavior change that is statistically significant may not look impressive on a graph 5. Allows for an independent judgment and evaluation of the data.

7 Parts of a Line Graph

1. Horizontal Axis (AKA: X-Axis or Abscissa) 2. Vertical Axis (AKA: Y-Axis or Ordinate) 3. Condition Change Lines (Solid Lines = Major Changes; Dashed Lines = Minor Changes) 4. Condition Labels 5. Data Points 6. Data Path 7. Figure Caption

4 Ways to Effectively Monitor Staff Performance

1. Inform: Inform staff that they are being monitored and WHY! 2. Friendly: Be friendly, polite, and courteous to staff 3. Overt: Monitor staff overtly, as cover monitoring brings negative feelings 4. Feedback: The feedback should be given to staff ASAP

Ensuring Success and Support When Conducting a Behavior Support Plan

1. Involve guardian and/or supportive staff in the creation of the plan 2. Consider how the individual's new skills will be *reinforcing to* family members 3. Will there be *natural reinforcers to maintain the behavior* after treatment ends? What are they? 4. Determine what *skills or behaviors the individual should acquire* to contact natural reinforcers 5. Consider *input from paraprofessionals*, as they have more personal contact with clients 6. *Collaborate* with other professionals

3 Problems Avoided by Alternating Treatments Design

1. Irreversibility 2. Sequence Effects 3. Unstable Data

10 Questions to ask yourself when Evaluating the Habilitation/Social Significance of Target Behaviors

1. Is this behavior likely yo produce reinforcement in the clients natural environment after intervention ends? (AKA: Relevance of Behavior Rule) 2. Is this behavior a prerequisite for a complex functional skill? 3. Will this behavior increase the clients access to environments? 4. Will changing this behavior predispose others to interact with the client in a more supportive manner? 5. Is this behavior a *pivotal behavior or a behavioral cusp*? 6. Is this an age-appropriate behavior? 7. Is this behavior is to be reduced/eliminated from the clients repertoire, has an adaptive and functional behavior been selected to replace it? 8. Does this behavior represent the actual goal, or is it only indirectly related? 9. Is this "just talk", or is it the real behavior of interest? 10. If the goal itself is not a specific behavior, will this behavior help achieve it?

5 Types of Graphs

1. Line 2. Bar 3. Cumulative Record 4. Scatterplot 5. Standard Celeration Chart Acronym: LBCSS (Little Boys Can Sure Skate)

3 Reasons Why We Abide by Ethics

1. Meaningful change: produce it 2. Harm: reduce/eliminate it 3. Standards: to conform to ethical standards of learned societies and professional organizations

4 Confounding Threats to Internal Validity

1. Measurement Confounds 2. IV Confounds 3. Subject Confounds 4. Setting Confounds

What is both illegal and unethical?

1. Misrepresenting promised services or skills 2. Stealing a clients belongings 3. Abusing a client 4. Engaging in consensual sex with persons under the age of 18

5 Main Experimental Designs

1. Multiple Baseline 2. Changing Criterion 3. Reversal 4. Alternating Treatments 5. Withdrawal

How should IOA be reported?

1. Narrative report. 2. Table 3. Graphic Display

3 Requisites for Obtaining Valid IOA

1. Observers must use the SAME MEASUREMENT SYSTEM 2. Observers must measure the SAME EVENT 3. Observers must be INDEPENDENT of each other

Breaking an Inappropriate Chain

1. Reexamine SD and response 2. Determine whether similar SDs cue different responses 3. Analyze the natural setting to identify relevant and irrelevant SDs 4. Determine whether SDs in the natural setting differ from training SDs 5. Identify the presence of novel stimuli in the setting Example: In learning to put dishes away in a restaurant, the presence of customers may cause the chain to be performed out of sequence or a co-worker may give contradictory instructions

5 Phases of Assessment

1. Screening & general deposition 2. Defining & quantifying problems or desired achievement criteria 3. Pinpointing target behaviors to be treated 4. Monitoring progress 5. Follow-up

4 Ways to Create a Procedural Integrity System

1. Specify- clearly specify what staff must do to implement the plan 2. Train- train staff on procedures using competency & performance-based strategies 3. Monitor- routinely monitor staff performances 4. Reinforce- reinforce correct performance

5 documents describe standards of professional conduct and ethical practice for ABA

1. Task List 2. Code 3. Education 4. Psychologists 5. Behavioral Treatment

What relevant quantitative relations are effectively communicated on the cumulative record?

1. The target *behavior can be measure in cumulative units* 2. the target behavior *only occurs once* per observation period 3. The cumulative record shows how rapidly or slowly the target responses are repeated 4. The cumulative record can be used as *person feedback* 5. The *effects of the IV are easier to detect* on a cumulative record rather than a noncumulative graph

Prioritizing Target Behaviors

1. Threat to health or safety of self/others 2. Frequency: Occurrence of problem (e.g., 4 times/day) 3. Longevity of problem: Chronic problem should come before new one 4. Potential for higher rates of reinforcement 5. Relative importance --> Future skill development and independent functioning 6. Reduction of negative attention from others 7. Reinforcement for significant others: Exercise caution when considering this 8. Likelihood of success: Some behaviors are harder to change than others 9. Cost-benefit ratio to change clients behavior: Costs include time and effort

Cartesian Plane

2-dimensional area formed by 2 perpendicular lines that intersect

A-B design

2-phase design 1. Pre-treatment baseline (A); Followed by 2. treatment condition (B).

What is the Primary Unit of Analysis in ABA?

3 term contingency (A-B-C)

A-B-A design

3-phase design: Pre-treatment baseline (A); 2. treatment condition (B); 3. return to baseline conditions (A). Each phase should reach "steadystate" responding before the introduction of the next phase.

A-B-A-B design

4-phase design: Pre-treatment baseline (A); 2. treatment condition (B); 3. return to baseline (A). and (4) a second intervention phase (B). Each phase should reach "steadystate" responding before the introduction of the next phase. (Also called reversal design, withdrawal design)

Negative Reinforcement (AKA: Type 2 Reinforcement; Sr-)

A *process* that occurs when a behavior is followed immediately by the *reduction or removal* of a stimulus that increases the FUTURE frequency of the behavior in similar conditions Example: Heather takes an aspirin and her headache stops

Positve Reinforcement (AKA: Type 1 Reinforcement; Sr+)

A *process* that occurs when a behavior is followed immediately by the presentation of a stimulus that *increases* the FUTURE frequency of the behavior in similar conditions Example: Baby increased hitting the mobile with his hands because it made a pretty sound the baby liked

Negative Punishment (AKA: Type 2 Punishment; Penalty Principle; Penalty Contingency)

A *process* that occurs when a response is followed immediately by the removal of a stimulus that *decreases* the future frequency of similar responses under similar conditions. Example: Mom takes her daughters phone away for not doing her chores. In the future, the daughter will do her chores so that she can keep her phone.

Positive Punishment (AKA: Type 1 Punishment)

A *process* that occurs when the addition of a stimulus immediately following a behavior results in a *decrease* in the FUTURE frequency of the behavior Example: A mother saying. "No!" after her son hits her

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)

A *scientific approach* in which tactics derived from the principles of behavior are applied to improve *socially significant* behavior and experimentation is used to *identify the variables responsible* for the *improvement* in behavior.

Behavior Chain

A *sequence of responses* in which each response produces a stimulus change that functions as conditioned reinforcement for that response and as a discriminative stimulus for the *next response in the chain*; reinforcement for the last response in a chain maintains the reinforcing effectiveness of the stimulus changes produced by all previous responses in the chain.

Science

A *systematic approach* for seeking and organizing knowledge about the natural world. Science is based on *Determinism*

fixed-momentary DRO (FM-DRO)

A DRO procedure in which reinforcement is available at specific moments of time, which are separated by a fixed amount of time, and delivered contingent on the problem not occurring at those moments.

variable-momentary DRO (VM-DRO)

A DRO procedure in which reinforcement is available at specific moments of time, which are separated by variable amounts of time in random sequence, and delivered if the problem is not occurring at those times.

fixed-interval DRO (FI-DRO)

A DRO procedure in which reinforcement is available at the end of intervals of fixed duration and delivered contingent on the absence of the problem behavior during each interval.

variable-interval DRO (VI-DRO)

A DRO procedure in which reinforcement is available at the end of intervals of variable duration and delivered contingent on the absence of the problem behavior during the interval.

Stimulus Delta (AKA: SΔ)

A Stimulus in the presence of which a given behavior has NOT produced reinforcement in the past.

Antecedent control

A behavior change intervention that manipulates contingency-dependent consequence events to affect stimulus control.

Response Differentiation

A behavior change produced by differential reinforcement: Reinforced members of the current response class occur with greater frequency, and unreinforced members occur less frequently (undergo extinction); the overall result is the emergence of a new response class.

Behavior Cusps

A behavior change that has consequences for the organism beyond the change itself, some of which may be considered important Example: Reading and Generalized imitation

Generalized behavior change

A behavior change that has not been taught directly. Generalized outcomes take one, or a combination of, three primary forms: response maintenance, stimulus/setting generalization, and response generalization. Sometimes called generalized outcome.

Behavioral Cusp

A behavior that has sudden and dramatic consequences that extend well beyond the idiosyncratic change itself because it exposes the person to new environments, reinforcers, contingencies, responses, and stimulus controls.

Systematic Desensitization

A behavior therapy treatment for anxieties, fears, and phobias that involves substituting one response, generally muscle relaxation, for the unwanted behavior—the fear and anxiety. The client practices relaxing while imagining anxiety-producing situations in a sequence from the least fearful to the most fearful.

Spontaneous Recovery

A behavioral effect associated with extinction in which the behavior suddenly begins to occur after its frequency has decreased to its prereinforcement level or stopped entirely.

Experiment

A carefully controlled comparison of some measure of the phenomenon of interest (the dependent variable) under two or more different conditions in which only one factor at a time (the independent variable) differs from one condition to another.

Reactivity

A change in behavior when being observed

concept formation

A complex example of stimulus control that requires stimulus generalization within a class of stimuli and discrimination between classes of stimuli.

Level system

A component of some token economy systems in which participants advance up or down throughout a succession of levels contingent on their behavior at the current level

Baseline

A condition of an experiment in which the independent variable is not present; data obtained during baseline are the basis for determining the effects of the independent variable; a control condition that does not necessarily mean the absence of instruction or treatment, only the absence of a specific independent variable of experimental interest.

Generalized Conditioned Reinforcer (AKA: Generalized Reinforcer; GCSR)

A conditioned reinforcer that as a result of having been paired with many other reinforcers does not depend on an establishing operation for any particular form of reinforcement for its effectiveness. Example: Money, Token Systems, Social attention and praise

escape contingency

A contingency in which a response terminates (produces escape from) an ongoing stimulus.

Discriminated Avoidance

A contingency in which responding in the presence of a *signal* prevents the onset of a stimulus from which escape is a reinforcer. Example: You check traffic before going to work and noticed that theres an accident on your normal route. You checking the traffic was the SD for you to avoid the freeway and take the backroads to work.

Intermittent Schedule of Reinforcement (INT)

A contingency of reinforcement in which some, but not all, occurrences of the behavior produce reinforcement. Example: Lottery, slot machines, finding parking at whole foods.

Descending Baseline

A data path that shows a decreasing trend in the response measure over time.

Ascending Baseline

A data path that shows an increasing trend in the response measure over time.

habituation

A decrease in responsiveness to repeated presentations of a stimulus; most often used to describe a reduction of respondent behavior as a function of repeated presentation of the eliciting stimulus over a short span of time; some researchers suggest that the concept also applies to within-session changes in operant behavior.

Satiation

A decrease in the frequency of operant behavior presumed to be the result of continued contact with or consumption of a reinforcer that has followed the behavior; also refers to a procedure for reducing the effectiveness of a reinforcer (e.g., presenting a person with copious amounts of a reinforcing stimulus prior to a session).

Reinforcer-Abolishing effect (of a motivating operation)

A decrease in the reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus, object, or event caused by a motivating operation. For example, food ingestion abolishes (decreases) the reinforcing effectiveness of food.

Cumulative recorder

A device that automatically draws cumulative records (graphs) that show the rate of response in real time; each time a response is emitted, a pen moves upward across paper that continuously moves at a constant speed.

Functional Communication Training (FCT)

A differential reinforcement (DR) procedure in which an individual is taught an alternative response that results in the same class of reinforcement identified as maintaining problem behavior. Example: Instead of displaying challenging behavior to attain food because you are hungry, you are taught to point to the food items you desire when hungry (i.e., your EO is in effect)

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)

A federal law that restricts an entities ability to disclose and/or protect health information

Explanatory Fiction

A fictitious or hypothetical variable that often takes the form of another name for the observed phenomenon it claims to explain and contributes nothing to a functional account or understanding of the phenomenon, such as "intelligence" or "cognitive awareness" as explanations for why an organism pushes the lever when the light is on and food is available but does not push the lever when the light is off and no food is available.

Behavioral Assessment

A form of assessment that involves a full range of inquiry methods (observation, interview, testing, and the systematic manipulation of antecedent or consequence variables) to identify probable antecedent and consequent controlling variables. Behavioral assessment is designed to discover resources, assets, significant others, competing contingencies, maintenance and generality factors, and possible reinforcer and/or punishers that surround the potential target behavior.

Positive Practice Overcorrection

A form of overcorrection in which, contingent on an occurrence of the target behavior, the learner is required to repeated a correct form of the behavior, or a behavior incompatible with the problem behavior, a specified number of times; entails an educative component. Example: You make the person who tracked mud through house practice wiping off their shoes 5 times or for 10 minutes on the doormat

Restitutional Overcorrection

A form of overcorrection in which, contingent on the problem behavior, the learner is required to repair the damage or return the environment to its original state and then to engage in additional behavior to bring the environment to a condition vastly better than it was in prior to the misbehavior. Example: For the behavior of tracking mud through the house, you make the person clean up the mud and then wax all the floors.

Precision Teaching

A formal individualized ABA instructional method that emphasizes rate building (fluency), charting of performance (celeration charting), designing and implementing teaching, and that reinforces the emission of each specific behavior under all the conditions in which it is expected to occur

Essential for living

A functional assessment and curriculum

Stimulus Generalization Gradient

A graphic depiction of the extent to which behavior that has been reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus condition is emitted in the presence of other stimuli.

Response Class

A group of responses of varying topography, all of which produce the same effect on the environment (i.e., have the same function)

Stimulus Class

A group of stimuli that share specified common elements along formal (e.g., size, color), temporal (e.g., antecedent or consequent), and/or functional (e.g., discriminative stimulus) dimensions.

Conditioned reflex

A learned stimulus-response functional relation consisting of an antecedent stimulus (e.g., sound of refrigerator door opening) and the response it elicits (e.g., salivation); each person's repertoire of conditioned reflexes is the product of his or her history of interactions with the environment (ontogeny).

Split-middle Line of Progress

A line drawn through a series of graphed data points that shows the overall trend in the data; drawn through the intersections of the vertical and horizontal middles of each half of the charted data and then adjusted up or down so that half of all the data points fall on or above and half fall on or below the line.

Checklists (AKA: Behavior Checklists)

A list of activities in sequential order that need to be completed

Access Behaviors

A means of producing indirect benefits to clients Example: Students in special education classes are often taught to stay in their seats in class, interact politely with others, etc. These behaviors are taught with the expectation that they will increase acceptance into a general education classroom (*Increase Access*)

True Value

A measure accepted as a quantitative description of the true state of some dimensional quantity of an event as it exists in nature. Obtaining true values requires "special or extraordinary precautions to ensure that all possible sources of error have been avoided or removed" (Johnston & Pennypacker, 1993a, p. 136).

Interresponse Time (IRT)

A measure of temporal locus; defined as the elapsed time between two successive responses.

Response Latency

A measure of temporal locus; the elapsed time from the onset of a stimulus (e.g., task direction, cue) to the initiation of a response. (Also known as latency)

Latency

A measure of temporal locus; the elapsed time from the onset of a stimulus (e.g., task direction, cue) to the initiation of a response. (Also known as response latency.)

Duration

A measure of the total extent of time in which a behavior occurs.

Observed value

A measure produced by an observation and measurement system. Observed values serve as the data that the researcher and others will interpret to form conclusions about an investigation.

Momentary Time Sampling

A measurement method in which the presence or absence of behaviors are recorded at precisely specified time intervals *[Hint: Over- or Underestimates or neither]*

behavioral momentum

A metaphor to describe a rate of responding and its resistance to change following an alteration in reinforcement conditions. The momentum metaphor has also been used to describe the effects produced by the high-probability (high-p) request sequence.

Interrupting and Breaking Behavior Chains (AKA: Unchaining, Disrupting a Chain; Unlinking a Chain)

A method designed to lessen behavior by unlinking one element of the chain from the next so that one link no longer serves as a discriminative stimulus for the next link, nor as a conditioned reinforcer for the prior link.

Measurement by Permanent Product

A method of measuring behavior after it has occurred by recording the effects that the behavior produced on the environment.

Response Deprivation Hypothesis

A model for predicting whether contingent access to one behavior will function as reinforcement for engaging in another behavior based on whether access to the contingent behavior represents a restriction of the activity compared to the baseline Example: You decide to utilize a RDH on your behavior of studying. You restrict hanging out with friends until you pas the exam. The value of hanging out with friends increases as a reinforcer and, thus, can be used to reinforce your low-probability behavior of studying

Response-Deprivation Hypothesis

A model for predicting whether contingent access to one behavior will function as reinforcement for engaging in another behavior based on whether access to the contingent behavior represents a restriction of the activity compared to the baseline level of engagement.

Mean Durations (or IRT)-Per-Occurrence IOA

A more conservative and usually more meaningful assessment of IOA than total duration data Formula: *(Duration IOA B1+ Duration IOA B2 + Duration IOA Bn / n Behaviors with Duration IOA)*

Conditioned Motivating Operations (CMO)

A motivating operation whose value-altering effect depends on a *learning* history. Example: because of the relation between locked doors and keys, having to open a locked door is a CMO that makes keys more effective as reinforcers, and evokes behavior that has obtained such keys.

multiple baseline across settings design

A multiple baseline design in which the treatment variable is applied to the same behavior of the same subject across two or more different settings, situations, or time periods.

multiple baseline across subjects design

A multiple baseline design in which the treatment variable is applied to the same behavior of two or more subjects (or groups) in the same setting.

multiple baseline across behaviors design

A multiple baseline design in which the treatment variable is applied to two or more different behaviors of the same subject in the same setting.

habit reversal

A multiple-component treatment package for reducing unwanted habits such as fingernail biting and muscle tics; treatment typically includes self-awareness training involving response detection and procedures for identifying events that precede and trigger the response; competing response training; and motivation techniques including self-administered consequences, social support systems, and procedures for promoting the generalization and maintenance of treatment gains.

Behavioral Contract

A mutually agreed upon document between parties (e.g., parent and child) that specifies a contingent relationship between the completion of specified behavior(s) and access to specified reinforcer(s).

Contingency Contracting (AKA: Behavioral Contract)

A mutually agreed-upon document between parties (e.g., parent and child) that specifies a contingent relationship between the completion of specified behavior(s) and access to specified reinforcer(s).

VB-Mapp

A norm-referenced, developmental assessment, and curriculum

Differentiation

A particular characteristic of behavior becomes increasingly more likely, while other characteristics become less likely

Negative Behavioral Contrasts

A phenomenon in which a behavior *decreases* for a potentially *less favorable* reinforcer *after* being exposed to a reinforcer that is clearly *more favorable* Example: At the start of the relationship, you pick up your partners socks 3 times per day (which they like, reinforcer for them). Time passes and you stop picking up their socks (they dont like, not reinforcing). Now, the behavior of picking up their own socks decreases lower than they ever did in the first place.

Positive Behavioral Contrasts

A phenomenon in which a behavior *increases* for a potentially *more favorable* reinforcer *after* being exposed to a reinforcer that has become *less favorable* Example: Skinner had a pigeon press a blue and yellow button. Every time the pigeon his the buttons, they would get a treat. Skinner stopped delivering treats for the yellow button (less favorable reinforcer). Pigeon increased hitting the blue button.

Collateral Effects

A phenomenon in which the IV effects behaviors other than the targeted behavior

methodological behaviorism

A philosophical position that views behavioral events that cannot be publicly observed as outside the realm of science.

Hypothetical Contructs (AKA: Imaginary Contructs)

A presumed but unobserved process or entity (e.g., Freud's id, ego, and superego). Example: Free will, readiness, unobservable storage and retrieval mechanisms for memory, information processing, etc.

Conditioned negative reinforcer

A previously neutral stimulus change that functions as a negative reinforcer because of prior pairing with one or more negative reinforcers.

Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO) (AKA: Zero rates of responding; Omission training)

A procedure for decreasing problem behavior in which reinforcement is contingent on the absence of the problem behavior during or at specific times (i.e., momentary DRO); sometimes called differential reinforcement of ).

Spaced-responding DRL

A procedure for implementing DRL in which reinforcement follows each occurrence of the target behavior that is separated from the previous response by a minimum interresponse time (IRT).

Full-Session DRL

A procedure for implementing DRL in which reinforcement is delivered at the end of the session if the total number of responses emitted during the session does not exceed a criterion limit.

Interval DRL

A procedure for implementing DRL in which the total session is divided into equal intervals and reinforcement is provided at the end of each interval in which the number of responses during the interval is equal to or below a criterion limit.

Time-out Ribbon

A procedure for implementing nonexclusion time-out in which a child wears a ribbon or wristband that becomes discriminative for receiving reinforcement. Contingent on misbehavior, the ribbon is removed and access to social and other reinforcers are unavailable for a specific period. When time-out ends, the ribbon or band is returned to the child and time-in begins.

Planned Ignoring

A procedure for implementing time-out in which social reinforcers—usually attention, physical contact, and verbal interaction—are withheld for a brief period contingent on the occurrence of the target behavior.

Exclusionary Time-Out

A procedure for implementing time-out in which the individual is removed from the space

Contingent observation

A procedure for implementing timeout in which the person is repositioned within an existing setting such that observation of ongoing activities remains, but access to reinforcement is lost.

Nonexclusion time-out

A procedure for implementing timeout in which, contingent on the occurrence of the target behavior, the person remains within the setting, but does not have access to reinforcement, for a specified period.

Match to sample

A procedure for investigating conditional relations

Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA) (AKA: Alt-R)

A procedure in which one reinforces the occurrence of behavior that provides a desirable alternative to or serves as the same function as the problem behavior; not necessarily behavior incompatible with it Example: In order to decrease bickering that has been occurring with a small group of co-workers, their very intelligent employer decides to give them a special assignment to work on collaboratively as a team. The bickering amongst the group decreases as they work together on the special assignment

Stimulus Discrimination Training (AKA: Discrimination Training)

A procedure in which responses are reinforced in the presence of one stimulus condition (the SD), but not in the presence of the other (SΔ)

Noncontingent Reinforcement (NCR)

A procedure in which stimuli with known reinforcing properties are presented on fixed-time (FT) or variable-time (VT) schedules completely independent of behavior; often used as an antecedent intervention to reduce problem behavior.

Response Blocking

A procedure in which the therapist physically intervenes as soon as the learner begins to emit a problem behavior to prevent completion of the targeted behavior. Example: You bite your fingernails. Your friend places mittens over your hands, so you cannot bite your nails. The mittens *physically block your response* of nail biting.

stimulus-stimulus pairing

A procedure in which two stimuli are presented at the same time, usually repeatedly for a number of trials, which often results in one stimulus acquiring the function of the other stimulus.

Placebo Control

A procedure that prevents a subject from detecting the presence or absence of the treatment variable. To the subject the placebo condition appears the same as the treatment condition (e.g., a placebo pill contains an inert substance but looks, feels, and tastes exactly like a pill that contains the treatment drug).

double-blind control

A procedure that prevents the subject and the observer(s) from detecting the presence or absence of the treatment variable; used to eliminate confounding of results by subject expectations, parent and teacher expectations, differential treatment by others, and observer bias.

Self-monitoring

A procedure whereby a person systematically observes his behavior and records the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a target behavior

After I have created a treatment package, how do I analyze the individual treatments that are part of that package?

A process called *Component Analysis* looks at the effect of each part of the treatment package

Rate

A ratio of count per observation time; often expressed as count per standard unit of time (e.g., per minute, per hour, per day) and calculated by dividing the number of responses recorded by the number of standard units of time in which observations were conducted.

Frequency

A ratio of count per observation time; often expressed as count per standard unit of time (e.g., per minute, per hour, per day) and calculated by dividing the number of responses recorded by the number of standard units of time in which observations were conducted; used interchangeably with rate.

Avoidance contingency

A response contingency that *prevents or postpones* the presentation of a stimulus

Escape

A response that stops an ongoing aversive stimulus. A person is *escaping* the unpleasant situation Example: Turning off loud music in your car or walking out of a boring lecture.

Schedules of Reinforcement

A rule specifying the environmental arrangements and response requirements for reinforcement; a description of a contingency of reinforcement.

fixed-time schedule (FT)

A schedule for the delivery of non contingent stimuli in which a time interval remains the same from one delivery to the next.

variable-time schedule (VT)

A schedule for the delivery of noncontingent stimuli in which the interval of time from one delivery to the next randomly varies around a given time. For example, on a VT 1-minute schedule, the delivery-to-delivery interval might range from 5 seconds to 2 minutes,but the average interval would be 1 minute.

Compound Schedule

A schedule of reinforcement consisting of two or more elements of continuous reinforcement (CRF), the four intermittent schedules of reinforcement (FR, VR, FI, VI), differential reinforcement of various rates of responding (DRH, DRL), and extinction. The elements from these basic schedules can occur successively or simultaneously and with or without discriminative stimuli; reinforcement may be contingent on meeting the requirements of each element of the schedule independently or in combination with all elements.

Lag reinforcement schedule

A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is contingent on a response being different in some specified way (e.g., different topography) from the previous response (e.g., Lag 1) or a specified number of previous responses (e.g., Lag 2 or more).

Chained Schedules of Reinforcement (Chain)

A schedule of reinforcement in which the response requirements of *2* or more basic schedules must be met in a specific sequence before reinforcement is delivered; a discriminative stimulus is correlated with each component of the schedule. *3 Important elements:* 1. Occur in a specific order (not in a random order) 2. Behavior may be the same or different Behavior may be required for different elements 3. Conditioned reinforcement for 1st Behavior is the presentation of the 2nd element

Continuous Reinforcement (CRF)

A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement for every correct response Example: After an individual flips on the light switch in his hallway, the light comes on.

Autoclitic

A secondary verbal operant in which some aspect of a speaker's own verbal behavior functions as an SD or an MO for additional speaker verbal behavior Example: "Dont look now, but I think I see Marty with his new girlfriend" The autoclitic involves verbal responses for which the functional properties of the speakers ongoing verbal behavior provide the SD, one such as, "Who is she?"

massed practice

A self-directed behavior change technique in which the person forces himself to perform an undesired behavior (e.g., a compulsive ritual) repeatedly, which sometimes decreases the future frequency of the behavior.

Antecedent stimulus class

A set of stimuli that share a common relationship. All stimuli in an antecedent stimulus class evoke the same operant behavior, or elicit the same respondent behavior.

Verbal Repertoire

A set of verbal operants emitted by someone

Bar Graphs (AKA: Histogram)

A simple and versatile graphic format for summarizing behavioral data; shares most of the line graph's features except that it does not have distinct data points representing successive response measures through time.

Count

A simple tally of the number of occurrences of a behavior. The observation period, or counting time, should always be noted when reporting count measures.

Discrete Trial

A single cycle of behaviorally-based and systematic instructional routine

Singe response skill

A single movement and can be taught without breaking it down into smaller steps

Conflict of interest

A situation in which a person in a position of responsibility or trust has competing professional or personal interests that make it difficult to fulfill his or her duties impartially.

Limited Hold (LH)

A situation in which reinforcement is available only during a finite time following the elapse of an FI or VI interval; if the target response does not occur within the time limit, reinforcement is withheld and a new interval begins Example: On an FI 5-minute schedule with a limited hold of 30 seconds, the first correct response following the elapse of 5 minutes is reinforced only if that response occurs within 30 seconds after the end of the 5-minute interval.

Stimulus control

A situation in which the frequency, latency, duration, or amplitude of a behavior is altered by the presence or absence of an *antecedent stimulus*

irreversibility

A situation that occurs when the level of responding observed in a previous phase cannot be reproduced even though the experimental conditions are the same as they were during the earlier phase.

principle of behavior

A statement describing a functional relation between behavior and one or more of its controlling

Behaviorally-stated instructional objectives

A statement of actions a student should perform after completing one or more instructional components

Experimental Question (AKA: Research Question)

A statement of what the researcher seeks to learn by conducting the experiment.

Punisher

A stimulus change that decreases the future frequency of behavior that immediately precedes it.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus change that does not elicit respondent behavior.

Reinforcer

A stimulus change that increases the future frequency of behavior that immediately precedes it.

Generalized Conditioned Punisher (AKA: Generalized Punishers)

A stimulus change that, as a result of having been paired with many other punishers, functions as punishment under most conditions because it is free from the control of motivating conditions for specific types of punishment. Example: Reprimands or Social disapproval

Unconditioned Negative Reinforcer

A stimulus that functions as a negative reinforcer as a result of the evolutionary development of the species (phylogeny); no prior learning is involved (e.g., shock, loud noise, intense light, extreme temperatures, strong pressure against the body).

Positive Reinforcer

A stimulus whose presentation or onset functions as reinforcement. (Contrast with negative reinforcer.)

Teaching Sufficient Examples (AKA: Multiple exemplar training)

A strategy for promoting generalized behavior change that consists of teaching the learner to respond to a subset of all of the relevant stimulus and response examples and then assessing the learner's performance on untrained examples.

Token economy

A system whereby participants earn generalized condition reinforcers as an immediate consequence for specific behaviors

visual analysis

A systematic approach for interpreting the results of behavioral research and treatment programs that entails visual inspection of graphed data for variability, level, and trend within and between experimental conditions.

Functional Behavior Assessment (FBA)

A systematic method of assessment for obtaining information about the purpose of a problem behavior serves for a person

General Case Analysis

A systematic process for identifying and selecting teaching examples that represent the full range of stimulus variations and response requirements in the generalization setting(s). Example: If Kimmy wants to teach her client how to use a laundry machine, she should provide training on mulitple laundry machine variations.

Generic (Tact) Extension

A tact evoked by a novel stimulus that shares all of the relevant or defining features associated with the original stimulus. Example: Saying "Jujube" when shown an M&M

Metonymical (tact) Extension

A tact evoked by a novel stimulus that shares none of the relevant features of the original stimulus configuration, but some irrelevant yet related feature has acquired stimulus control. Example: Saying "Water" when shown an empty cup

programming common stimuli

A tactic for promoting setting/situation generalization by making the instructional setting similar to the generalization setting; the two-step process involves: (1) identifying salient stimuli that characterize the generalization setting and (2) incorporating those stimuli into the instructional setting.

Fading

A technique used to gradually transfer stimulus control from supplementary antecedent stimuli (prompts) to naturally occurring EO's and/or discriminative stimuli

Behavior Change Tactic

A technologically consistent method for changing behavior derived from one or more principles of behavior (e.g., differential reinforcement of other behavior, response cost); possesses sufficient generality across subjects, settings, and/or behaviors to warrant its codification and dissemination.

Clicker Training

A term popularized by Pryor (1999) for shaping behavior using conditioned reinforcement in the form of an auditory stimulus. A handheld device produces a click sound when pressed. The trainer pairs other forms of reinforcement (e.g., edible treats) with the click sound so that the sound becomes a conditioned reinforcer.

Withdrawal design

A term used by some authors as a synonym for A-B-A-B design; also used to describe experiments in which an effective treatment is sequentially or partially withdrawn to promote the maintenance of behavior changes.

Radical Behaviorism

A thoroughgoing form of behaviorism that attempts to understand all human behavior, including private events such as thoughts and feelings, in terms of controlling variables in the history of the person (ontogeny) and the species (phylogeny).

B-A-B Reversal design

A three-phase experimental design that begins with the treatment condition. After steady state responding has been obtained during the initial treatment phase (B), the treatment variable is withdrawn (A) to see whether responding changes in the absence of the independent variable. The treatment variable is then reintroduced (B) in an attempt to recapture the level of responding obtained during the first treatment phase.

Partial Interval Recording

A time sampling method in which the observer records whether the target behavior occurred at any time during the interval *[Hint: Overestimates the rate of a behavior]*

Behavior Skills Training

A training package that utilizes instructions, modeling, rehearsal, and feedback in order to teach a new skill

Semilogarithmic Chart (AKA: Ratio Chart; Multiply-Divide Chart)

A two-dimensional graph with a logarithmic scaled y axis so that equal distances on the vertical axis represent changes in behavior that are of equal proportion. Example: A doubling of response rate from 4 to 8 responses/minute would appear on a semilogarithmic chart as the same amount of change as a doubling from 50 to 100 response/minute

Cumulative record

A type of graph on which the cumulative number of responses emitted is represented on the vertical axis; the steeper the slope of the data path, the greater the response rate.

Celeration Time Period

A unit of time (e.g., per week, per month) in which celeration is plotted on a Standard Celeration Chart.

Planned Activity Check (AKA: PLACHECK)

A variation of *momentary time sampling* in which the observer records whether each person in a group is engaged in the target behavior at specific points in time; provides a measure of "group behavior." Example: A teacher observes a group of students at the end of each interval, and record the total number of students engaged in the targeted activity

Impure Tact

A verbal operant involving a response that is evoked by both an MO and a nonverbal stimulus; thus, the response is part mand and part tact.

Functional Relation

A verbal statement summarizing the results of an experiment (or group of related experiments) that describes the occurrence of the phenomena under study as a function of the operation of one or more specified and controlled variables in the experiment in which a specific change in one event (the dependent variable) can be produced by manipulating another event (the independent variable), and that the change in the dependent variable was unlikely the result of other factors (confounding variables); in behavior analysis expressed as b = f (x1), (x2), . . . , where b is the behavior and x1, x2, etc., are environmental variables of which the behavior is a function.

Graph

A visual format for displaying data; reveals relations among and between a series of measurements and relevant variables.

single-subject designs

A wide variety of research designs that use a form of experimental reasoning called baseline logic to demonstrate the effects of the independent variable on the behavior of individual subjects. (Also called single-case, within-subject, and intra-subject designs).

Favell and Mcgimsey (1993)

Acceptable characteristics of treatment environments: o humane o functional skills o least restrictive o stable o safe

Continued importance of generalization

Adulthood is expressed through self-sufficiency

Transitivity

After learning that A = B and B = C, the learner demonstrates that A = C without direct training on that relationship Example: Picture of baby (A) = Written word, "baby" (B); Written word, "baby" (B) = Spoken word "baby" (C); THEREFORE Picture of baby (A) = Spoken word "baby" (C)

Symmetry

After learning that A = B, the learner demonstrates that B = A without direct training on that relationship Example: Picture of baby (A) = Written word, "baby" (B); Written word, "baby" (B) = Picture of baby (A)

Make a Recommendation Regarding Behaviors that must be Maintained

After you establish the target behavior or skill in their repertoire, you must work on MAINTENANCE (OVER TIME) in the natural environment

Independent Group Contingency

All members of a group are offered a contingency, but *only the individuals who meet the contingency* earn the reinforcement. Example: A teacher says, "Anyone who finishes their math test before the bell rings will not have to do homework for the entire week." Any individual student who meets that criterion earns the reinforcement and any individual student who does not meet that criterion does not earn the reinforcement.

Repertoire

All of the behaviors a person can do; or a set of behaviors relevant to a particular setting or task (e.g., gardening, mathematical problem solving). Example: If your friend says something incorrect or offensive to you, you may tell them to *"Shut the hell up"*. However, if your boss at work says something that is incorrect, you will *NOT* say, *"Shut the hell up"* to your boss.

Conceptually systematic

All procedures used should be tied to the basic principles of behavior analysis from which they were derived

Motivating Operation (AKA: MO)

Alters (increases or decreases) the value of a reinforcer and evokes behavior that has been previously reinforcer Example: If you are hungry and you go to your fridge and there is no food, you will continue to search for something to eat despite your first effort being unsuccessful.

Allocated time

Amount of time scheduled for instruction

Extinction Burst (Hint: the BURST is FIRST)

An *immediate* increase in the frequency of responding when an extinction procedure is *initially implemented*

Evocative Effect (of a motivating operation)

An *increase* in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by the stimulus that is *increased* in reinforcing effectiveness by the same motivating operation. Example: food deprivation evokes (increases the current frequency of) behavior that has been reinforced by food.

Unconditioned Reflex

An *unlearned* stimulus-response functional relation consisting of an antecedent stimulus (e.g., food in mouth) that elicits the response (e.g., salivation); a product of the phylogenic evolution of a given species; all biologically intact members of a species are born with similar repertoires of unconditioned reflexes.

Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)

An ABA instructional methodology characterized by self-pacing, use of proctors, unit mastery, emphasis on the written word, and motivational lectures.

Behavior-Altering Effect of EO (AKA: Evocative Effect)

An alteration in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by the stimulus that is altered in effectiveness by the same motivating operation. For example, the frequency of behavior that has been reinforced with food is increased or decreased by food deprivation or food ingestion. Example: Your behavior changes to go and try to get food.

Functional Analysis (AKA: FA; Experimental Analysis; Analog Assessment)

An analysis of the purposes (functions) of problem behavior, wherein antecedents and consequences representing those in the person's natural routines are arranged within an experimental design so that their separate effects on problem behavior can be observed and measured; typically consists of four conditions: three test conditions—contingent attention, contingent escape, and alone—and a control condition in which problem behavior is expected to be low because reinforcement is freely available and no demands are placed on the person.

High Probability Request Sequence

An antecedent manipulation in which 2-5 easy/known tasks are presented in quick succession immediately prior to a difficult/ high effort task or a response that is relatively infrequent Example: Mina tells her son, "come give me a hug", "Draw mommy a picture", and "Get your blanket", which are all high-probability requests for her son

Model

An antecedent stimulus that evokes the imitative behavior

Goals

An antecedent that describes a terminal level of performance to be obtained

Eliminative Approach

An approach that gets rid of (i.e., eliminates) target behaviors without constructing anything in their place

Constructional Approach

An approach to building (i.e., constructing) replacement behaviors when a target behavior is removed

philosophic doubt

An attitude that the truthfulness and validity of all scientific theory and knowledge should be continually questioned.

Codic: textual

An elementary verbal operant involving a response that is evoked by a verbal discriminative stimulus that has point-to-point correspondence, but not formal similarity, between the stimulus, behavior, and consequence

Codic: transcription

An elementary verbal operant involving a spoken verbal stimulus that evokes a written, typed, or finger-spelled response

Duplic: Echoic

An elementary verbal operant that has *3 Defining Features*: (1) Verbal SD: The response form is controlled by (i.e., antecedent to) a verbal stimulus; (2) Point-to-Point correspondence; (3) Formal similarity

Copying a text

An elementary verbal operant that is evoked by a nonvocal verbal discriminative stimulus that has point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity with the controlling response.

Antecedent

An environmental condition or stimulus change existing or occurring prior to a behavior of interest.

Type I Error (AKA: False Positive)

An error that occurs when a researcher concludes that the independent variable had an effect on the dependent variable, when no such relation exists

Type II Error (AKA: False Negative)

An error that occurs when a researcher concludes that the independent variable had no effect on the dependent variable, when in truth it did

Respondent-Operant Interactions

An experience can often include both respondent and operant conditioning that occur together at the same time. Example: You are at the office about to warm up your delicious leftovers from your favorite restaurant (i.e., the US -> the CS). You place the food into the microwave, start the timer, and go back to your desk. A few minutes later, you hear the microwave timer beeping (i.e., the NS or SD). You walk to the microwave to get your food (i.e., the Response). You eat your food (i.e., the Reinforcer). You salivate (i.e., the UR -> the CR) while eating your delicious food!

Parametric Analysis

An experiment designed to discover the differential effects of a range of values of an independent variable. Example: Various doses of medication are given in the course of a study

Direct replication

An experiment in which the researcher attempts to duplicate exactly the conditions of an earlier experiment.

Systematic Replication

An experiment in which the researcher purposefully varies one or more aspects of an earlier experiment. A systematic replication that reproduces the results of previous research not only demonstrates the reliability of the earlier findings but also adds to the external validity of the earlier findings by showing that the same effect can be obtained under different conditions.

Alternating Treatment Design

An experimental design in which two or more conditions are presented in rapidly alternating succession independent of the level of responding and the differential effects on the target behavior are noted.

Multiple Baseline Design

An experimental design that begins with the concurrent measurement of two or more behaviors in a baseline condition, followed by the application of the treatment variable to one of the behaviors while baseline conditions remain in effect for the other behavior(s).

Superstitious Mand

An extended mand in which reinforcement sometimes occurs incidentally Example: Your care sometimes starts and sometimes doesn't. When trying to start your car in the morning, you say "Come on! Start!" Sometimes your car starts so you are intermittently reinforced for manding.

history of reinforcement

An inclusive term referring in general to all of a person's learning experiences and more specifically to past conditioning with respect to particular response classes or aspects of a person's repertoire.

Reinforcer-Establishing effect (of a motivating operation)

An increase in the reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus, object, or event caused by a motivating operation. For example,food deprivation establishes (increases) the reinforcing effectiveness of food.

Overcorrection

An individual is required to engage in effortful behavior that is directly related to the challenging behavior. There are two types of overcorrection.

Exercise/Contingent Exercise

An individual is required to perform a response *not topographically related to * the behavior. Example: Your husband forgot to buy you flowers for your anniversary. You tell him, "Drop and give me 10." You making him engage in 10 push-ups is *not topographically related to* his behavior of forgetting to buy you flowers

Behavior Trap

An interrelated community of contingencies of reinforcement that can be especially powerful, producing substantial and long-lasting behavior changes. Effective behavior traps share four essential features: (a) They are "baited" with virtually irresistible reinforcers that "lure" the student to the trap; (b) only a low effort response already in the student's repertoire is necessary to enter the trap; (c) once inside the trap, interrelated contingencies of reinforcement motivate the student to acquire, extend, and maintain targeted academic and/or social skills; and (d) they can remain effective for a long time because students shows few, if any, satiation effects.

Behavior Chain Interruption Strategy

An intervention that relies on the participant's skill in performing the critical elements of a chain independently; the chain is interrupted occasionally so that another behavior can be emitted.

Token

An object that is awarded contingent on appropriate behavior and that serves as the medium of exchange for backup reinforcers.

naive observer

An observer who is unaware of the study's purpose and/or the experimental conditions in effect during a given phase or observation period. Data obtained by a naive observer are less likely to be influenced by observers' expectations.

Discriminated operant

An operant that occurs more frequently under some antecedent conditions than under others.

Artifact

An outcome or result that appears to exist because of the way it is measured but in fact does not correspond to what actually occurred.

treatment drift

An undesirable situation in which the independent variable of an experiment is applied differently during later stages than it was at the outset of the study.

Hero procedure

Another term for a dependent group contingency (i.e., a person earns a reward for the group).

Planned models

Antecedent stimuli that help learners acquire new skills Example: Video models show the individual all the steps of a certain activity

Discriminative Stimulus (AKA: SD)

Antecedent stimulus correlated with the availability of reinforcement. Stimulus that should, after teaching, evoke the correct or an appropriate response. Example: A dog whistle is an SD for dog, but not for humans

Extraneous Variables

Any aspect of the environment that must be held constant to prevent unplanned environmental variation Example: lighting, temperature of room

Contrived Contingency

Any contingency of reinforcement (or punishment) designed and implemented by you to achieve the acquisition, maintenance, and/or generalization of a behavior change.

naturally existing contingency

Any contingency of reinforcement (or punishment) that operates independent of the behavior analyst's or practitioner's efforts; includes socially mediated contingencies contrived by other people and already in effect in the relevant setting. (Contrast with contrived contingency.)

Naturally Existing Contingency

Any contingency of reinforcement (or punishment) that operates independent of your efforts in the generalization setting.

Approach

Any detectable movement toward the stimulus (e.g., eye gaze, head turn, hand reach, etc.)

Component Analysis

Any experiment designed to identify the active elements of a treatment condition, the relative contributions of different variables in a treatment package, and/or the necessary and sufficient components of an intervention. Component analyses take many forms, but the basic strategy is to compare levels of responding across successive phases in which the intervention is implemented with one or more components left out.

multiple treatment reversal design

Any experimental design that uses the experimental methods and logic of the reversal tactic to compare the effects of two or more experimental conditions to baseline and/or to one another (e.g., A-B-A-B-C-B-C; A-B-A-C-A-D-A-C-A-D. A-B-A-B-B+C-B-B+C).

Generalization probe

Any measurement of a learner's performance of a target behavior in a setting and/or stimulus situation in which direct training has not been provided.

Free Operant

Any operant behavior that results in minimal displacement of the participant in time and space. A free operant can be emitted at nearly any time; it is discrete, it requires minimal time for completion, and it can produce a wide range of response rates. Examples in ABA include (a) the number of words read during a 1-minute counting period, (b) the number of hand slaps per 6 seconds, and (c) the number of letter strokes written in 3 minutes. (Contrast with discrete trial.)

Generalization setting

Any place or stimulus situation that differs in some meaningful way from the instructional setting and in which performance of the target behavior is desired. (Contrast with instructional setting.)

Calibration

Any procedure used to evaluate the accuracy of a measurement system and, when sources of error are found, to use that information to correct or improve the measurement system.

contrived mediating stimulus

Any stimulus made functional for the target behavior in the instructional setting that later prompts or aids the learner in performing the target behavior in a generalization setting.

Confounding Variables (AKA: Extraneous Variables; Unrelated Variables)

Any uncontrolled factor known or suspected to exert influence on the dependent variable

Behavior

Anything a living organism does

3 Ways to Measure a Learners Behavior

Approach, Contact, Engagement Acronym: ACE

Establish the ratio of earning

Approximately how often you will deliver tokens for each behavior

Advantage of random selection with group contingencies

As it is uncertain who will be selected as the person to be evaluated, all members may work harder and try to meet the criterion

4 Phases of Intervention

Assessment, Planning, Implementation, & Evaluation Acronym: A PIE

Prompts may be given...

Before a response begins to occur or during a response cycle to aid the performance of the behavior

When should you provide prompts?

Before or during a response. NOT after a response

Most-to-Least Prompting

Beginning with a prompt known to reliably evoke the behavior and *gradually* proceeding to less intrusive prompts Example: A behavior analyst initially provides full physical prompts, them modeling prompts, and finally verbal prompts until no prompt is required and the natural stimulus evokes the correct response

When we see variability in our data, what should we do?

Behavior analysts should attempt to experimentally manipulate factors suspected of causing the variability in the data to look for *causal factors*

Rule-governed behavior (AKA: Rule governance; Rule Control, Rules)

Behavior controlled by a verbal description of a contingency Example: When you find out you are pregnant you purchase baby supplies months before the baby arrives. When the baby arrives you already have all the helpful items you need. This is not reinforcement because there is a delayed consequence here (9 months vs. 60 seconds)

What are the differences between behavior cusps and pivotal behaviors

Behavior cusps: are more about the person accessing *new contingencies and environments (not behaviors)* Pivotal behaviors: are more about the person experiencing corresponding changes in other *untrained behaviors (not contingencies and environments)*

Verbal behavior

Behavior whose reinforcement is mediated by a listener

Pivotal behavior

Behavior, that once learned, produces corresponding modification or covariations in other adaptive untrained behaviors

7 Dimensions of ABA (AKA: Behavior Modification)

Behavioral, Applied, Technological, Conceptually systematic, Analytical, Generality, & Effective

escape extinction

Behaviors maintained with negative reinforcement are placed on escape extinction when those behaviors are not followed by termination of the aversive

Ethics

Behaviors, practices, and decisions that address such basic and fundamental questions as: What is the right thing to do? What's worth doing? What does it mean to be a good behavior analytic practitioner?

Identify and Make Environmental Changes that Reduce the need for Behavior Analysis Services

By changing the ecology and/or how others engage with your client, your client's behavior can be changed!!!

4 Methods of Maintaining Professional Competence

CEUs, Literature, Additional coursework, Conferences/Workshops

Useful

Can apply to the real world

Job aides

Can be used when formal training is not warranted

Response cards

Cards, signs, or items that are held up simultaneously by all students to display their response to a question, item, or problem presented by the teacher

Generalization across subjects

Changes in the behavior of people not directly treated by an intervention as a function of treatment contingencies applied to other people.

Schedule Thinning

Changing a contingency of reinforcement by gradually increasing the response ratio or the extent of the time interval; it results in a lower rate of reinforcement per responses, time, or both.

4 Ways to Acquire Information for Assessment

Checklists, Observation, Interviews, & Tests Acronym: COIT (Come On, It's Theory)

Default Technologies

Coercive, punishment based interventions often selected arbitrarily Example: "Go to your room"

Ribbon/Time-Out Ribbon

Colored band placed on the individual's wrist. This becomes discriminated for getting reinforcement. o Ribbon on = can earn reinforcement o Ribbon off = cannot earn reinforcement

7 Strategies to Promote Generalization

Common Stimuli, Loosely Train, Exemplars, Mediation, Indiscriminable Contingencies, Negative Teaching Examples, & General Case Analysis Acronym: CLEMING

Visual Analysis of Temporal Relations of Data BETWEEN Conditions

Comparing the data in the different conditions, determine whether change in level, trend, and/or variability occurred and to what extent any changes were significant

Self-Evaluation

Comparison of an individual's performance by themself with a predetermined criterion

Total Duration IOA

Computed by dividing the shorter of the two durations reported by the two observers by the longer and multiply by 100% Formula: *(Shorter Duration / Longer Duration) x 100%*

4 Branches of Behavior Analysis

Conceptual Analysis of Behavior, ABA, Behavior Service Delivery, & Experimental Analysis of Behavior (EAB) Acronym: CASE

Reflexive MO (AKA: CMO-R)

Conditions or objects that acquire their effectiveness as MOs by *preceding* a situation that either is *worsening or is improving* Example: You receive this months credit card bill and the bill states that if you do not pay on time, interest will be charged. You quickly pay the bill so as to avoid having to pay interest.

Artificial consequences and schedules

Consequent stimuli or schedules of presentation that may result in the learner making the correct or an appropriate response more frequently

Select tokens

Consider: o Client characteristics o Safety of the token o Difficulty to bootleg o Durability o Cost o Ease of delivery

Antecedent-based interventions

Consists of manipulations before the behavior occurs

self-contract

Contingency contract that a person makes with himself, incorporating a self-selected task and reward as well as personal monitoring of task completions and self delivery of the reward.

Field testing

Covertly record when tokens would have been delivered

3 Variations of INT Schedules of Reinforcement

DRH, DRD, & DRL Acronym: HDL (Heavy Duty Love)

When should data points not be connected in a line graph?

Data points are *NOT* connected in a line graph if: (a) Data points fall either side of a condition change line, (b) Time has passed and the behavior was not measured, (c) There was a discontinuity in time on the x-axis, (d) Data were not collected, lost, etc., (e) It is a follow-up or post-check data.

Stable Baseline

Data that show no evidence of an upward or downward trend; all of the measures fall within a relatively small range of values.

topography-based definition

Defines instances of the targeted response class by the shape or form of the behavior.

Technological

Defines procedures clearly and in detail so they are *replicable* (like a Recipe)

4 Patterns of Baseline Data

Descending Baseline, Ascending Baseline, Variable Baseline, & Stable Baseline Acronym: DAVS

Confidentiality

Describes a situation of trust insofar as any information regarding a person receiving or having received services may not be discussed with or otherwise made available to another person or group, unless that person has provided explicit authorization for release of such information.

Contingent

Describes reinforcement (or punishment) that is delivered only after the target behavior has occurred.

3 Levels of Scientific Understanding

Description, Prediction, & Control Acronym: Dana Priya Can (DPC)

Function-based Definition

Designates responses as members of the targeted response class solely in terms of their common effect on the environment.

6 Attitudes of Science/ Philosophical assumptions of behavior

Determinism, Empiricism, Experimentation, Replication, Parsimony, & Philosophic Doubt Acronym: DEER PP

higher order conditioning

Development of a conditioned reflex by pairing of a neutral stimulus (NS) with a conditioned stimulus (CS). Also called secondary conditioning.

Differential outcomes

Different reinforcers which are correlated with a given stimulus in a discrimination task

DRA

Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior

DRO

Differential reinforcement of other behavior

Direct Fines

Direct loss of positive reinforcers Example: Individual loses 5 minutes of free time

Descriptive functional behavior assessment

Direct observation of problem behavior and the antecedent & consequent events under naturally occurring conditions.

Differential outcomes can be effective in difficult:

Discrimination tasks

Mean Count-Per-Interval IOA

Dividing the observation period into a series of smaller counting times. Formula: *(Int 1 IOA + Int 2 IOA * Int N IOA) / (Total # of Intervals)*

The Golden Rule

Do unto others as you would have them do unto you

Alternating Treatments Design Single Phase Without Baseline

Does not require an initial baseline

Skinners Elementary Verbal Operants that are Duplics

Echoic (the stimulus is auditory. e.g., someone saying "echo" and you say "echo")

Echoic training

Echoic response is presented and successive approximations are reinforced

Skinner's 6 types of Elementary Verbal Operants

Echoic, Mand, Intraverbal, Tact, Textual, & Transcription Acronym: EMITTT

5 Types of Positive Reinforcers (Classified by Formal Properties)

Edible, Activity, Tangible, Social, Sensory Acronym: EATSS

Overgeneralization

Emitting a response appropriate to some contexts in an inappropriate context. An *inappropriate* generalization Example: Calling all women, "mommy"

Self management

Employment of behavior analytic interventions to the behavior of yourself Example: Before an individual falls asleep at night, they set an alarm clock to wake up on time for their job the next morning

Mediate generalization

Establish a response as part of the new learning that is likely to be used with other problems as well Language is the most common mediator

Contextual cues

Establish what relations exists between stimuli

Acquisition stage

Establishing a new behavior, skill, or repertoire

Quality assessment

Examine industry standards Observe the behavior Surveys

Conceptual Analysis of Behavior (AKA: Behaviorism)

Examines philosophical, theoretical, historical, and methodological issues

Visual Analysis of Temporal Relations of Data WITHIN Conditions

Examining the data within each conditions, determine the level, trend, and/or variability in each condition

Contingency reversal

Exchanging the reinforcement contingencies for two topographically different responses. For example, if Behavior A results in reinforcement on an FR 1 schedule of reinforcement and Behavior B results in reinforcement being withheld (extinction), a contingency reversal consists of changing the contingencies such that Behavior A now results in extinction and Behavior B results in reinforcement on an FR 1 schedule.

Generality (AKA: Generalization)

Extends behavior change across time, settings, or other behaviors

Usually comes immediately after the skill has been demonstrated

Feedback in BST

Training diversely

Focused training yields focused effects Diverse training yields diverse effects Use sufficient stimulus exemplars Vary dimensions of antecedents Make contingencies Indiscriminable

Listener responding

Following directions or complying with requests of others

Pliance

Following rules because of socially-mediated reinforcement for rule-following

Tracking

Following rules due to a history of correspondence between the rule and the contingencies actually encountered

Direct Instruction

Follows a logical analysis of concepts and procedures as it presents examples and non- examples in an instructional sequence that fosters rapid concept learning

3 Types of Stimulus Classes

Formal, Temporal, & Functional Acronym: FTF (For The Fun)

Smooth

Free of pause and false starts

Active student responding (ASR)

Frequency of detectable responses that a student emits during ongoing instruction

Control (AKA: Causation)

Functional Relations. *THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF SCIENTIFIC UNDERSTANDING.* Experimental demonstration that manipulating one event (i.e., independent variable) results in another event (i.e., dependent variable). Example: In a classroom, students that were given breaks every 20 minutes exhibited zero instances from out of seat behavior. When breaks were given every 45 minutes, out of seat behavior increased by 80%. This was repeated many times, yielding the same results. Example: Penicillin cures bacterial infections

FCT

Functional communication training

Group average: Advantage

Group members may continue to work hard to meet criterion even when they see peers failing to meet the criterion

Graduated guidance

Hand-over-hand assistance and the combined use of physical prompting and fading, resulting in a systematic gradual reduction in the intensity or the intrusiveness of the physical prompt

FBA Methods Pyramid

Hardest; Yields most precise information o Analog Assessment/ Functional Analysis o Descriptive Direct Assessment o Indirect Assessment Easiest; Yields least precise information

How did Skinner come up with Radical Behaviorism?

He referenced Darwinian Selectionism and Pragmatism

Stimulus fading

Highlighting a physical dimension (e.g., color, size, position) of a stimulus to increase the likelihood of a correct response

Timeliness

How long something takes to complete

Establish exchange ratio and system

How many tokens are needed before they can exchange tokens

Quantity

How much of something

Cost

How much something costs

Quality

How well something is done

Non-parametric Analysis

IV either present or absent during study Example: medication is either given and then taken away *[Hint: nONparametric has the word "ON" in it, so either the IV is "ON" (i.e., present) or "OFF" (i.e., absent) in this type of design]*

IV Confounds

IVs are complicated & given together usually in a treatment package. Example: When giving someone money as a reinforcer, the person giving is also providing attention in addition to money. Thus, it is hard to say of the money or attention (or a combination) is the maintaining reinforcer.

Stimulus Preference Assessment

Identifies stimuli that are *likely* to function as reinforcers

Withhold preferred items and activities and do not provide opportunities to mand

If problem behavior occurs while teaching mands

Use the hand-over-hand prompt-to-selection mand transfer procedure

If the learner does not repeat single words clearly and reliably and does not use hands and fingers to accomplish daily tasks

Use the hand-over-hand prompt-to-selection tact transfer procedure

If the learner does not repeat single words clearly and reliably and does not use hands and fingers to accomplish daily tasks

Use motor imitation-to-sign tact or hand-over-hand prompt-to-sign tact transfer procedure

If the learner does not repeat single words clearly and reliably but uses hands and fingers to accomplish many daily tasks

Use motor imitation-to sign mand or hand-over hand prompt-to-sign mand transfer procedure

If the learner does not repeat single words clearly and reliably, but uses hand and fingers to accomplish many daily tasks

Use the echoic-to-tact transfer procedure

If the learner repeats single words clearly and reliably

4 Types of Non-Exclusionary Time-Out

Ignoring/Planned ignoring, Withdrawal of a Specific Positive Reinforcer, Observation/Contingent Observation, & Ribbon/Time-Out Ribbon Acronym: 'I WOR' a ribbon

Generalized imitation

Imitative behavior which occurs without the person receiving training and reinforcement to imitate the specific behavior modeled

Total task chaining seems to work best with learners with an:

Imitative repertoire

Clinical tasks

Implementing behavior plans, collecting data, implementing emergency procedures

Practice Effects

Improvements in performance resulting from opportunities to perform a behavior repeatedly so that baseline measures can be obtained.

Effective

Improves behavior in a practical manner, not simply making a change that is statistically significant.

Aversive stimulus

In general, an unpleasant or noxious stimulus; more technically, a stimulus change or condition that functions (a) to evoke a behavior that has terminated it in the past; (b) as a punisher when presented following behavior, and/or (c) as a reinforcer when withdrawn following behavior.

Interdependent Group Contingency

In order for the group to earn reinforcement, *all the individuals in the group* must meet the criterion of the established contingency Example: A teacher says, "If everyone finishes their math test before the bell rings, then everyone will not have to do homework for the entire week." The entire group would not earn reinforcement even if only one individual did not meet the criterion.

Developmental instruments

Include skills that are typically acquired in a specific sequence by typically-developing children

Partition Time-Out

Individual remains in room, but view is restricted by wall or partition

Hallway Time-Out

Individual sits in the hallway

Observer reactivity

Influence on the data reported by an observer that results from the observer's awareness that others are evaluating the data he reports.

Feedback

Information provided to staff regarding their performance

Mediation

Instruct others (e.g., parents, teachers, employers, etc.) who will help maintain and generalize the newly acquired behaviors

multiple exemplar training

Instruction that provides the learner with practice with a variety of stimulus conditions, response variations, and response topographies to ensure the acquisition of desired stimulus controls response forms; used to promote both setting/situation generalization and response generalization. (Also called teaching sufficient examples.)

Errorless Learning

Instructional methods specifically designed to prevent or substantially minimize any learner errors and are used to teach particular discriminations.

Written instructions

Instructions providing in writing

Intraverbal Training

Involves bringing verbal responses under the functional control of verbal SDs that *lack* point-to-point correspondence with the response.

Programmed instruction

Involves the presentation of small frames of information, which requires a discriminated response

Position cue

Item being taught placed closer to student

Provide Behavior-Analytic Services in Collaboration with Others who Support and/or Provide Services to ones Client

Just like many rappers "Collab" with other rappers on songs, you should also "Collab" with the clients mediators (i.e., the people who will be implementing the plan and who support the client)

Arbitrarily applicable relational responding (AKA: AARR)

Learned relational responding that can come under the control of arbitrary contextual cues, NOT solely the formal properties of relata nor direct experience with them

With picture selection

Learners will be able to acquire fewer skills and communicate fewer and less detailed messages, but to a larger audience

With signs

Learners will be able to acquire more skills and communicate a greater variety of messages with more detail to a smaller audience

Mastery

Level of performance that meets accuracy and fluency criteria

3 Fundamental Properties of Behavior Change

Level, Trend, & Variability Acronym: LTV

Durable

Maintains across time even after instruction ends

Value-Altering Effect of EO

Makes that thing you want super *VALUABLE in the moment* Example: When you are hungry, food is super reinforcing in the moment.

Value-Altering Effect of AO

Makes the thing you want LESS valuable in the moment Example: Makes food not reinforcing in the moment

Regular Mand

Mands that can actually be reinforced

Symbolic Matching-to-Sample

Matching-to-sample in which the relation between the same and comparison stimulus is arbitrary

Subject Confounds

Maturation: Changes in subject over course of study.

Supervisor presence

May be especially helpful when reactivity is noted and/or the supervisor has been correlated with the availability of reinforcement

Advantage of backward chaining with leaps ahead

May reduce training time

Continuous Measurement Procedures

Measurement conducted in a manner such that *ALL instances of the response class of interest are detected during the observation period* Example: Event recording (i.e., rate/frequency count) and timing (i.e., duration, IRT, latency) methods are all continuous measurement procedures.

Discontinuous Measurement Procedures

Measurement conducted in a manner such that *SOME instances of the response class of interest may NOT be detected* Example: Time sampling methods/interval recording methods (i.e., whole interval, partial interval, and momentary time sampling) are all discontinuous measurement procedures.

Event recording

Measurement procedure for obtaining a tally or count of the number of times a behavior occurs.

Unscored Interval IOA

Minimizes the effects of chance agreements for interval data on behavior that occur at very high or very low rates Formula: *(# of Intervals Both Recorders Recorded Non-Occurrence / # of Intervals AT LEAST ONE Recorder Recorded Non-Occurrence) x 100%*

Often involves simulated work setting

Modeling in BST

Importance of generalization

Most students with autism and severe disabilities have difficulty generalizing the skills they learn. And effective teacher has students perform targeted skills in different settings and with different instructors, cues, and materials before concluding with confidence that the student has acquired and generalized a skill

Instructional time

Number of minutes instruction is delivered

3 Characteristics of good Operational Definitions

Objective (refer only to the observable), Clear (Readable and unambiguous), & Complete (Delineates boundaries of a definition) Acronym: OCC

Unplanned Models

Occur in everyday social interactions. Example: Watching an individual pay to ride the bus and then imitating or copying that behavior

Indirect Measurement

Occurs when the behavior that is measured is in some way different from the behavior of interest; considered less valid than direct measurement because inferences about the relation between the data obtained and the actual behavior of interest are required. (Contrast with direct measurement.)

Direct measurement

Occurs when the behavior that is measured is the same as the behavior that is the focus of the investigation. (Contrast with indirect measurement.)

Redundancy of antecedent stimuli

One or more stimulus/ response dimension paired with correct choice

Relevance-of-Behavior Rule

Only choose behaviors that generate reinforcers after intervention ceases

Scored Interval IOA

Only uses intervals in which *both observers scored an occurrence* of the behavior to calculate the IOA. Formula: *(# of Intervals Both Recorders Recorded Occurrence / # of Intervals AT LEAST ONE Recorder Recorded Occurrence) x 100%*

Operant Extinction vs. Respondent Extinction

Operant Extinction: Involves withholding reinforcement when the behavior occurs Vs. Respondent Extinction: Involves the un-pairing of a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US)

How to program models/feedback

Performance based training

Resistant to distractions

Performance consistent even when there are environmental distractions

Contracts are used for

Permanent products

Formal Stimulus Class

Physical features of stimuli (i.e., Topography)

Movement cue

Pointing to, tapping, touching, looking at item being taught

3 Types of Extinction

Positive reinforcement, Automatic reinforcement, & Negative reinforcement Acronym: PAN

Design and Conduct Procedures for Identifying Putative (i.e. Supposed) Reinforcers

Preferences are *transitory*. What was once reinforcing is not always reinforcing. They change with age, interest level, time of day, presence of certain MOs, etc.

Ratio schedules

Produce higher rates of responding

Task Interspersal

Programming mastered items or tasks in between acquisition trials

Errorless teaching

Prompt right away

Least-to-Most Prompting

Prompting *begins with minimal cues* that systematically and gradually increase in prompt hierarchy level until resulting in the correct response Example: Jason initially provides verbal prompts, then modeling prompts, and finally physical prompts, *as needed by the individual*

3 Types of Nervous Systems (that are affected by STIMULI)

Proprioceptive, Interoceptive, & Exteroceptive Acronym: PIE

General case conditions

Provide broad range of program exemplars with which they are likely to interact "sample the instructional universe" for all skills needed

Provide feedback on performance

Provide immediate feedback following performance Describe what was done correctly and incorrectly Explain how to fix the incorrect elements Answer questions

Self-Administered Consequences

Providing consequences for self after reviewing self-monitoring data

Ways to self-manage

Providing prompts Performing the initial steps of a behavior chain Removing necessary items Restricting stimulus conditions

How do we actually conduct Punisher Assessments?

Punisher assessments are conducted by measuring negative verbalizations, avoidance movements, and escape attempts associated with each potential punishing stimulus.

Automatic Punishment

Punishment that *occurs independent of the social mediation by others* (i.e., a response product serves as a punisher independent of the social environment). Example: (1) *Negative*: You want to reduce your cursing, so everytime you curse, you have to put money in a jar. In the future, you are less likely to curse because you dont want to loss money; (2) *Positive*: You wear a rubber band around your wrist and smack yourself whenever you say a curse word.

3 Principles of Behavior

Punishment, Extinction, Reinforcement Acronym: PER

Measurement dimensions

Quantity Quality Cost Timeliness

Teaching Loosely

Randomly varying functionally irrelevant stimuli within and across teaching sessions; promotes setting/ situation generalization by reducing the likelihood that (a) a single or small group of noncritical stimuli will acquire exclusive control over the target behavior and (2) the learner's performance of the target behavior will be impeded or "thrown off" should he encounter any of the "loose" stimuli in the generalization setting.

DTT results in:

Rapid rate of acquisition

Reinforcement trumps Punishment

Recommend reinforcement rather than punishment *whenever possible*

Free-Operant Observation

Recording what activities a person engages in when they can choose during a period of unrestricted access to numerous activities.

Reinforcer Assessment

Refers to a variety of direct, empirical methods for presenting one or more stimuli contingent on a target response and measuring their effectiveness as reinforcers.

Contingency

Refers to dependent and/or temporal relations between operant behavior and its controlling variables.

social validity

Refers to the extent to which target behaviors are appropriate, intervention procedures are acceptable, and important and significant changes in target and collateral behaviors are produced.

Repeatability (AKA: Countability)

Refers to the fact that a behavior can occur repeatedly through time (i.e., behavior can be counted); one of the three dimensional quantities of behavior from which all behavioral measurements are derived.

Automaticity (of reinforcement and punishment)

Refers to the fact that behavior is modified by its consequences irrespective of the person's awareness; a person does not have to recognize or verbalize the relation between her behavior and a reinforcing consequence, or even know that a consequence has occurred, for reinforcement to "work." *[Automaticity is not the same as Automatic Reinforcement or Automatic Punishment]*

A=A

Reflexivity

3 Parts of Stimulus Equivalence

Reflexivity, Symmetry, & Transitivity Acronym: RST

Use the tact-to-transfer procedure

Regardless of whether the learner uses spoken words or signs or selects printed words

Discrimination training

Reinforce a response in the presence of a stimulus, but not in the absence of that stimulus

Train to generalize

Reinforce generalization Use instructions to facilitate generalization

Differential reinforcement

Reinforcing only those responses within a response class that meet a specific criterion along some dimension(s) (i.e., frequency, topography, duration, latency, or magnitude) and placing all other responses in the class on extinction.

Framing

Relating stimuli in a specify way

RFT

Relational Frame Theory

3 Dimensional Quantities (that can be measured)

Repeatability, Temporal extent, & Temporal locust Acronym: RTT (RAT-a-TAT-TAT!)

5 Types of Positive Punishment Interventions

Reprimands, Overcorrection, Shock, Exercise, & Response Blocking Acronym: ROSER

Multiple response skill

Requires breaking down the skill into multiple steps or responses to effectively teach it

Things to consider when developing a behavior support plan

Resources, Staff Development, Onsite presence of a Supervisor, and Staff Absenteeism and Turnover

Gestural prompt

Response prompt if the prompt operates on the response and stimulus prompt if the prompt operates on an antecedent stimulus

3 types if Exclusionary Time-Out

Room/Time-out Room, Partition Time-Out, & Hallway Time-Out Acronym: RPH

Augmenting

Rules that change the function of a consequence

SAFMEDS

Say All Fast Minute Every Day Shuffle

A good Practitioner is Self-Regulating

Seeks ways to calibrate decisions over time to ensure that values, contingencies, and rights and responsibilities are integrated and an informed combination of these is considered

Matching-to-Sample

Selecting a comparison stimulus corresponding to a sample stimulus

Manded stimulus selection

Selecting a named item or following a direction to complete a task

self-instruction

Self-generated verbal responses, covert or overt, that function as rules or response prompts for a desired behavior; as a self-management tactic, self-instruction can guide a person through a behavior chain or sequence of tasks.

4 Functions of Problem Behavior

Sensory, Escape, Attention, & Tangible Acronym: SEAT

functionally equivalent

Serving the same function or purpose; different topographies of behavior are functionally equivalent if they produce the same consequences.

Contriving

Setting up a pre-arranged teaching opportunity

Shock/Contingent Electrical Stimulation/ECT

Shock after an individual's behavior

Staff information

Should always be informed about what is expected (goals) and how they are doing in relation to what is expected (monitoring and feedback)

Progress record

Should monitor progress of contract and provide interim rewards

Replication

Shows reliability of behavior change; we can make it happen again!

Total Count IOA

Simplest method for event recording Formula: *(Smaller #/Larger #) x 100%*

Multiply controlled operant

Single verbal response is a function of more than one variable and what is said has more than one antecedent source of control

Contracts are not used for

Skill acquisition

Ignoring/Planned Ignoring

Social reinforcers (attention, physical contact, etc) removed for a specific period of time. Example: Looking away from the person

Contextually meaningful

Socially valid

4 Types of Tact Extensions

Solistic, Metaphorical, Metonymical, & Generic Acronym: SMMG

Group average: Disadvantage

Some group member may become "free riders"

Speaker

Someone who engages in verbal behavior by emitting mands tacts, intraverbals, autoclitics, and so on

Listener

Someone who provides reinforcement for verbal behavior. A listener may also serve as an audience evoking verbal behavior.

Relational frames

Specific classes of AARR that show contextually controlled properties of mutual and combinatorial entailment and the transformation of stimulus functions, not due solely to formal properties or to direct training with the stimuli involved, but due to a history of such relational responding and the presence of contextual cues that evokes this pattern of responding

Ethical Codes of Behavior

Statements that provide guidelines for members of professional associations when deciding a course of action or conducting professional duties; standards by which graduated sanctions (e.g., reprimand, censure, expulsion) can be imposed for deviating from the code.

Pattern of behavior produced on variable schedules

Steady responding

Interoceptive

Stimulation from ORGANS (related to internal events) Example: Headache or Hunger pains

Proprioceptive

Stimulation from joint, tendons, muscles, etc. necessary for posture, *balance and movement* (related to internal events) Example: After you get off a rollercoaster, you feel dizzy

Trial-based methods

Stimuli are presented to the learner in a series of trials and the learner's responses to the stimuli are measured as an index of preference.

Arbitrary Stimulus Class

Stimuli that evoke the same response, but they do NOT share a common stimulus feature. They do not physically look alike or share a relative relationship. Example: Apple, orange, banana comprise an arbitrary stimulus class of *fruit*

Feature stimulus class

Stimuli that share common physical forms or structures (e.g., made from wood, four legs, round, blue) or common relative relationships (e.g., bigger than, hotter than, higher than, next to). Example: Concept of dog, house, tree, onion, bigger than, smaller than, on top of, etc.

Discrimination training results in:

Stimulus control

IT/ NET results in :

Stimulus generalization and induction

Trend Line

Straight line drawn through the data to show the trend

Indirect Functional Assessment

Structured interviews, checklists, rating scales, or questionnaires used to obtain information from people who are familiar with the person exhibiting the problem behavior (e.g., teachers, parents, caregivers, and/or the individual him- or herself); used to identify conditions or events in the natural environment that correlate with the problem behavior.

Incidental Teaching

Structuring and sequencing learning opportunities so that they occur within a natural setting and which is used to give the learner an opportunity to practice a skill

Fluency stage

Student practices acquired skill to increase the number of correct responses per unit of time

Normed- referenced evaluation

Student scores are based on and compared with peers' performance

Response latency and IRT

Student variables that can influence the number of learn units delivered in a lesson

Choral Responding

Students respond orally in unison

Prompts

Supplementary *antecedent* stimuli used to evoke a correct response in the presence of an EO or Sd that will eventually control behavior

B=A

Symmetry

Description

Systematic observations that can be quantified and classified. *Not causal explanations.* Example: Number of praise statements made by teachers in a classroom

Progressive Schedules of Reinforcement

Systematically thins each successive reinforcement *opportunity independent of the participant's behavior*

Capturing

Taking advantage of a situation that arises without warning in the natural setting

Withdrawal of a Specific Positive Reinforcer

Taking something preferred away Example: Turning off TV

Mastered tasks

Tasks for which the person has met the performance criteria set for the specific task within specific conditions

Guided notes

Teacher- prepared handouts that: o Organize content o Guides the learner with standard cues for the learner to record key facts, concepts, and relationships o Provides the learner with a means of actively responding to the lecture content o Provides the learner with a means of actively responding to the lecture content o Provides a take-home product for study o Keeps teacher on- task during lecture

Generative instructions

Teaching procedures which lead to adduction

training imitation

Teaching the learner to imitate or do exactly what the person providing the models is doing

How contiguity applies to respondent conditioning

Temporal contiguity (i.e., how close together in time) affects the pairing of the CS and US.

Differential Negative Reinforcement of Incompatible/Alternative Behavior (DNRI/DNRA)

Terms that sometimes used to refer to differential reinforcement procedures that specifically involve escape as the reinforcer Example: Teaching someone to ask for a 5-minute break instead of running away when they desire to escape a demand

Learn unit

That smallest divisible unit of teaching and incorporates interlocking three-term contingencies for both the teacher and the student

Postreinforcement Pause

The absence of responding for a period of time following reinforcement

Function

The actions that typically go with the items or what one does with the items and classes

The original and continuing promise of ABA

The application of experimental analysis of behavior to problems of SOCIAL IMPORTANCE!!!

Determinism

The assumption that the universe is a lawful and orderly place in which phenomena occur in relation to other events and not in a willy-nilly, accidental fashion.

Local Response Rate

The average rate of response during a smaller period of time within a larger period for which an overall response rate has been given.

three-term contingency

The basic unit of analysis in the analysis of operant behavior; encompasses the temporal and possibly dependent relations among an antecedent stimulus, behavior, and consequence.

Circular Reasoning

The cause and effect are both inferred from the same information Example: "He cried because he felt sad." The sad feeling and crying are both inferred from the same depressive behaviors

Celeration trend line

The celeration trend line is measured as a factor by which rate multiplies or divides across the celeration time periods (e.g., rate per week, rate per month, rate per year, and rate per decade).

Celeration

The change (acceleration or deceleration) in rate of responding over time; based on count per unit of time (rate); expressed as a factor by which responding is accelerating or decelerating (multiplying or dividing); displayed with a trend line on a Standard Celeration Chart. Celeration is a generic term without specific reference to accelerating or decelerating rates of response.

Generalization across participants

The changes in behavior of untreated persons as a function of the treatment contingencies that are applied to the client

Multiple Stimulus WITHOUT Replacement

The chosen item is removed from the array, the order or placement of the remaining items is rearranged and the next trial begins.

What are Acceptable IOA Scores?

The closer to 100% the better. No less than 80%

Environment

The conglomerate of real circumstances in which the organism or referenced part of the organism exists; behavior cannot occur in the absence of environment.

Response Cost

The contingent loss of reinforcers (e.g., a fine), producing a decrease of the frequency of behavior; a form of negative punishment. *2 Methods* (1) Bonus Response Cost (2) Direct Fines Acronym: BF (Best Friends)

Time-out from Positive Reinforcement

The contingent withdrawal of the opportunity to earn positive reinforcement or the loss of access to positive reinforcers for a specified time; a form of negative punishment (also called time-out).

External Validity

The degree to which the findings of a study *results are generalizable to other subjects, settings, and/or behaviors*

Interobserver Agreement (AKA: IOA)

The degree to which two or more independent observers report the same observed values after measuring the same events.

Extinction (AKA: EXT; Operant Extinction)

The discontinuing of a reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior (i.e., responses no longer produce reinforcement); the primary effect is a decrease in the frequency of the behavior until it reaches a pre-reinforced level or ultimately ceases to occur.

Functional Stimulus Class

The effect of the stimulus on a behavior Example: Hearing a buzz may mean you have a text message on your phone or your laptop battery is running low.

multiple treatment interference

The effects of one treatment on a subject's behavior being confounding by the influence of another treatment administered in the same study.

Sequence Effects (AKA: Carryover Effects; Alteration Effects)

The effects on a subject's behavior in a given condition that are the result of the subject's experience with a prior condition.

instructional setting

The environment where instruction occurs; includes all aspects of the environment, planned and unplanned, that may influence the learner's acquisition and generalization of the target behavior. (Contrast with generalization setting.)

Response Maintenance

The extent to which a learner continues to perform the target behavior after a portion or all of the intervention responsible for the behavior's initial appearance in the learner's repertoire has been terminated. Often called maintenance, durability, behavioral persistence, and (incorrectly) resistance to extinction. (Compare to response generalization and setting/situation generalization.)

Setting/ Situation generalization

The extent to which a learner emits the target behavior in a setting or stimulus situation that is different from the instructional setting.

Response Generalization (AKA: Response Induction)

The extent to which a learner emits untrained responses that are *functionally equivalent* to the trained target behavior. Example: Jim's father taught him to fold socks by tying them in a knot, but over the years Jim realized he could also fold socks into a ball

Internal Validity

The extent to which an experiment shows convincingly that changes in behavior are as function of the IV and *not* the result of uncontrolled or unknown variables

validity (of measurement)

The extent to which data obtained from measurement are directly relevant to the target behavior of interest and to the reason(s) for measuring it.

Stimulus generality

The extent to which performance of the target behavior is improved in environments different than the original training environment

Maintenance

The extent to which the learner continues to perform the target behavior after a portion or all of the intervention has been terminated Example: Individuals who have learned how to ride a bicycle in their childhood continue to maintain the skill into adulthood even though they may not have ridden a bicycle since childhood.

Response generality

The extent to which the learner performs variety of functional responses in addition to the trained response

Believability

The extent to which the researcher convinces herself and others that the data are trustworthy and deserve interpretation. Measures of interobserver agreement (IOA) are the most often used index of believability in applied behavior analysis.

variability

The frequency and extent to which multiple measures of behavior yield different outcomes.

Discrete trial teaching

The frequency, latency, duration, or amplitude of a behavior is altered by the presence or absence of an antecedent stimulus

selection by consequences

The fundamental principle underlying operant conditioning; the basic tenet is that all forms of (operant) behavior, from simple to complex, are selected, shaped, and maintained by their consequences during an individual's lifetime; Skinner's concept of selection by consequences is parallel to Darwin's concept of natural selection of genetic structures in the evolution of species.

Class

The group(s) the items belong

Contracts

The individual's verbal repertoire must be sufficiently advanced so that his/her behavior comes under the control of the contract

Direct consumers

The individuals we are paid to serve (clients)

Multiple Stimulus WITH Replacement

The item chosen remains in the array and the items not chosen are replaced with new items.

Advantages of backwards chaining

The learner contacts the natural reinforcement contingencies in every learning trial

Imitation

The learner emits behavior which is topographically identical or very similar to the antecedent stimuli, which consists of someone else performing a behavior, which is then imitated by the learner

Data path

The level and trend of behavior between successive data points; created by drawing a straight line from the center of each data point in a given data set to the center of the next data point in the same set.

Common Stimuli

The likelihood that the correct response will be occasioned in the generalization setting is increased if there is a lot of similarity between the instructional setting & the generalization setting. Example: If Peter is teaching someone how to make a purchase at a store, he starts out by having lots of elements of the store in the home setting so his client can practice the skill of making a purchase in the home before moving to the store setting.

Performance management

The management of an individual employee or a group of employees through the application of behavior principles

Generalization

The occurrence of relevant behavior under different conditions without the scheduling of the same events in those conditions as had been scheduled in the training conditions Example: A child says "woman" when she sees many females who all look different

An Experimental Design

The particular arrangement of conditions in a study so that meaningful comparisons of the effects of the presence, absences, or different values of the IV can be made

Experimental design

The particular type and sequence of conditions in a study so that meaningful comparisons of the effects of the presence and absence (or different values) of the independent variable can be made.

Feature

The parts of items and descriptions of items

Counting time

The period of time in which a count of the number of responses emitted was recorded.

Self-management

The personal application of behavior change tactics that produces a desired change in behavior

Behavioral Contrast

The phenomenon in which a change in one component of a multiple schedule that increases or decreases the rate of responding on that component is accompanied by a change in the response rate in the opposite direction on the other, unaltered component of the schedule.

Topography

The physical form or shape of a behavior. Example: Cheering behavior can have the differing topographies of clapping, hollering, fist pumping, etc., but all those different topographies still have the same function of cheering behaviors

Parsimony

The practice of ruling out simple, logical explanations, experimentally or conceptually, before considering more complex or abstract explanations.

Reinforcement

The presentation or removal of a stimulus following a response, that increases (or maintains) the future frequency of that response

Interval-By-Interval IOA (AKA: Point-by-Point IOA; Point-by-Point Agreement Ratio)

The primary observer's data for each interval is matched to the secondary observer's data for the same interval Formula: *(# of Intervals Both Recorders are in Agreement / Total # of Intervals) x 100%*

sensory extinction

The process by which behaviors maintained by automatic reinforcement are placed on extinction by masking or removing the sensory consequence.

Task Analysis

The process of breaking a complex skill or series of behaviors into smaller, teachable units, the product of which is a series of sequentially ordered steps

Overall Response Rate

The rate of response over a given time period.

Resistance to Extinction

The relative frequency with which operant behavior is emitted during extinction.

Respondent Extinction

The repeated presentation of a conditioned stimulus (CS) in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (US); the CS gradually loses its ability to elicit the conditioned response until the conditioned reflex no longer appears in the individual's repertoire.

Target Behavior

The response class selected for intervention; can be defined either functionally or topographically.

Respondent Behavior (AKA: Reflex; Reflexive Relations; Unconditioned Stimulus-Unconditioned Response [US-UR])

The response component of a reflex; behavior that is elicited, or induced, by antecedent stimuli.

Forward Chaining

The responses in the chain are taught, one at a time, in the same order as they naturally occur

Data

The results of measurement, usually in quantifiable form; in applied behavior analysis, it refers to measures of some quantifiable dimension of a behavior.

Criterion- based evaluations

The results of other students has no effect on one's score

Wyatt v. Stickney (1972)

The ruling protects a client's right to food, privacy, & basic activities and these basic rights do not need to be earned

Successive Approximations

The sequence of new response classes that emerge during the shaping process as a result of differential reinforcement. Each success approximation is closer in form to the terminal behavior than the response class it replaces

Deprivation

The state of an organism with respect to how much time has elapsed since it has consumed or contacted a particular type of reinforcer; also refers to a procedure for increasing the effectiveness of a reinforcer (e.g., withholding a person's access to a reinforcer for a specified period of time prior to a session).

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

The stimulus component of a conditioned reflex; a formerly neutral stimulus change that elicits respondent behavior only after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) or another CS.

unconditioned stimulus (US)

The stimulus component of an unconditioned reflex; a stimulus change that elicits respondent behavior without any prior learning.

Academic learning time

The time that students actually spend learning

Level

The value on the vertical axis around which a series of behavioral measures converge.

Dependent variable

The variable in an experiment measured to determine if it changes as a result of manipulations of the independent variable; in applied behavior analysis, it represents some measure of a socially significant behavior.

independent variable

The variable that is systematically manipulated by the researcher in an experiment to see whether changes in the independent variable produce reliable changes in the dependent variable. In applied behavior analysis, it is usually an environmental event or condition antecedent or consequent to the dependent variable. Sometimes called the intervention or treatment variable. (Compare with dependent variable.)

Contingency specifying stimuli

The verbal antecedent stimulus or "rule" actually alters the function of other stimuli, such as a previously neutral stimulus may function as a discriminate stimulus or a reinforcer

multiple control (of verbal behavior)

There are two types of multiple control: (a) convergent multiple control occurs when a single verbal response is a function of more than one variable and (b) what is said has more than one antecedent source of control. Divergent multiple control occurs when a single antecedent variable affects the strength of more than one responses.

Criteria for terminating

They don't need your services Client is not benefiting Client is harmed by you service The environment is unsafe

Hancock V. Avery (1969)

This ruling protects a client by limiting the duration of & placing conditions on the use of a Time-Out procedure

Adaptive behavior

Those skills or abilities that enable the individual to meet standards of personal independence and responsibility that would be expected of his or her age and social group

How do you establish new conditioned reinforcers and punishers for an individual?

Through a *Pairing* procedure

Engaged (on task) time

Time spent attending to ongoing instruction

Purpose of Science

To achieve a thorough understanding of the phenomena under study. In ABA, the phenomena are *Socially important behaviors*

Goal of education

To create new individuals who are capable of doing new things, not simply of repeating what other generations have done-individuals who are creative, inventive, and discoverers

Why is ethics important?

To further the welfare of the client

Stokes and Baer suggest

To program for generality

Available time

Total number of school days and hours

Engagement

Total time or percentage of intervals in which the person interacts with the stimulus

Contact

Touching or holding the stimulus

Train sufficient exemplars

Train in multiple settings Use multiple trainers Train with multiple stimuli

Training with tokens

Train staff Train participants

Rehearsal

Trainee rehearses skills to be learned

Simultaneous discrimination

Training both the SD and SΔ stimulus conditions are presented to the learner at the same time

Train loosely

Training is conducted with relatively little control over the stimuli presented and the correct responses allowed, so as to maximize sampling to relevant dimensions or transfer to other situation and other forms of the behavior

Successive discrimination

Training, only one antecedent (SD or SΔ) is presented to the learner in a given trial

Introduce to natural reinforcement contingencies

Transfer control from trainer to stable, natural contingencies Accomplished by choosing behaviors to teach that will meet maintaining reinforcement contingences after training

If A=B and B=C, then A=C

Transitivity

Correlation (AKA: Prediction; Covariation)

Two events may regularly occur at the same time. This does not necessarily mean one causes the other Example: When the weather is hot, there are more drowning deaths. This is a CORRELATION, but we cannot assume hot weather causes drowning deaths.

Unpairing

Two kinds: (a) The occurrence alone of a stimulus that acquired its function by being paired with an already effective stimulus, or (b) the occurrence of the stimulus in the absence as well as in the presence of the effective stimulus. Both kinds of unpairing undo the result of the pairing: the occurrence alone of the stimulus that became a conditioned reinforcer; and the occurrence of the unconditioned reinforcer in the absence as well as in the presence of the conditioned reinforcer.

self-control

Two meanings: (a) A person's ability to "delay gratification" by emitting a response that will produce a larger (or higher quality) delayed reward over a response that produces a smaller but immediate reward (sometimes considered impulse control); (b) A person's behaving in a certain way so as to change a subsequent behavior (i.e., to self-manage her own behavior). Skinner (1953) conceptualized it as a two-response phenomenon: The controlling response affects variables in such a way as to change the probability of the controlled response.

Pattern of behavior produced on fixed schedules

Unsteady responding (pause and burst)

Stimulus shape transformations

Use an initial stimulus shape that will prompt a correct response

Incorrect use of monitoring data

Used primarily for punishment, typically delayed punishment

Modeling (procedure)

Uses an individual's imitative repertoire to train new behaviors or to evoke desirable behaviors occurring at a rate which is too low

Application stage

Using learned material in new, concrete, and real- life situations

Chaining

Various procedures for teaching behavior chains.

Duplic: Imitating signs

Verbal discriminative stimulus in the form of signs

Verbal Analog Conditioning

Verbal pairing procedure whereby previously neutral stimuli can become conditioned punishers or reinforcers for humans *without direct pairing* Example: Children's literature that teaches morals (e.g., honestly, etc.)

Verification

Verification of a previously predicted level of baseline responding by termination or withdrawal of the treatment variable

How is Functional Analysis Data Interpreted?

Visually inspecting a graph of the results to see the conditions under which high rates of behavior occurred

One of the most common procedures in staff training

Vocal instructions

Verbal instructions

Vocal presentation of rationale and description of jobs

Components of token economies

What do we want the individual to do? What kind of "token"? What will help motivate the individual?

Result

What is left after a behavior

Experimental Control (AKA: Functional Relations; Analysis; Control)

When a *Predictable change* in behavior (i.e., DV) can be reliably produced by the *systematic manipulation* of some aspect of the individuals environment (i.e., IV)

Transferring stimulus control from one operant to another

When a response form occurs reliably as one specific operant, gradually introduce the antecedent and consequence conditions of a new operant and fade the conditions of the original operant until this same response form occurs as the new operant

Punishment (AKA: SD-;SDp;SP; Punishment-based SD)

When a response is followed by *immediately* a stimulus that *decreases the FUTURE frequency* of similar responses.

Discrimination

When behavior is different in the presence of a stimulus as a result of differential reinforcement Example: A child says, "mommy" to her mother, not to other women

How do I know if the answer is Response or Stimulus Generalization?

When given options to distiguish what type of generalization is occurring, ask yourself this question: *Did the form of the response/behavior change in the example?* Yes = Response generalization/Induction; No = Stimulus Generalization

Mutual entailment

When in a given context, A is related in a characteristic way to B, and as a result, B is now related in another characteristic way to A

Treatment Package (AKA: Behavioral Package)

When multiple IVs are bundles into one program such as a token economy with praise and time-out

Observer Drift

When observers unknowingly alter the way they apply a measurement system

Recovery from Punishment

When punishment is stopped, the effects on behavior are not permanent. Equivalent to extinction for reinforcement.

Discriminative Effects of Punishment

When punishment occurs only in some conditions and not in others Example: Highway speeding. You get a ticker in one area of the freeway. From that point onward, you drive slowly in that on area only but continue to speed after that area.

Make a Recommendation Regarding Behaviors that must be Decreased

When results show the problem is that the rate of the target behavior is too high, then you decrease that target behavior to a level that is acceptable (e.g., DRL or DRD)

Make a Recommendation Regarding Behaviors that must be Increased

When results show the problem is that the rate of the target behavior is too low, then you increase that target behavior to a level that is acceptable (e.g., DRH)

Make a Recommendation Regarding Behaviors that must be Established

When results show your client does not have the target behavior or skill in their repertoire, you should teach your client the new behavior or skill.

Explain Behavioral Concepts using Non-Technical Language

When speaking with others, you want to be careful about using very complicated, technical ABA language. People may not understand what you are saying, so try to use language that is not too technical (but be careful: DON'T US MENTALISTIC LANGUAGE EITHER!)

Prompt fading

When the correct or an appropriate response begins to occur, gradually provide less prompts and an additional level of differential reinforcement

informed consent

When the potential recipient of services or participant in a research study gives his explicit permission before any assessment or treatment is provided. Full disclosure of effects and side effects must be provided. To give consent, the person must (a) demonstrate the capacity to decide, (b) do so voluntarily, and (c) have adequate knowledge of all salient aspects of the treatment.

Behavior Contrasts

When the rate of responding to a stimulus in one setting changes when the condition of reinforcement is the other setting gets modified

Combinatorial entailment

When two mutually entailed relations combine

Contiguity (AKA: Temporal Contiguity)

When two stimuli occur close together IN TIME, resulting in an association of those two stimuli

Select intervention strategies based on the social validity of the intervention

When you decide on what interventions you will use, you want to determine if the mediators (i.e., people implementing your plan) and others in the clients environment agree with the procedures

Functional Equivalence

When you decrease a behavior, you *must* select an *acceptable alternative behavior* that matches the function of the behavior. Example: Child is aggressing to escape work, teach them to ask for a break instead.

Bonus Response Cost

When you make additional non-contingent reinforcers available to the individual and then take those away Example: Students usually get 15 minutes of recess daily, but you give them a "bonus" 15 minutes, so you can take away those extra minutes

Alternating Treatments Design with Baseline

Whenever possible, baseline should be conducted, as it shows the change produced by each treatment compared to the natural level of performance without an intervention.

Can responses in the same response class look different?

Yes. Example: There are many ways to open a bag of peanuts

Being Ethically Prepared for an Assessment

You have to choose the *right behaviors* for assessment so you need to know what is *socially significant* and be able to prioritize behaviors Example: If your surgeon is not great at surgery, you would not go to them. Same with FBAs; you have to be skilled in conducting them before you pick up your scapel.

Analytical (AKA: Functional Relation; Experimentation; Control; Causation)

o *A functional relationship is demonstrated* o Describes when the experimenter has *demonstrated a functional relation between the manipulated events and a reliable change in some measurable dimension of the targeted behavior.* o Ultimate issue is *believability*: is the experimental control sufficient to prove reliable functional control?

Tests (AKA: Standardize Tests)

o *Consistent administrations* is key: Each time a standardized test is administered, the same questions and tasks are presented in a specified way and the same scoring criteria and procedures are used. o*Most standardized tests do NOT work well with functional behavior assessments because results are not translated directly into target behaviors*

Antecedent Interventions

o *Cooper*: A behavior change strategy that manipulates contingency-independent antecedent stimuli (motivating operations). o Strategies that focus on structuring and modifying the environment and conditions that occur before a behavior is demonstrated o Proactive approach

Dependent Group Contingency (AKA: Hero Procedure)

o *Cooper*: A contingency in which reinforcement for all members of a group is *dependent* on the behavior of one member of the group or the behavior of a select group of members within the larger group. o The goal is to make a *hero* out of a certain individual by ensuring they will meet the criterion for *reinforcement for the entire group* Example: A teacher says, "If Randy is able to finish his math test before the bell rings, then everyone will not have to do homework for the entire week." For the teacher to use this strategy effectively, they would need to be sure that Randy could successfully fulfill the criterion

Behavior Chain with a Limited Hold

o *Cooper*: A contingency that specifies a *time interval* by which a behavior chain must be *completed* for reinforcement to be delivered. o Accuracy & rate are essential dimensions to limited holds

Abative effect of an MO (AKA: Behavior-Altering Effect of AO)

o *Cooper*: A decrease in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by the stimulus that is increased in reinforcing effectiveness by the same motivating operation. o Makes your BEHAVIOR ALTER in that you do not try to go get that thing you want in the moment Example: Your behavior changes to stop trying to get food. *Cooper Example*: Food ingestion abates (decreases the current frequency of) behavior that has been reinforced by food.

Anecdotal Observation (AKA: ABC Recording)

o *Cooper*: A form of direct, continuous observation in which the observer records a descriptive, temporally sequenced account of all behavior(s) of interest and the antecedent conditions and consequences for those behaviors as those events occur in the client's natural environment o Basic form of Direct Observation o *Requires total attention of observer for at least 20-30 minutes continuously* o Do NOT write interpretations; only what is observable and measurable

Abolishing Operation (AKA: AO)

o *Cooper*: A motivating operation that decreases the reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus, object, or event. o A type of MO that *DECREASES* the effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer o Makes something LESS desirable Example: The reinforcing effectiveness of food is ABOLISHED as a result of food ingestions. You don't want more food after you eat a lot of food.

Affirmation of the Consequent

o *Cooper*: A three-step form of reasoning that begins with a true antecedent-consequent (if-A-then-B) statement and proceeds as follows: (1) If A is true, then B is true; (2) B is found to be true; (3) therefore, A is true. Although other factors could be responsible for the truthfulness of A, a sound experiment affirms several if-A-then-B possibilities, each one reducing the likelihood of factors other than the independent variable being responsible for the observed changes in behavior. o If the IV were not applied, the behavior (as indicated by baseline data) would not change.

Tact

o *Cooper*: An elementary verbal operant evoked by a nonverbal discriminative stimulus and followed by generalized conditioned reinforcement. o *Labeling the environment when the object, event, stimulus is PRESENT IN YOUR ENVIRONMENT* o Verbal in the *presence of the thing tacted* *[Exam Tip: If the person is naming something and the person is NOT IN THE PRESENCE OF THAT THING, your correct answer CANNOT be a TACT]* Example: smelling smoke and saying, "Someone is smoking."

Intraverbal

o *Cooper*: An elementary verbal operant that is evoked by a verbal discriminative stimulus and that does not have point-to-point correspondence with that verbal stimulus. o A verbal operant in which the speaker differentially responds to other people; answering a question o *Answering a Question*

Adjunctive Behaviors (AKA: Schedule-Induced Behaviors)

o *Cooper*: Behavior that occurs as a collateral effect of a schedule of periodic reinforcement for other behavior. o Behavior that are brought about by schedules of reinforcement during times when reinforcement is unlikely to be delivered. o Time-filling or interim behaviors (e.g., doodling, smoking, drinking, etc.)

Automatic Reinforcement (AKA: Sensory; Self-Stimulatory behaviors; Stereotypy) Hint: A=A (Auto = Alone)

o *Cooper*: Reinforcement that occurs *independent of the social mediation of others* (e.g., scratching an insect bite relieves the itch). o Naturally produced sensory consequences (i.e., sound good, looks good, tastes good) o Can be *negative or positive* Example: (1) Because it feels good; (2) *Negative*: Putting on lotion relieves dryness. In the future, when you have dry skin, you'll put on lotion to escape that dryness; (3) *Positive*: You taste salty caramel brownies for the first time and now you bake them all the time at home. Yum! *[what looks like automatic reinforcement may not be automatic reinforcement. Function may be attention, escape and/or tangible]*

Accuracy

o *Cooper*: The extent to which observed values, the data produced by measuring an event, match the true state, or true values, of the event as it exists in nature. o The correctness of the response o If a measurement is not VALID, ACCURACY is moot

Why is defining target behavior so important in ABA?

o *Definitions are required for replication* o Replication is required for research o Accurate evaluation requires explicit definition of behavior o Accurate and believable evaluation of effectiveness

Operant Behavior (AKA: Stimulus-Response-Stimulus [S-R-S] Model; 3-Term Contingency; ABC)

o *Emit/Evoke* o Behavior that is selected, maintained, and brought under stimulus control as a function of its consequences; each person's repertoire of operant behavior is a product of his history of interactions with the environment (ontogeny). Example: You hear a funny joke and laugh the first few times you hear it. However, if you hear the same joke over and over, you are likely to laugh less at the joke.

Common Mistakes with Extinction

o *Extinction ≠ Ignoring* (Procedural extinction - Ignoring; Functional extinction - withholding maintaining reinforcers o *Extinction NOT refer to any decrease in behavior* o *Response Blocking ≠ Extinction*: Response blocking just prevents the response from occurring o *Noncontingent Reinforcement (NCR) ≠ Extinction*: Both reduce behaviors. NCR changes behavior by changing antecedents

Habilitation (AKA: Adjustment)

o *Is this change really useful to the client?* o Occurs when a persons repertoire has been changed such that *short- and long-term reinforcers are maximized and short- and long-term punishers are minimized*

Permanent Product (AKA: Outcome Recording)

o *Measuring behavior after it has occurred by measuring the effects of the behavior produced on the environment* o A change in the environment produced by a behavior that lasts long enough for measurement to take place o *Ex post facto measurement*: Measurement takes place after behavior has occurred

Metaphorical (tact) Extension

o *Metaphors* o A tact evoked by a novel stimulus that shares some, but not all, of the relevant features of the original stimulus. Example: "His heart is as black as coal"

Line Graphs (AKA: Frequency Polygons)

o *Most common graphs in ABA* o Based on the Cartesian Plane o *Use this graph when you want*: Data that can be scaled along some dimension, such as time or the order of responses in a sequence Example: Number of hits over time

Consequences

o *Only affect FUTURE behavior* o A stimulus change that follows a behavior of interest. Some consequences, especially those that are immediate and relevant to current motivational states, have a significant influence on future behavior; others have little effect. Example: Hand movements required to open a bag of chips can be different each time, as each bag may be slightly different. However, the consequence is the same: an open bag of chips

Solistic (tact) Extension

o *Poor use of Language* o Slangs Example: "You speak good," instead of, "You speak well."

Percentage

o *Ratio* formed by combing the same dimensional quantities, such as count Example: 4/5 = 0.8 x 100% = 80%. In this example, you took two count measures, which were 4 and 5, and used them together to get the percentage

Pre-Assessment Considerations

o *Who has the Authority, Permission, Resources, and Skills to complete an assessment and intervene with the behavior?* If you do not have any one of these, you cannot do the assessment Example: A behavior analyst is standing in line at a grocery store and a child starts a tantrum, The parents of the child try to stop his tantrum, Should you intervene? NO! You do not have the authority of permission!

How often to monitor

o 80% agreement for most plans o At least once per week

Pragmatism

o A *probabilistic AB-because-of-C philosophy*. The relation between the setting (A) and the behavior (B) is because of the consequence (C) o Originally developed by Charles S. Peirce and William James: the *meaning of an idea or proposition lies in its observable practical consequences,* rather than in theory or dogma

Response

o A *single instance* of behavior o Measurable unit of analysis in the science of behavior

Darwinian Selectionism (AKA: Selections by Consequences)

o A belief that all forms of life, from single cells to complex cultures, evolve as a result of selection with respect to *function*. o Selection by consequences operates during the lifetime of the individual (i.e., Ontogeny) and is similar to natural selection in the evolutionary history of a species (i.e., Phylogeny) o Operant selection by consequences requires *variation in behavior*. Behaviors that result in the best outcomes are selected and survive, leading to more adaptive repertoires.

Behavior Checklist

o A checklist that provides descriptions of specific skills (usually in hierarchical order) and the conditions under which each skill should be observed. o Some checklists are designed to assess one particular behavior or skill area. o Others address multiple behaviors or skill areas. o Most use a Likert scale to rate responses.

Mixed Schedules of Reinforcement (mix)

o A compound schedule of reinforcement consisting of two or more basic schedules of reinforcement (elements) that occur in an alternating, usually random, sequence o Identical to multiple schedules, except the mixed schedule has NO SD correlated with the independent schedules *[NOTE: Only difference between this and mixed is that there is no SD with each independent schedule]*

Concept

o A concept is *NOT Mentalism* o It is a product of both stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination o Requires an individual being able to discriminate between what is included in a stimulus class and what is excluded from that same stimulus class.

Group Contingencies

o A contingency in which reinforcement for all members of a group is dependent on the behavior of: (a) One member of the group, OR, (b) part of the group, OR, (c) all individuals in the group. o Can save time.

Generative Learning (AKA: Derived Relations)

o A general pattern of responding that produces effective responding to many untrained relations o Achieve this by teaching material to ensure the client is fluent with the material and through teaching the client behavior cusps & pivotal behaviors

Generalization Gradient (AKA: Stimulus Generalization Gradient)

o A graph of the extent to which behavior that has been reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus condition is emitted in the presence of other stimuli o *When looking at graph, check for*: Flat slope = little stimulus control; Increasing slope = more stimulus control

Time Sampling (AKA: Interval Recording; Discontinuous Measurement Systems)

o A measurement of the presence or absence of behavior within specific time intervals. It is most useful with continuous and high-rate behaviors. o Time sampling methods give us an *approximation* of the actual instances of behavior

Unconditioned Motivating Operations (AKA: UMOs)

o A motivating operation whose *value-altering effect* does not depend on a learning history. o UNLEARNED Example: food deprivation increases the reinforcing effectiveness of food without the necessity of any learning history.

Steady State Responding (AKA: Stable State Responding)

o A pattern of responding that exhibits very little variation in its measured dimensional quantities over a period of time o*Provides the basis for BASELINE LOGIC*

Conditioned Punishers/Punishment (AKA: CPs; Secondary Punishers; Learned Punishers)

o A previously neutral stimulus that now functions as a punisher because prior pairing with one or more other punishers. o Learning history required Example: Neutral tone, when paired with electric shock, makes the tone a conditioned punisher

Premack Principle (AKA: Grandmas Law; Relativity Theory of Reinforcement)

o A principle that states that making opportunity to engage in a *high-probability behavior* (i.e., something you are more likely to do ) contingent upon the occurrence of *low-probability behavior* (i.e., something you are less likely to do) will function as a reinforcer for the low-probability behavior o Usually stated as a "first____, then____" Example: First brush your teeth, then you can watch TV

Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior (DRI)

o A procedure for decreasing problem behavior in which reinforcement is delivered for behavior that *cannot be emitted simultaneously* with the challenging behavior (i.e., incompatible) Example: An individual cannot refuse to eat food and eat food at the same time

Verbally describe the skills and give a rationale

o A rationale explains why the staff will be responsible for implementing the plan o The verbal description should be succinct but clearly explain the steps of the plan

Ratio Strain

o A result of *abrupt* increases in ratio requirements when moving from denser to thinner reinforcement schedules. o Common behavioral characteristics are avoidance, aggression, etc. Example: After moving abruptly from an FR1 to an FR20, an individual displays ratio strain in the form of non-compliance.

Rule-governance

o A rule specifies a contingency o It may evoke or abate behavior without the behavior having to directly experience the contingency

Variable Interval (VI)

o A schedule for reinforcement that provides reinforcement for the first correct response following the elapse of a variable duration of time occurring in a random or unpredictable order. o *NO* Postreinforcement Pause Example: Variable Interval 12 (VI12) — Reinforcement is delivered after the first correct response that occurs after and AVERAGE of 12 minutes. Time is not enough; it has to be *correct* too

Tandem Schedules of Reinforcement (tand)

o A schedule of reinforcement identical to the chained schedule except, like the mix schedule, the tandem schedule does not use discriminative stimuli with the elements in the chain. o An unsignaled chain *[NOTE: Only difference between tandem and chained is the presentation of the SDs. It is present in the chained, but NOT present in tandem]*

Fixed Interval (FI)

o A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is delivered for the first response emitted following the passage of a fixed duration of time since the last response was reinforced o Postreinforcement Pause Example: Fixed Interval 5 (FI5) — Reinforcement is delivered after the first correct response that occurs after 5 minutes. Time is not enough; it has to be *correct* too

Concurrent schedules of Reinforcment (conc)

o A schedule of reinforcement in which two or more contingencies of reinforcement (elements) operate independently and simultaneously for two or more behaviors. o *Choice-making* Example: Your high school client likes to eat alone at lunch, but you are attempting to have him interact with peers during lunch. You use a conc FR1 FI7. In a conc FR1 FI7 schedule, he has a choice to make between 2 behaviors: (a) Interacting with others (can earn 3 hours of playing video games) OR (b) Sitting alone (can earn 30 minutes of video grames). He can CHOOSE between 2 behaviors.

Fixed Ratio (FR)

o A schedule of reinforcement requiring a fixed number of responses for reinforcement o Postreinforcement Pause Example: Fixed Ratio 4 (FR4) — Reinforcement is delivered after every 4th *correct* response (not just after the 4th response)

Differential Reinforcement of High Rates if Responding (DRH)

o A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement for emitting behaviors that are at or above a pre-established rate. o Helps *increase behavior* that the individual displays too infrequently Example: John currently attends school 2x per week, but if he attends school at least 4x per week, John earns reinforcement.

Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding (DRL)

o A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement only if the behavior occurs following a specific period of time during which it did not occur or since the last time it occurred. o *By increasing IRT, you are lowing the rate of response and that's what DRL is all about* o Helps *decrease behavior* that the individual displays too frequently, but NOT TO ELIMINATE IT ENTIRELY Example: Dana eats too fast. A DRL would mean that she could only earn reinforcement upon taking a bite of food after a 10-second pause.

Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing Rates of Responding (DRD)

o A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement when the number of responses in the specified time period is less than, or equal to, a prescribed limit (e.g., a certain number) o Helps to *decrease behavior* that the individual displays too frequently, but NOT TO ELIMINATE IT ENTIRELY Example: Dana eats too fast. Implementing a DRD would mean she could earn reinforcement after taking only 10 bites of food in 5 minutes.

Trials-to-Criterion

o A special form of event recording; a measure of the number of responses or practice opportunities needed for a person to achieve a pre-established level of accuracy or proficiency. o Can use: *Count, rate, duration, and latency measures to determine trials-to-criterion data

Unconditioned Reinforcer/Reinforcement (AKA: UCR; Primary Reinforcer; Unlearned Reinforcer)

o A stimulus change that can increase the future frequency of behavior *without prior pairing* with any other form of reinforcement o No learning history required Example: Food, water, etc. *you want these things*

Unconditioned Punisher/ Punishment (AKA: UCPs; Primary Punishers/ Unlearned Punishers)

o A stimulus change that decreases the frequency of any behavior that immediately precedes it *irrespective of the organisms learning history with the stimulus* o No learning history required Example: Extremely hot temperature or loud noise

Conditioned Reinforcer/Reinforcement (AKA: CR; Secondary Reinforcer; Learned Reinforcer)

o A stimulus change that functions as a reinforcer because of prior pairing with one or more other reinforcers; sometimes called secondary or learned reinforcer. Example: Tone when food presented and the tone becomes the conditioned positive reinforcer

Surrogate MO (AKA: CMO-S)

o A stimulus that has acquired its effectiveness by accompanying some other MO & has come to have the same value-altering and behavior-altering effects as the MO that it has accompanied o Think about *advertising* and how when you see a product on TV, you start to value and desire that product! Example: Grandma usually puts baby to sleep. Dad tries to put baby to sleep, but can't. They learn grandma wears a certain perfume and the baby has paired the smell of it with sleep. Dad puts perfume and the pairing of the smell with dad helps baby fall asleep with him too.

Reflex

o A stimulus-response relation consisting of an antecedent stimulus and the respondent behavior it elicits (e.g., bright light-pupil contraction). o Unconditioned and conditioned reflexes protect against harmful stimuli, help regulate the internal balance and economy of the organism, and promote reproduction.

Organizational behavior management (OBM)

o A sub-discipline of ABA, which is the application of the science of behavior o Guided by the single theory of human behavior and has historically emphasized identification and modification of the environmental variables that affect directly observable or verifiable employee performance

Assessment

o A systematic method for obtaining information about the *FUNCTION* challenging behaviors serve for an individual o Allows us to make empirically-based hypotheses for *WHY* behaviors occur

Backward Chaining

o A teaching procedure in which the trainer completes all the initial steps except for the last step. o Steps are taught backward

Whole Interval Recording

o A time sampling method for measuring behavior in which the observation period is divided into a series of brief time intervals o At the end of each interval, the observer records whether the target behavior occurred throughout the entire interval *[Hint: Underestimates the rate of a behavior]*

Choice Measures

o A tool given to employees to have them evaluate if they like how their employers are monitoring and supervising them that involves items that they must choose between on the measure o More sensitive than questionnaires

Establishing Operation (AKA: EO)

o A type of MO that *INCREASES* the effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer o Makes a stimulus MORE desirable Example: The reinforcing effectiveness of water is ESTABLISHED when you are thirsty

Multiple Treatment Reversal Design

o A type of reversal design that compares two or more IVs to baseline and/or to one another

Standard Celeration Chart

o A type of semilogarithmic chart. o Provides a standardized means of charting and analyzing how frequency of behavior changes over time. o *GOAL*: To increase the number of correct answers and decrease the number wrong within the set time

Delayed Multiple Baseline Design

o A variation of the multiple baseline design in which an initial baseline, and perhaps intervention, are begun for one behavior (or setting, or subject), and subsequent baselines for additional behaviors are begun in a staggered or delayed fashion. o *Limitations*: Shorter baselines do not show interdependence of DVs

Multiple Probe Design

o A variation of the multiple baseline design that features intermittent measures, or probes, during baseline. o It is used to evaluate the effects of instruction on skill sequences in which it is unlikely that the subject can improve performance on later steps in the sequence before learning prior steps.

Applied

o ABA improves everyday life of clients o Improves *SOCIALLY SIGNIFICANT BEHAVIORS* o Also helps significant others (e.g., parents, peers, employers, etc.) so that they behave more positively towards the client

Stages of learning

o Acquisition stage o Fluency stage o Application stage

System development for token economies

o Administrative issues o Ethical issues o Legal issues

Benefits of BARS

o Allows for easy goal setting o Allows for objective evaluation o Negates the need for other forms of performance review

Interpreting Functional Analyses: Automatic Reinforcement

o Alone Condition = Automatic Reinforcement o The client remains in a room without demands and with no social interaction o If rates of problem behavior are higher in this condition, escape is the maintaining reinforcer

Phasing out token economy system

o Always pair tokens with praise o Gradually increase earning criteria o Increase cost of items o Switch to natural back-up reinforcers o Fade out physical tokens o Reduce amount of time in effect o Use self-monitoring and level system

Components of a discrete trial

o An antecedent stimulus that sets the occasion for the learner's response o A response by the learner o A teacher provided consequence for the learner's response

Mentalism (AKA: Spiritual; Psychic; Subjective; Feelings; Attitudes; Processing)

o An approach to explaining behavior that assumes an inner dimension exists and causes behavior o Traditional psychology has been and continues to be dominated by mentalism Example: Freud, talk therapy, LMFT, LCSW, etc.

Ecological Assessment

o An assessment protocol that acknowledges complex interrelationships between environment and behavior. o An ecological assessment is a method for obtaining data across multiple settings and persons.

Textual

o An elementary verbal operant involving a response that is evoked by a verbal discriminative stimulus that has point-to-point correspondence, but not formal similarity, between the stimulus and the response product. o *Reading written words* Example: Seeing the written word, "Pizza" and saying "Pizza."

Transcription

o An elementary verbal operant involving a spoken verbal stimulus that evokes a written, typed, or finger-spelled response. Like the textual, there is point-to-point correspondence between the stimulus and the response product, but no formal similarity. o *Writing and spelling words spoken to you* Example: Hearing someone say the word, "pillow" and writing the word, "pillow".

Mand

o An elementary verbal operant that is evoked by an MO (not SDs) and followed by a specific reinforcement o *Mands are the first verbal operants acquired by humans* Example: "I deMAND that $100 bill!!!"

Transitive MO (AKA: CMO-T)

o An environmental variable that establishes (or abolishes) the reinforcing effectiveness *of another stimulus* and thereby evokes (or abates) the behavior that has been reinforced *by that other stimulus* Example: Someone places a lock on your fridge. This establishes the reinforcing value of a key (key becomes the CMO-T) when access to food is valuable as a source of reinforcement (i.e., when you are hungry)

Noncontingent Reinforcement (NCR) Reversal Technique

o An experimental control technique that demonstrates the effects of reinforcement by using noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) as a control condition instead of a no reinforcement (baseline) condition. o During the NCR condition, the stimulus change used as reinforcement in the reinforcement condition is presented on a fixed or variable time schedule independent of the subject's behavior. o A higher level of responding during the reinforcement condition than during the NCR condition demonstrates that the changes in behavior are the result of contingent reinforcement, not simply the presentation of or contact with the stimulus event.

Changing Criterion Design

o An experimental design in which an initial baseline phase is followed by a series of treatment phases consisting of successive and gradually changing criteria for reinforcement or punishment. o Experimental control is evidenced by the extent the level of responding changes to conform to each new criterion.

DRO reversal technique

o An experimental technique for demonstrating the effects of reinforcement by using differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) as a control condition instead of a no-reinforcement (baseline) condition. o During the DRO condition, the stimulus change used as reinforcement in the reinforcement condition is presented contingent on the absence of the target behavior for a specified time period. o A higher level of responding during the reinforcement condition than during the DRO condition demonstrates that the changes in behavior are the result of contingent reinforcement, not simply the presentation of or contact with the stimulus event.

DRO/DRI/DRA Reversal Technique

o An experimental technique for showing the effects of reinforcement by using DRO, DRA or DRI as a control condition instead of a baseline condition in which no reinforcement is provided o Allows us to examine contingent reinforcement

Non-Contingent Reinforcement (NCR) Reversal Design

o An experimental technique for showing the effects of reinforcement by using NCR as a CONTROL condition INSTEAD of a baseline condition in which no reinforcement is provided.

DRI/DRA reversal technique

o An experimental technique that demonstrates the effects of reinforcement; it uses differential reinforcement of an incompatible or alternative behavior (DRI/DRA) as a control condition instead of a no-reinforcement (baseline) condition. o During the DRI/ DRA condition, the stimulus change used as reinforcement in the reinforcement condition is presented contingent on occurrences of a specified behavior that is either incompatible with the target behavior or an alternative to the target behavior. o A higher level of responding during the reinforcement condition than during the DRI/DRA condition demonstrates that the changes in behavior are the result of contingent reinforcement, not simply the presentation of or contact with the stimulus event.

Relational Frame Theory

o An explicitly behavioral account of human language and cognition o Provides a functional account of the structure of verbal knowledge and cognition

Magical Mand

o An extended mand in which the reinforcement has never occurred in the past o *Wishing* Example: "I wish I had a million dollars." No matter how many times you say it, your wish still has not come true.

Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)

o Anchors behavior to scores. The more behavior that an individual engages in, the higher the score o Evaluation system that uses narrative description, incident reporting, and measurable ratings.

Simple Discrimination

o Antecedent evokes or abates the behavior. o 3-term contingency involved: (SD—> Response—> Consequence)

Variables affecting performance

o Antecedents o Equipment and processes o Knowledge and skills o Consequences

Audience

o Anyone who functions as a discriminative stimulus evoking verbal behavior. o Different audiences may control different verbal behavior about the same topic because of a differential reinforcement history. o Teens may describe the same event in different ways when talking to peers versus parents.

When collecting data on deceleration

o Arrange observations when problem behavior is most likely o More worried about low agreement o Integrity is more important in some procedures as opposed to others

The tact-to-transfer procedure

o Ask a question which can be answered by saying, signing, selecting a printed word or previously learned as a tact o Point to the corresponding item or activity o Wait for the learner to say, sign, or select the word o Provide some form of confirmation or approval

Steps in a risk-benefit analysis

o Assess risk of behavioral intervention o Assess benefits o Discuss the analysis with involved parties o Decision

Types of chaining procedures

o Backward chaining o Backward chaining with leaps ahead o Forward chaining o Total task chaining

The challenge of behavior analysis in education

o Be clear about what is taught o Teach first things first o Stop making all students advance at the same rate o Program the subject matter o Reconsider ABA instructional technology o Determine how to cause more durable and extensive behavior change o Develop methods that teachers can and will actually use

Identifying quality

o Begin by asking managers and employees, "What makes someone good at X?" o Engage in narrative recording while interviewing management and staff members o Look for recurring themes, especially between managers and employees

Behavior Chain vs. Chaining

o Behavior Chain: a specific sequence of behaviors that lead to reinforcement. VS. Chaining: various methods for linking specific sequences of stimuli & responses to form new performances.

Behavior: 4 Important Elements

o Behavior is *individual*: It is defined as a persons interaction with the environment. o Behavior is *continuous*: It changes over time, thus requires continuous measurement over time. o Behavior is *determined*: The occurrence of any event is *determined* by the *functional relations* it hold to other events. o Behavior is *extrinsic*: Variability (i.e., change in behavior) is the result of the environment.

Phylogenic/Phylogeny

o Behavior that is inherited genetically (innate). o *Respondent* behavior is due to *phylogenic* history.

Technical Definition of Verbal Behavior

o Behavior that is reinforced through the *mediation of another person's behavior* o Communication that helps individuals get what they desire and avoid what is undesirable to them o Verbal behavior is *defined by the function of the response, not the topography* o Verbal behavior includes vocal (i.e., Spoken) and non-vocal (i.e., written, singed, etc.) behaviors.

What is the difference between behavior-altering effects and function-altering effects of an MO?

o Behavior-Altering Effects: Changes a persons behavior in the current moment o Function-Altering Effects: Changes a persons behavior in the future

What is not behavior?

o Being hungry o Being Anxious o Getting wet o Receiving money o Being blown over by a strong gust of wind

Indiscriminable group contingency

o Can be used with dependent or interdependent group contingencies o Members cannot predict which group members, target behaviors, settings, and/or times on which the reward will be contingent o Can be a powerful strategy for promoting generalization and maintenance

Disadvantages of level systems

o Can become punitive o Easily misused o Relying on level system too much

Use for negative reinforcement

o Can get behavior started o Should transfer to positive reinforcement as soon as pinpoint begins to occur

Advantages to self-management

o Can lead to lasting change o Skills may contribute to a more efficient classroom, workplace, or home o Some people perform better under self-selected goals and standards o One of the ultimate goals of education o It "feels good"

Problems with behavior

o Can't Do: Skill Deficit o Problem with strength o Won't do o Does, but only under limited circumstances o Does at the wrong time or in the wrong place

Procedures for Teaching Response Chains

o Chaining o Modeling o Instructions (oral/written) o Behavioral Skills Training

Guidelines for implementing group contingencies

o Choose powerful rewards o Determine the behavior to be strengthened or weakened o Set appropriate performance criteria o Combine with other procedures when appropriate o Select the most appropriate group contingency o Monitor individual and group performance

How to create instructions

o Choose the skill you want to teach o Create a task analysis of the skill o Turn those steps into a checklist

Elements of the ABA approach to education

o Clearly specified and behaviorally- stated instructional objectives o Well- designed curricular materials o Assessment of learner's entry skills o Ongoing frequent direct measurement of skills o Focus on mastery o Highly structures o Fast- paced o Systematic use of positive and corrective feedback o Supported by empirical research o Extensively field-tested and revised based on data o Considered how realistic the procedures are for classroom practice

Disadvantages of token economy systems

o Complex and cumbersome o Staff intensive o Requires constant monitoring o May be unnatural or intrusive o System eventually requires fading

Room/Time-out Room

o Confined space outside individual's normal environment o Devoid of positive reinforcers; individual safely placed. o Should be located near the time-in setting. o Minimal furnishing.

Continuous (FR1) schedules

o Consequence delivered after every response. o Typically used to build or strengthen a skill

Variable schedules

o Consequence delivered after some number of responses, time or interval. o Typically used to maintain behavior over time

Assessing Social Significance of Potential Target Behaviors

o Consider *whose behavior is being assessed and why* o Always ask yourself, "To what extent will the proposed change improve the person's life?"

Identify the contingencies governing the behavior of those responsible for carrying out behavior-change procedures & design interventions accordingly

o Consider the reasons for the current behavioral challenge o If your client does NOT possess the skill: you would then design your intervention accordingly to focus on *teaching that skill* o If your client does possess the skill, but still does not engage in the behavior: you would then design your interventions accordingly to focus on *effectively reinforcing the client's use of that skill*

Indiscriminable Contingencies

o Contingencies in which an individual is NOT able to discriminate when their responses will be reinforced o Behaviors continue at a high rate because they dont know when their next response will produce reinforcement o Making the contingencies *unclear* in the generalization setting.

Interpreting Functional Analyses: Attention Function

o Contingent Attention Condition = Positive Reinforcement o The client is given attention and then attention is removed to establish the MO (i.e., putting the client in a state of deprivation for attention) o If rates of problem behavior are higher in this condition, attention is the maintaining reinforcer

Interpreting Functional Analyses: Escape Function

o Contingent Escape Condition = Negative Reinforcement o The client is given non-preferred demands repeatedly to establish the MO (i.e., putting the client is a state of satiation for an aversive task) o If rates of problem behavior are higher in this condition, escape is the maintaining reinforcer

Repeat steps 3-5 until proficiency is reached

o Continue the process until the trainee can perform the skill without corrective feedback o Consider more stringent mastery criteria

Skills to teach self-rules

o Coordination o Comparative o Temporal o Causal relational framing o Perspective-taking

Kinds of relational frames

o Coordination o Opposition o Distinction o Comparison o Hierarchical relations o Deictic relations o Temporal relations

Ways to conduct rehearsal/feedback

o Correct at the error, instruct the model and have the trainee rehearse step correctly o At the end of a sequence, provide correction on which steps were incorrect and then instruct, model, and have trainee rehearse sequence o Correct at error or at end without rehearsal of the sequence

Develop a tool

o Create a data sheet o Designate space for identifying information o List the key components for successful implementation and make room to note o Have a space to take notes

Steps of Incidental Teaching

o Create an environment rich with activities and materials that are motivating to the learner. o When child initiates an interaction about an object or activity, reinforce the child's initial response with attention and model a more elaborate or appropriate form of behavior

ABC Narrative Recording (AKA: Sequence Analysis; ABC Descriptive Narrative Data)

o Data are collected only when behaviors of interest are observed. o Recording is open-ended o You can calculate conditional probability with this method too! *Advantages*: o Less time-consuming than continuous recording *Disadvantages*: o Utility in identifying behavioral function NOT established o May yield *false positives* because data are collected only when behavior occurs

Increase monitoring if

o Data is being collected on a vital skill/dangerous problem behavior o New plan o Problems are noticed

Indirect Assessment Measures

o Data obtained from recollections, reconstructions, or subjective rating of events (i.e., Interviews & Checklists) o Not as reliable as direct descriptive methods o should only be used as a supplement to other FBA methods

DeRisi model

o Date contract begins and ends o Behavior o Amount and kind of reward o Signatures of all involved o Schedule for review of progress

Re-training

o Decide is the staff "can't do" or "won't do" o Task clarification

Demonstrate how to perform the skills

o Demonstrate the skill(s) while the employee watches o Demonstrate the skills in the natural environment when possible it is critical to have a competent trainer in steps 3-5

Cumulative Records

o Developed by Skinner to record data in EAB research in 1957. o *Enables a subject to draw his own graph* o Keep adding on responses during each observation period to the total number of all previously recorded responses. o The y-axis value represents the total number of responses recorded since the very start of data collection.

6 Types of Differential Reinforcement

o Differential Reinforcement of High Rates of Responding (DRH) o Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible Behavior (DRI) o Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding (DRL) o Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior (DRO) o Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior (DRA) o Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing Rates of Responding (DRD) Acronym: HI LOAD

Good goals

o Difficult and achievable o Under performer control o Specific

Two effective behavioral approaches to measure education

o Direct instruction o University of Kansas behavior analysis program

Direct Descriptive FBA (AKA: Descriptive Assessment; Direct Assessment)

o Direct observation of problem behavior under natural conditions o Events are NOT arranged in a systematic manner o Provides data on the occurrence of the behavior within the contest of the natural environment in which it occurs and also the environmental events that surround it.

How do we teach concepts

o Discrimination training is fundamental to teaching conceptual behavior. o Lots of exemplars of what the concept is and what the concept is not are needed.

Guidelines

o Don't threaten punishment, just implement o Punish the behavior, not the person o Punish immediately o Punish every time o Make it clear what is expected and reinforce the occurrence o Continue to deliver reinforcement for appropriate behavior o Punish in private o Be consistent o Don't mix punishment and reinforcement o Use an intense punisher

Characteristics of good constructive feedback

o Done in private o Soon after the behavior o Describe the desired performance o Talk specifically about behavior, nothing else o Use 'I statements' o Deliver when calm

How often and when should IOA be obtained

o During each phase of a study & should be distributed across days of the week, times of day, settings, & observers. o Should be obtained for a minimum of 20% of sessions.

Extended Mand

o Emitting mands to objects or animals that cannot possibly supply an appropriate response o There are 2 types of this. Example: While driving on the freeway telling another driver, "move your car."

Reversal (Withdrawal) Design

o Encompasses experimental designs in which the IV is withdrawn or reversed in its focus o *Most powerful within-subject design* for demonstrating function

Ensuring Meaningful Activities

o Ensuring that en environment has a lot of available *meaningful activity options* can help reduce challenging behavior. o Is the challenging behavior occurring in an environment with limited meaningful activity options? If yes, the ENVIRONMENT is the problem.

Masking

o Even though a stimulus has acquired stimulus control over a behavior, a competing stimulus can block the evocative function of that stimulus. o The behavior is already in the individual's repertoire but is MASED by other elements Example: Even though Hari know the answers to the teacher's questions, he does not responds with peers around.

Private events

o Events taking place *inside the skin* o *Thoughts and feelings* Example: You are the only person who can feel your headache

Loosely Train

o Expanding the heterogeneity of SDs o Noncritical elements of the teaching setting are altered in arbitrary ways o *Methods to Train Loosely*: Teach upstairs in the home one day and downstairs a different day. Example: Asking "How are you?" in a high-pitched tone of voice, a low-pitched tone of voice, or a medium-pitched tone of voice.

Empiricism

o Experimental, data-based scientific approach, drawing upon observation and experience o Objective observations are "independent of the individual prejudices, tastes, and private opinions of the scientist. o Required objective quantification and detailed description of events

Possible Unwanted Effects of Extinction

o Extinction bursts o Extinction-induced aggression o Difficult to know what is reinforcing a clients o Behavior Contrast o Sometimes the challenging behaviors placed on extinction are imitated by other people.

What is the Shape of Assessment?

o FUNNEL, because its FUN! o No, just kidding, because it has a broad scope that narrows focus as you conduct the assessment process

Explanatory Contructs

o Fictitious variables that are another name for the observed behavior. They contribute nothing to an understanding of the variables responsible for maintaining behavior o Words that are associated with explanatory fiction include: "Knows, Wants, Figures out, etc."

Types of imitation

o Fine motor o Gross motor o Object imitation

Interviews (AKA: Structured Behavioral Interviews)

o First step in identifying list of behaviors, which can be used later in direct observation o You can interview two sources: The individual and the significant others (e.g., parents)

Why is extinction so hard for people to use?

o For extinction to be effective, reinforcers must be withheld *all the time*, not most of the time o Possible increases in other challenging behaviors (e.g., tantrums) o Gradual decrease in frequency and amplitude of behavior is common

Magnitude (AKA: Force; Intensity; Severity)

o Force/intensity/severity of a behavior o Certain responses need to be emitted at specific levels of intensity Example: Volume if voice differing in the library vs. in a crowded store

Effects of stimulus fading on problem behavior

o Functions as an abolishing operation and abates problem behavior o Evokes appropriate behavior

Reinforcement should be used to:

o Get behavior going o Strengthen a dimension of an already acquired skill o Keep behavior going (maintenance)

Select Intervention Strategies Based on Environmental and Resource Constraints

o Get to know the physical, material, and human resources in the family or organization within which the change is to occur o Look to see what adjustments might be required within the system to encourage, monitor, and sustain the kinds of changes being sought.

Provide a written description

o Gives a permanent reference o Do not provide additional information outside of what has to be implemented o Consider a checklist

Interventions used in PM

o Goal setting o Feedback o Job aids o Token systems o Lottery systems

Programming for generalization

o Gradual approximate the antecedent stimulus conditions of the target environment by fading in natural distracters within the training environment o Select antecedent stimuli for the training environments that can be altered to gradually approximate the stimuli in the target environment o Gradually change the nature of the consequent stimulus conditions from contrived to natural reinforcers and punishing stimuli

Thinning INT Reinforcement

o Gradually increasing the response ration or the duration of the time interval o If #s *increase* = Thinning Schedule (e.g., VR 4 to VR 6); If #s *decrease* = Thickening Schedule (e.g., VR 6 to VR 4)

Equal-Interval Graphs (AKA: Arithmetic Charts; Add-Substract Charts)

o Graphs in which the distance between any 2 consecutive points on BOTH THE X-AXIS AND Y-AXIS are always the same o *All intervals are the same size*

Consider using group contingencies when

o Group of persons share certain problem o Unrealistic to set up individual programs o Difficult to identify the person responsible for the behavior o Singling out one person to reward may cause problems with peers

Reasons for writing behaviorally- stated instructional objectives

o Guide the instructional content and tasks o Communicate to students on what they will be evaluated o Specify the standards for evaluating ongoing and terminal performance

BST has been effective to teach

o Guided compliance o Discrete trial training o PECS o Functional analysis o Guarding and ambulation o Gun safety skills o Abduction prevention

Observe trainee practice the skill

o Have the staff perform all aspects of the new skill in the natural environment o If not possible, consider role-playing o The trainer must observe the trainee as s/he demonstrates the skill o The trainer notes correct implementation and any mistakes

Reasons for selecting target behavior

o Helps individual achieve outcomes. o Behavior deficit makes the person too dependent on others.

Dependent group contingency is also known as

o Hero procedure o Consequence sharing

Task clarifications

o Highly detailed set of instructions of what is expected

Systematic Performance Monitoring

o How supervisors can ensure that their staff is carrying out the procedures as intended. Involves systematic data collection in order to provide objective performance measurement. o Ensures staff will receive feedback more openly.

Purpose of Assessment

o Identifies and defines targets for behavior change o Guides us to create effective and positive interventions

Self-management strategies for problem behavior

o Identify and display alternative responses that compete with and/or are incompatible with the target behavior o Identify private and public precursors

Using positive reinforcement

o Identify appetitive stimuli (potential reinforcers) o Collect baseline data o Deliver the appetitive stimulus contingent upon the target response o Continue to collect data

Using negative reinforcement

o Identify aversive stimuli/conditions o Collect baseline data o Remove the aversive condition contingent upon the target response o Continue to collect data

Outcome management

o Identify outcome for consumer o Specify target behavior for staff o Provide training o Monitor staff performance o Provide data based reinforcement for correct performance o Provide corrective feedback for insufficient performance o Evaluate the effects of supervisory procedures

Self-management strategies

o Identify target behavior o Self-monitor o Identify discriminative stimuli and establishing operations o Arrange contingencies to support self-management o Identify immediate and delayed positive and negative consequences for engaging in the target behavior o Get an accountability partner

Identifying pinpoints

o Identify the biggest opportunity o Select a few behaviors that will have the greatest impact o Don't overwhelm with pinpoints

Positive Reinforcement for Extinction

o If the function of an individuals behavior is attention, then ignoring is the correct form of extinction. o If the function of an individual's behavior is tangibles, not giving the tangibles to them is the correct form of extinction

Use the echoic-to-mand transfer procedure

o If the learner repeats single words clearly and reliably o To teach spoken-word mands

Applications of discrimination training

o Imitation training o Compliance o Self-care o Matching to sample

Delivering tokens/praise

o Immediately after behavior o Use specific descriptive praise

Training

o Important for direct care staff o Should be implemented for new staff, when new plans are introduced, or when there is a skill deficit in existing staff members o Antecedent manipulation

Fluency-building

o Improves retention o Fluent component skills often result in the rapid acquisition of composite skills

Prompts are used

o In skill acquisition programs o To evoke a low-probability behavior o To evoke a chain of behavior by prompting the first step (response priming) o To prompt behaviors incompatible with an inappropriate behavior

Reflexivity (AKA: Generalized Identity Matching)

o In the absence of training and reinforcement, a learner selects a stimulus that is matched to itself o *A=A* Example: Picture of baby (A) = Picture of baby (A)

Functional instruments

o Include skills that are required in other settings o Taught in the same circumstances as those in which they typically occur o In the absence of which someone would have to perform the skills for them o Result in increased access to preferred items, activities, and people

ASRs are correlated with:

o Increased academic behavior o Improved test scores o Reduced disruptive behavior

Benefits of Chaining

o Increases independent living skills so that individuals can function more independently in society. o Increases an individual's current behavioral repertoires.

Types of group contingencies

o Independent o Dependent o Interdependent

Observation (AKA: Direct Observation)

o Individual is re-positioned in room, so they can observe everything, but not participate. o Identifies potential target behaviors o *Preferred method!* Example: "Dunce Corner"

What to teach staff

o Industry specific-mandated information o Data collection and behavior plan implementation o ABA basics o Population information

Conduct a Preliminary Assessment of the Client in Order to Identify the Referral Problem

o Information is gathered "indirectly" via interviews, rating scales, screening forms, etc. o When conducting a preliminary assessment of the client, *ask yourself if there is a need for intervention*: (a) Does the individuals behavior pose a danger to self or others? (b) Does the behavior affect the clients well being? (c) How does the behavior compare to same-aged, typically developing peers?

Why reinforcement fails

o Insincere o Too thin o Assumption of value o Too delayed o Too general o Non-contingent o Reaction from employee

Negative Teaching Examples

o Instructing individuals regarding settings, times, and conditions in which is *NOT appropriate* to display a certain behavior Example: It is appropriate to crack inappropriate jokes with your friends, but it is not appropriate to crack inappropriate jokes at work.

Four components of BST

o Instructions o Modeling o Rehearsal o Feedback

Techniques for programming the generality of behavior change

o Introduce to natural reinforcement contingencies o Train sufficient exemplars o Train loosely o Use Indiscriminable contingencies o Program common stimuli o Mediate generalization o Train to "generalize"

Mand Training

o Involves bringing verbal responses under the functional control of MOs o When a person learns to mand, they will the amazing power of language and continue language development in the future!

Tact Training

o Involves bringing verbal responses under the functional control of nonverbal SDs. o Similar to teaching mands

Important information about Reinforcment

o It can strengthen: Rate, Duration, Latency, Magnitude, & Topography o *The immediacy of the reinforcer is critical*: a response-to-reinforcement delay of 1-second will be less effective than a 0-second delay o*What happens right before reinforcement will be what is reinforced.

Respondent Conditioning (AKA: Classical Conditioning; Pavlovian COnditioning; S-S Pairing; Conditioned Stimulus-Conditioned Response [CS-CR])

o Ivan Pavlov (Does that name ring a bell?) o A stimulus-stimulus pairing procedure in which a neutral stimulus (NS) is presented with an unconditioned stimulus (US) until the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits the conditioned response

Types of antecedent-based interventions

o Job description o Supervisor presence o Job aides

Guidelines for Imitation Training

o Keep training sessions short (10-15 minutes, couple times a day) o Reinforce both prompted & imitative responses. o Pair verbal praise & attention with tangible reinforcers. o If progress breaks down, back up & move ahead slowly. o Record Data.

Ontogenic/ Ontogeny (Hint: "O" is for Operant and Ontogenic)

o Learning that results from an *organism's interaction with his/her environment* o *Operant* behavior is due to *Ontogenic* history

Disciplinary action

o Make sure the reinforcement procedures stay in effect o Align with personnel policy o Obtain upper management support o Supervisors should persevere

What Reinforcement Does

o Makes antecedent stimulus conditions relevant. o Changes what comes after behavior (i.e., Consequences) and what comes before behavior (i.e., antecedents). o Creates stimulus control o Depends on motivation Example: An individual will only hold a cup under water tap *when thirsty*

Nonverbal operants

o Manded stimulus selection o Manded compliance (listener responses)

Augmentative Communication Systems

o Many individuals cannot communicate using vocal speech o We utilize: signing, touching, or exchanging pictures

Teaching functional discriminations and alternative responses

o May increase the rate of acquisition and result in more useful discriminations o May decrease 'rote' responding and result in more useful responses

Advantages of group contingencies

o May save time as do not need to design multiple programs o May be easier to implement that individualized programs o May work quickly o Takes advantage of natural peer-to-peer influence o Group members may encourage "hero" or all other peers o Group members may discontinue reinforcing undesirable behavior of "hero" or all other peers

Timing

o Methods used to measure: Durations, Latency, and Interresponse time (IRT) o *Timing device*: Stopwatch

Errorless prompting and rapid prompt-fading

o Minimizes errors o May increase the rate of acquisition o May decrease the tendency to exhibit behaviors that have resulted in escape

Reducing reactivity

o Monitor frequently o Self-monitoring o Monitoring results o Covert monitoring o Using reactivity to your advantage

Problems with conducting monitoring

o Monitoring is hidden o Staff don't know why they are being monitored o Monitoring is done impolitely o Results of monitoring are not shared

Functional tasks

o More closely resembles language as it naturally occurs o Effective responding does not require induction

Interspersed and mixed tasks

o More closely resembles language as it naturally occurs o Improves attentiveness o Reduce the tendency to exhibit behavior that has resulted in escape

Varied and functional cues

o More closely resembles language as it naturally occurs o More likely to result in stimulus generalization

Single Stimulus (AKA: Successive Choice)

o Most basic method for assessing preference o Well suited for individuals who have a *hard time selecting among 2 or more stimuli (i.e., choices) o *Presented 1 at a time* in random order and the persons reaction to each stimulus is recorded

Procedures for fading response prompts

o Most-to-least prompts (fading out) o Least-to-most prompts (fading in) o Time delay (constant or progressive) o Graduated guidance

Identify target behaviors

o Mostly behavior to accelerate o Observable o Measureable o Clearly defined o Criteria for earning token(s)

Best to use level systems when

o Multiple behavior change targets o Behaviorally similar population o Similar target environments o Target population's behavior is controlled, somewhat, by delayed or mediated contingencies

Characterizations of AARR

o Mutual entailment o Combinatorial mutual entailment o Transformation of stimulus functions

What makes NCR work?

o NCR may work because reinforcers that maintain the behavior are available freely & frequently. o The enriched environment with positive stimuli may function as an Abolishing Operation (AO), reducing the motivation to engage in the challenging behavior.

Terminating services

o Never abandon clients o Don't leave suddenly without adequately preparing o Start planning ahead of time and collaborate with other professionals

Variable Baseline

o No clear trend o Data points that do not consistently fall within a narrow range of values and do not suggest any clear trend.

Measurement Bias

o Nonrandom measurement error o A form of inaccurate measurement in which the data consistently overestimate or underestimate the true value of an event.

Trend

o OVERALL direction taken by the data path o The general direction and rate of increase or decrease in which data move over time o Answers the question: "In what direction is the change headed?"

Operational definitions

o Observable o Measurable o Reliable o Two or more people should be able to agree on whether or not the targets are occurring

Pinpoints

o Observable o Measureable o Reliable

Behavioral

o Observable events o The behavior one chooses must be the *behavior in need of improvement* o Behavior must be measurable (e.g., not a description of feelings)

Types of integrity

o Observation o Permanent product o Self-report

A Measurement System and Ongoing Analysis of Data

o Observation and recording procedures must be conducted in a standardized manner o Behaviorists must detect changes in level, trend, and variability.

Stimulus Discrimination

o Occurs when new stimuli (similar or not similar to the controlling stimulus) do NOT evoke the same response as the controlling stimulus o *Stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination are RELATIVE relations*. o Tight degree of stimulus control

Terminating Successful Interventions

o One must systematically terminate successful interventions o One should assess how intricate the intervention is, how quickly did the intervention produce the desired change for the individual and the availability of natural contingencies of reinforcement for the newly acquired skill o *FROM THE BEGINNING*: attempt to reduce the need to generalize o Mediators should have a role in generalization

Tangible Condition

o Only use this when you hypothesize access to tangibles to be the function of the behavior. o Client is given access to highly preferred items and/or activities for a set amount of time and then you tell the client to give back those items or you remove the items to establish the MO. o If rates of problem behavior increase, access to tangibles is the maintaining reinforce

Response Prompts

o Operate *directly* on the response o 3 Forms: Verbal, Modeling, and Physical Prompting

Stimulus Prompts

o Operate directly on the *antecedent* task stimuli to cue a correct response in conjunction with the critical SD o 3 Forms: Movement, Position, and Redundancy

Indirect consumers

o Other individuals who benefit from behavior change in clients

Contracting rules

o Payoff should be immediate o Initially reward small approximations o Reward frequently with small amounts o Reward accomplishments, not obedience o Reward performance after it occurs o The contract must be fair, honest, and positive o The terms of the contract must be clear o Contracting methods used systematically

Passive responding

o Pays attention o Listens to the teacher o Watches others respond

Disadvantages of group contingencies

o Peers may put too much pressure on the "hero" or other peers o If the "hero" does not earn the reward or if some peers lose the reward for the group, others may retaliate o Can be tricky to implement successfully depending on the makeup of the group o May have other undesirable effects

Developing a TA

o Perform the task or watch someone perform the task o Write down each individual step in sequence o Perform or have someone perform a task according to the steps listed

Components of OBM

o Performance management (PM) o Behavior systems analysis (BSA) o Behavior-based safety (BBS) o Pay for performance

Stimuli

o Physical events that affect the behavior of an individual o May be *internal or external* to the individual o Is an *energy change* that effects an organism through its receptor cells o May occur *prior to, during, or after a behavior* o May be described formally, temporally, and functionally

Steps to effective performance monitoring

o Pinpoint- Specify what it is the staff are supposed to be doing o Develop a tool that contains each component o The observer collects data as the staff implements a behavior plan o Determine if the staff meets a specified level of criteria o Often the target behavior can be collected simultaneously

Teaching self-rules

o Pliance o Tracking o Augmenting

Selection-based response forms

o Pointing to pictures, symbols, or words on a board or an electronic device without voice output o Selecting pictures, symbols, or words and handing these pictures to another person o Touching pictures, symbols, or words on an electronic device with voice output o Activating a switch which selects pictures, symbols, or words on an electronic device with voice output o Typing letters and words o Making Braille patterns with a Braille writer o Pointing to or touching items

Aversive Control

o Positive Punishment = Aversive event added o Negative Punishment = Aversive event removed

Performance feedback

o Positive feedback o Constructive feedback

Advantages of token economy systems

o Powerful behavior change system o Immediate delivery of reinforcement o Does not interrupt task or activity o Depth and individualization o Facilitate money usage o Facilitates data collection

Prerequisite skills

o Pre-attending skills o Instructional control o Verbal behavior o Generalized imitation o Derived relational responding

Types of response cards

o Preprinted selection- based response cards o Preprinted selection- based "pincher" response cards o "Write-on" response cards

Imitation training

o Presenting a model that sets the occasion for a specific response by the learner o Providing response prompts as needed, so the learner emits the imitative response within a designated interval o Reinforcing the imitative response

Multiple Schedules of Reinforcement (mult)

o Presents 2 or more basic schedules of reinforcement in an *alternating, usually random, sequence* for only one or more behaviors. o Schedules occur successively & independently. o SD is correlated with each schedule.

What relevant quantitative relations are effectively communicated on the ration chart? (In other words...Why would you use this?)

o Primarily when your concern is promoting *rate of responding*

The role of behavior analysis in education

o Principles of learning o The operant as the basic unit o Interactive not passive o Measurement and evaluation of educational outcomes o Developed and validated an effective technology of instructional design and instructional delivery

Conditional Probability

o Probability that a target behavior will occur in a specific circumstance o Taken from ABC data o Looks at the proportion of the occurrence of problem behavior o *Formula*: (# of behaviors preceded by a specific antecedent or followed by a specific consequence/ Total # of behaviors)

Why data collection doesn't sustain

o Problematic definitions o Unclear roles o Insufficient materials o Insufficient training o Complexity of intervention o Failure to generalize o Competing contingencies o Staff dissatisfaction

Performance monitoring

o Procedural integrity (IV integrity) o Monitoring effectiveness of behavior plan (DV integrity)

High ASR approaches to Instructional Activity

o Programmed instruction (PI) o Personalized system of instruction (PSI) o Direct instruction (DI) o Precision teaching (PT) o Morningside model

Fast-paced intense instruction

o Prompt-out latency to achieve fluency o Improves attentiveness o Results in less frequent problem behavior

Job description

o Proper evaluation of pinpoints o Clarification of management duties o Clarification of roles

Positive feedback

o Provide immediate, specific, contingent, sincere statement o Deliver fairly and equally, based upon data o Spend time pairing yourself with reinforcement o Be sensitive to public versus private praise

Direct Assessment Measures

o Provide information about a person's behavior as it occurs (i.e., Tests & Direct Observations) o PREFERRED CHOICE over indirect measures.

Using classroom training

o Provide instruction using lecture, watching videos, internet broadcasting o Avoid passive attendance by using active student responding (ASR)

Progressive-Ratio Schedule Reinforcer Assessment

o Provides a framework for assessing the relative effectiveness of a stimulus as reinforcement as response requirements increase. o Requirements for reinforcement are increased systematically over time independent of the participant's behavior.

Conjunctive Schedules of Reinforcement (conj)

o Provides reinforcement when the completion of a response requirement for *BOTH* a ratio and interval schedule has been met. o Both Schedule

Alternative Schedules of Reinforcement (alt)

o Provides reinforcement when the requirement of *EITHER* a ratio *OR* interval schedule is met, regardless of which is met first. o Either/Or Schedule

Motivating operations: capturing and contriving

o Providing 'free' reinforcement o Reducing the difficulty of tasks and fading-in demands o Capturing and contriving events

How to train

o Provision of written description o Brief explanation with questions o Classroom training o Performance and competency-based training o Behavioral skills training (BST)

Motor imitation-to-sign mand or hand-over-hand prompt-to-sign mand transfer procedure

o Quickly demonstrate the sign or prompt it hand-over-hand o Wait for the learner to form the sign o Provide the requested item or activity and say the word

The motor imitation-to-sign tact or hand-over-hand prompt-to-sign tact transfer procedure

o Quickly demonstrate the sign or prompt it hand-over-hand o Wait for the learner to form the sin o Provide praise and say the word

The hand-over-hand prompt-to-selection tact transfer procedure

o Quickly prompt the learner to select the printed word hand-over-hand o Wait for the learner to select the printed word o Provide praise and say the word

Hand-over-hand prompt-to-selection mand transfer procedure

o Quickly prompt the selection response hand-over-hand o Wait for the learner to make the selection response o Provide the requested item or activity and say the word

Instruction training

o Read instructions to a trainee o Present instructions verbally o Print out and hand instructions for trainee to read

How do you increase stimulus salience while studying for your exam?

o Rearrange our environment o Make the stimuli you are studying more intense Reinforce your behavior in the presence of your instructional stimuli consistently

ABC Continuous Recording

o Record occurrence of targeted problem behaviors and selected environmental events within the natural routine during a specified period of time. *Advantages*: o Uses precise measures o Provides useful contextual information and correlations regarding environmental events and the problem behavior, which can provide useful information for later functional analyses *Disadvantages*: o Often antecedents and consequences do not reliably precede and follow problem behavior, making correlations difficult to detect

How to self-monitor

o Recording when the target behavior occurs o Data are collected as behavior occurs o Need to make sure monitoring is accurate

ABA

o Refers to behavior analysts that assess, monitor, analyze, revise, and communicate the effects of their works o *Technology* for improving behavior

Function-Altering Effects

o Refers to how the future behavior of a person changes because of the MO they are experiencing in the moment Example: You work out too hard in the gym and experience pain. You engage in behaviors in the current moment to decrease pain (i.e., medication). In the future, you will resuce the behavior that led you to this pain in the first place (i.e., working out too hard).

Reliability

o Refers to the consistency of measurement, specifically, the extent to which repeated measurement of the same event yields the same values. o *Same results repeatedly*

Baseline Logic

o Refers to the experimental reasoning inherent in single-subject experimental designs. o It entails 3 elements: Prediction, Verification, & Replication

Temporal locus

o Refers to the fact that every instance of behavior occurs at a certain point in time with respect to other events (i.e., when in time behavior occurs can be measured); o Often measured in terms of response latency and interresponse time (IRT); o One of the three-dimensional quantities of behavior from which all behavioral measurements are derived.

Temporal extent

o Refers to the fact that every instance of behavior occurs during some amount of time o One of the three-dimensional quantities of behavior from which all behavioral measurements are derived. Example: Rocking, on task and off task behaviors, humming, etc.

Behavior Service Delivery

o Refers to the many people in carious fields of work (not BCBAs) implementing ABA within their professions. o Because ABA has a lot of research to support it, other professions and/or people implement ABA strategies Example: Think of educations, sports, psychology, job safety, health, business, animal training, etc.

Measurement Confounds

o Refers to the number and the intricacy of the behaviors you are targeting. o May occur due to: Observer Drift (when observers unknowingly alter the way they apply a measurement system); Reactivity (This can refer to the behavior of our clients changing when observed, it can also refer to observers being affected by their data being monitored); and Observer Bias (The observer's expectations that change follow in a particular direction.

Three types of stimulus equivalence

o Reflexivity o Symmetry o Transitivity

Types of stimulus equivalence

o Reflexivity o Symmetry o Transitivity

What to do with data

o Reinforcement and corrective feedback for the staff member o Minimum of 4:1 instances of reinforcement to corrective feedback o Reinforcement every chance

Uses for RFT

o Reinforcer ID o Observational learning o Joint attention o Establishing mand/tact repertoires o Instructional control o Naming o Reading/spelling o Math o Syntax and grammar o Analogical reasoning o Perspective taking o Empathy o Self-directed rules

Experimental Analysis of Behavior (EAB)

o Research on basic processes and principles o Conducted mainly in laboratories

Equivalence Class

o Results from stimulus equivalence training o A set of arbitrary stimuli that do not need to have common physical properties

Review Records and Data at the Outset of the Case

o Review all records & available data (e.g., data collected from a previous agency, from the school, etc) o This is part of your INDIRECT FBA

When to use antecedent interventions

o Role problems o Competing contingencies o Failure to generalize

Consider Biological/ Medical Variables that may be Affecting the Client

o Rule out medical causes for problem behavior o Refer client to undergo medical evaluation

Backward Chaining with Leap Aheads

o Same as backward chaining except some steps are skipped and probed instead o Used to increase the efficiency of teaching long behavior chains when there is evidence that the skipped steps are in the learner's repertoire. o The purpose is to decrease the total training time needed to learn the chain

Punisher Assessment

o Same as reinforcer assessments *Advantages* o The sooner an effective punisher can be identifies, the sooner it can be used as treatment for the problem behavior. o We want to *use the smallest intensity of the punisher, bu that is still effective!*

The echoic-to-mand transfer procedure

o Say the word o Wait for the leaner to repeat the words o Provide the requested item or activity

The echoic-to-tact transfer procedure

o Say the word o Wait for the learner to repeat the word o Provide praise

Topography-based response forms

o Saying words o Forming gestures or signs o Writing words o Making distinctive sounds

Steps in designing a token economy

o Select tokens o Identify target behaviors o Select back-up items that can be exchanged for tokens o Establish the ratio of earning and exchanging o Develop procedures o Field testing and training

Elements of teaching self-management

o Self-selection and definition of the target behavior to be managed o Self-observation and recording o Specification of the procedures for changing the target behavior o Implementation of the self-management strategy o Evaluation of self-management program

Function of Baseline Data

o Serves as a *control condition*. o Does NOT imply the absence of intervention. o Can be the absence of a specific IV.

Setting goals

o Set the goal and mark it on the graph o Obtain employee input for the goal o Consider sub-goals if significant improvement is required

Considerations when using classroom training

o Set very clear learning objectives o Consider pre-test o Provide rationale

Fluency

o Short latency o High rate of correct response

Scatter Plot (AKA: Pattern Analysis)

o Show *relative distribution of individual measures in a data set* o Data points are UNCONNECTED o Used when you want your data to effectively communicate: the temporal distribution (i.e., time) of the behavior or help identify elusive environmental stimuli.

Match to sample considerations

o Side preference o Guessing o Mixing the order of the sample stimuli o Mixing the order of the comparative stimuli

How do you know you are providing good quality services?

o Significant clinical outcomes o The individual has acquired new skills o Challenging behaviors are reduced o Service providers and administrators are motivated and reinforced o The individual is motivated and reinforced

Advantages of level systems

o Simplifies staff training o Provides systematic guidelines for decisions o Can offset the individual differences that control decisions o May be used to fade out a token economy program

Paired Stimulus (AKA: Forced Choice)

o Simultaneous presentation of 2 stimulus o Takes more time because *every pair of stimuli must be presented*

Multiple Stimulus

o Simultaneous presentation of an array of 3 or more stimuli o Reduces assessment time

Performance based training is effective with

o Single client program and/or simulated clients o Actual clients o Multiple client program

Listener Training

o Skinner's verbal behavior mainly focuses on speaker behavior, not listener behavior because what is most often described as a listener behavior ( thinking, understanding) is more correctly classified as speaker behavior o Often the speaker & listener reside in the same skin Example: "Point to the fruit" and the listener points to the fruit

Video modeling

o Some skills are difficult to role-play, or you have a large group of trainees o Evaluate video models performing behavior o Employees evaluate correct and incorrect elements of a performance o While watching the videos employees evaluate the performance with assessments tools o Typical tools include checklists or other evaluation tools used on the job o Provide feedback on the accuracy of recording o Vary the scenarios

Role-playing

o Some skills can be acted out o One employee engages in a scripted behavior and another employee(s) complete a skill as taught o Provide feedback either during or immediately after the performance o Always have a mastery criteria

Conditional Discrimination

o Sometimes it is important to know not just fine discriminations, but also the *circumstances under which the discrimination is appropriate* o Only if the particular antecedent stimuli are presented and accompanied by particular additional stimuli, then you reinforce that response o A form of *complex stimulus control* in which the role of one SD is *conditional* on the presence of other discriminative stimuli (sometimes MO) o 4-term contingency (Conditional Stimuli—> antecedent stimuli—> Response—> Consequence) Example: If you are in the USA, making the "V" sign with your fingers means "peace." But if you are in another country, making the "V" sign means "F**k off." Your response to this sign would vary depending on the country.

Rules

o Specify contingencies o Tell the listener what to do to gain or avoid certain consequences

Setting Confounds

o Studies in natural settings are more prone to confounding variables. o Hold all possible aspects of the study constant. o Bootleg reinforcement may also occur in the natural environment.

Back-up reinforcers as MOs

o Tangible objects, activities, or privileges that serve as reinforcers and that can be purchased with tokens. o They increase the effectiveness of tokens as reinforcement o Non-preferred back-up reinforcers function as an abolishing operation

Necessary elements of a contract

o Task o Signatures o Reward o Data collection

Examples of Antecedent interventions

o Task clarifications o Checklists o Conduct a task analysis of a job duty o Place the tasks in order of occurrence

How contiguity applies to operant conditioning

o Temporal contiguity (i.e., how close together in time) affects the pairing of the behavior and consequence. o This is how *superstitious behavior* can be developed.

When to use High-P request sequence

o Tendency to become overly prompt dependent o Too big to manage physically o Extremely sensitive to being touched

Behaviorism

o The *philosophy* of a science of behavior o *Environmental* (i.e., not mentalistic) explanation of behavior

Variable Ratio (VR)

o The *strongest basic* schedule of INT reinforcement o Variable = Changing, variable criteria; Average; Mean of responses o Ratio = A number of occurrence of the target behavior have to occur before one response produces reinforcment o*NO* Postreinforcement Pause Example: Variable Ratio 4 (VR4) — Reinforcement is delivered after an AVERAGE of every 4th *correct* response; Slot Machines in Vegas

Trial-By-Trial IOA

o The agreement between two observers who measured the occurrence or nonoccurrence of discrete trial behaviors for which the count for each trial can only be 0 or 1. Formula: *(# of Trials of Agreement / Total # of Trials) x 100%*

Matching law

o The allocations of responses to choices available on concurrent schedules of reinforcement o Rates of responding across choices are distributed in proportions that match the rates of reinforcement received for each choice-alternative o Given 2 *concurrently* available behaviors, we will choose to engage in the behavior that has the *highest rate of reinforcement*

Prediction

o The anticipated outcome of a presently unknown measurement o Data should be collected until stability is clear

Experimentation (AKA: Experimental Analysis)

o The basic strategy of most sciences o Requires *manipulating* variables so as to see the effects on the DV o An assessment to determine if one event caused another event o Requires that all variable be controlled except the DV

Self-monitoring is likely to be more effective if

o The behavior is recorded immediately after it occurs o Effective prompts cue the person to observe and record regularly o Permanent product of the behavior or a record of its occurrence is made for evaluation

Normalization (AKA: Mainstreaming)

o The belief that people with disabilities should, to the maximum extent possible, be physically and socially integrated into mainstream society regardless of the degree or type of disability o The use of progressively more typical settings and procedures to establish personal behavior which are as culturally normal as possible

Treatment Integrity (AKA: Procedural Fidelity; Fidelity of Implementation; Program Integrity)

o The degree to which a treatment plan is implemented as it is written o *Not* correctly collecting data or waiting to start program, *but how the steps of the program are implemented*

Possible Unwanted Effects of Punishment

o The effects of punishment can be temporary. o People enacting the procedures may be negatively reinforced by their behavior o Does not address the cause of the challenging behavior in the first place. o Emotional and aggressive reactions may be produced in the client o Escape and avoidance of the people implementing the procedure or the settings in which the procedures are implemented. o Imitation by individuals of the punishing agent's behavior. o Requires great supervision, resources and time.

Possible Unwanted Effects of Reinforcement

o The effects of reinforcement can be temporary. After you stop a reinforcement procedure, the individuals desirable behavior may stop too. o Publics WRONGLY confusing reinforcement with bribery

Stimulus Equivalence

o The emergence of accurate responding to untrained and non-reinforced stimulus-stimulus relations following the reinforcement of responses to some stimulus-stimulus relations. o *Must have a positive demonstration on 3 different behavioral tests that represent*: If A=B, and B=C, then A=C

Non-Exclusionary Time-Out

o The individual not removed from space. o Less restrictive Method

Exemplars (AKA: Teach Sufficient Examples; Multiple Exemplar Training)

o The more examples utilized when teaching, the better o Provide the indivual opputunities to respons correctly to mulitple examples of antecedent stimuli Example: "Bye, See you later, Peace out" and "Farewell" are all examples of stimuli that have the same meaning and would be responded to in the same manner.

Operant Contingency (AKA: Behavioral Contingency; Contingency; 3-term Contingency; ABC)

o The occasion for a response (i.e., SD), the response, and the outcome of the response o *The dependency of a particular consequence on the occurrence of the behavior* Example: You tell your child that they can stay up one extra hour at night if they finish their chores. Your child being able to stay up one extra hour late is CONTINGENT on chore completion

Competency-Based Training (For Staff)

o The people who implement behavior support plans and interventions are *crucial to the outcome of the client's success*. Their skill level, training, consistency, and natural consequences must be securely in place o Interventionist's success= Client's success o Providing constructive learnable feedback must also be in the skill set of a staff trainer

Exact Count-Per-Interval IOA

o The percentage of intervals in which 2 observers *recorded the same count*. o The most strict event recording IOA method Formula: *(# of Intervals of 100% IOA Agreement / Total # of Intervals) x 100%*

Risk-benefit analysis

o The potential gain must be weighed against the risk of continuing o This is done when deciding to take a case, continue with a case, and terminate a case

Overshadowing

o The presence of one stimulus condition interferes with the acquisition of stimulus control by another stimulus o The individual cannot learn the behavior because the learning is OVERSHADOWED by another element Example: Watching cheerleading or football practice outside the classroom window distracts the student from learning algebra facts in math class.

Verbal Operant

o The unit of analysis in verbal behavior (e.g., Mand, Tact, Echoic, Intraverbal, Codic, Duplic)

Tact Extensions

o There is not one name for one thing; there are *many ways to describe the same thing*. o A new stimulus being similar to another known stimulus may evoke a response like the original stimulus o The distinction is based on the degree to which a novel stimulus shares features with the original stimulus

Play Condition (AKA: Control)

o This condition test for automatic reinforcement and serves as a control condition. o leisure materials are freely available while attention is given on average every 30 seconds (e.g., "I like how you are playing!") o If the problem behavior occurs in the presence of preferred items, in the absence of demands, and with intermittent attention, automatic reinforcement is the maintaining reinforcer OR another functional analysis may need to be done.

Interpreting Functional Analyses: Undifferentiated Pattern

o This means that problem behavior is occurring across all conditions (including play condition) or is variable across conditions. o*Means 1 of 2 possibilities*: INCONCLUSIVE RESULTS or Problem behavior is maintained by *Automatic Reinforcement*

Benefits of Baseline Data

o To use the subject's performance in the absence of the IV as an objective basis for detecting change. o To obtain descriptions of ABC correlations for planning an effective treatment. o To guide us in setting initial criteria for reinforcement. o To see if the behavior targeted for change really warrants intervention

Shaping ACROSS Response Topographies

o Topography of behavior changes during shaping o Behaviors are still members of the same response class Example: Speech therapist teaching novel vocalizations to an individual who does not possess any vocal abilities

Shaping WITHIN Response Topographies

o Topography of behavior remains constant o Another measurable dimension of behavior is changed ( duration of the behavior) Example: duration of time spent practicing piano increased via shaping

Select back-up items that can be exchanged for tokens

o Try natural occurring activities/events before using contrived reinforcers o If individuals can get back-up reinforcers for "free," tokens won't be as effective o Can be tangibles, activities or privileges

Concurrent Schedule Reinforcer Assessment

o Two or more contingencies operate independently and simultaneously, for two or more behaviors o May be used to determine differences between relative and absolute reinforcement effects of stimuli. Will as low probability stimulus now presented contingently in the absence of the high probability stimulus serve as a reinforcer? o*Think MATCHING LAW*

Multiple Schedule Reinforcement Assessment

o Two or more schedules of reinforcement for a single response with only 1 schedule in effect at any given time. o An SD signals the presence of each schedule and is present as long as he schedule is in effect

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

o U.S. legislation granting educational rights to people with cognitive, emotional, or physical disabilities from birth until age 21; o Operates under six basic principles: zero reject, nondiscriminatory identification and evaluation, free and appropriate public education, least restrictive environment, due process, and parent and student participation in shared decision making with regard to educational planning.

Use discriminable contingencies

o Use variable reinforcement schedules o Delay reinforcement o Hide

Shaping

o Using differential reinforcement to produce a series of gradual changing response classes. o Reinforcement is provided when closer approximations to the correct response occurs

Examples of Assessments used to identify skills to target for acquisition

o VB-MAPP o Essential for Living o The MOVE Curriculum

Types of response prompts

o Verbal o Modeling o Physical

Steps for staff training

o Verbally describe the skills and give a rationale o Provide a written description o Demonstrate how to perform the skills o Observe trainee practice the skill o Provide feedback on performance o Repeats steps 3-5 until proficiency is reached

Influences on the number of learn units

o Wait time o Response latency o Feedback delay o Intertrial interval

Identifying Potential Punishers

o What is punishing for one person may not be for another o Sometimes hard to determine for people with intellectual disabilities o Punishers are *transitory*

Contingency-Shaped Behavior

o When a behavior is directly controlled by a contingency, not rules o A consequence must occur WITHIN 0-60 seconds following the response

Stimulus Generalization

o When an antecedent stimulus has a history of evoking a response that has been reinforced in its presence, the same type of behavior tends to be evoked by stimuli that share *similar physical properties* with the controlling antecedent stimulus. o Loose degree of stimulus control Example: A child who has learned to say "mommy" in the presence of her mother says "mommy" in the presence of her aunt, older sister, and grandmother. Further conditioning will sharpen the degree of stimulus control to only her mother.

Describe and Explain Behavior, Including Private Events, in Behavior-Analytic (Non-Mentalistic Terms)

o When conducting an assessment and talking to various people about the client, you should speak in behavioral language. o Do NOT discuss the problems in mentalistic terms (e.g., "He is aggressive because he has autism") o Why? because speaking to other in mentalistic terminology does not offer a solution

Stimulus transformers

o When stimuli are brought into relations o Any change to stimuli then changes all others in the network

Point-to-Point Correspondence

o When the beginning, middle, and end of the verbal stimulus match the beginning, middle, and end of the response. o The verbal relations with point-to-point correspondence are echoic, copying a text, imitation as it relates to sign language, textual, and transcription.

Formal Similarity

o When the controlling antecedent stimulus and the response share the same sense mode (e.g., both stimulus and response are visual, auditory, or tactile) and physically look exactly the same. o The verbal relations with formal similarity are echoic, coping a text, and imitation as it relates to sign language.

Develop procedures

o When to deliver tokens o When to exchange tokens o Plan for what happens when criteria are not met o Data collection system

Variables influencing effectiveness of modeling

o Whether or not the model's behavior is reinforced o The similarity between the model and the imitator o The physical attractiveness and prestige of the model o The model's emphasis of critical aspects of the target behavior o Difficulty of the modeled behavior o Whether a "mastery" model is presented or a "coping" model o Strength of the learner's imitative repertoire o Motivating operations in effect with respect to the form of reinforcement available for imitating the modeled behavior

Identity Matching-to-Sample

when the sample and comparison stimuli are physically identical