GEOG Exam 1. 5

ok

20. What are the three main cultural groups in Russia and the CIS - describe the location and characteristics of each. Eastern Slavs: This includes Russians, Ukranians, and Belarussians. They are the offshoots of the broader Rus people and culture that emerges in the AD 800's and 900's. In 988, the Rus adopted Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which tied them to Constantinople. It also led to the adoption of the Cyrillic alphabet, which was derived from the Greek alphabet. All 3 Slavic groups are very closely related as seen for example in the name "Belarussian", which translates as "White Russian." Differences between them developed after Poles, Lithuanians, and Austrians ruled the western lands of the Rus from the 1300's - 1800's. During this time, Ukrainians and Belarusians developed separate identities from Russians. Polish, Lithuanian, and Austrian influence is seen in the fact that nearly 20% of Belarus's population is Roman Catholic. A number of Poles and Lithuanians live in Belarus today, the result of Poland's boundary being relocated in 1945. The name Ukraine, meaning borderland, illustrates history's shifting boundaries and influences. To the Russians, Ukraine is Russia's borderland, but the many Ukrainians, who have stronger ties the Europe than the Russians, Ukraine is Europe's borderland. Russians ties with Ukrainians and Belarusians were reestablished in the early 1800's when the Russian empire extended west. (Russification). Today, 81% of Belarus's population is Belarussian and 11% is Russian, but 63% of the population regularly speaks Russian and not Belarussian. Belarus's leaders have also expressed an interest in uniting with the Russian Federation. IN Ukraine, Russians, living primarily in the industrial areas of eastern Ukraine, account for 22% of Ukraine's population. Many Ukrainians, however, fear Russian domination and cultivate their ties with the west. Peoples of the Southern Caucasus: These people are contained in a small, but culturally diverse area of the world. This is because it is situated in the contact zone between the Turkish, Persian, and Russian empires. There are many different languages spoken and they are of different language families, therefore they aren't at all similar. Georgian is in the Caucasian language family. Armenian is Indo-European but stands alone on its own branch. Azerbaijani is a Ural-Altaic language. The Georgians and Armenians both accepted Christianity early in history, in the AD 300's. The Armenians claim their country was the first in the world to officially adopt Christianity. The Armenian apostolic church has been independent since the middle ages and expresses a unique view of Christianity. The Georgian church is associated with Eastern orthodox Christian churches. Arabs introduced Islam to Azerbaijan in the 600's &700's. in the 1500's, the Shia branch of Islam came to the country and now dominates. Despite close ties with Iran, Soviet secular policies greatly influenced Azerbaijanis. For example, Azerbaijani Muslims, unlike those in Iran, drink wine, and women are not veiled or segregated. In 1991, the Azerbaijani government also went against the wishes of Iran and adopted a modified Latin alphabet for Azerbaijani instead of the Arabic Muslim countries. The Latin alphabet is customarily used in Roman Catholic and Protestant countries but also in nearby Turkey, where the language is similar to Azerbaijani. Central Asians: Although modern central Asians are settled, their ancestors were nomadic peoples, and their culture reflects that way of life. For example, in traditional Kazakh culture, it is customary to ask about the well-being of someone's livestock before inquiring about the person's health and that of his or her family. The dwelling of these nomadic peoples is the yurt (which they now only use as decoration/outside sleeping space in the summer), a circular tent consisting of a willow wood frame covered in wool felt with an opening at the top to let smoke through. Central Asians have some distinct characteristics: >they emerged as a distinct people in the 1400's from a mixture of Turkic and Mongolian nomads of central Asia. >the ancestors of the Kyrgyz probably originated in Mongolia. After the 800's they mixed with Turkic tribes from the south and west and adopted their current name Kyrgyz, which means "40 clans" in the Turkic languages. The 40 clans are represented on the national flag with a sun that has 40 rays. During czarist times, both Kazakhs and Kyrgyz were called Kyrgyz, illustrating that the languages of the two peoples are very closely related. >Turkmens trace their ancestors back to Oghuz tribes that inhabited Mongolia and southern Siberia around Lake Baikal. In the 700's these tribes migrated into central Asia and assimilated Turkic and Persian tribes, giving rise to the Turkmens. "Turkmen" probably means "pure Turk" or "most Turk like of the Turks". Carpet making and horse breeding are important national traditions. 5 traditional carpet designs are incorporated into Turkmenistan's national flag. Akhalteke, a breed of horse well adapted to the desert, is the breed of national significance—appearing as the central figure in Turkmenistan's national emblem. >Uzbeks are a Turkic people who moved into the lands now knows as Uzbekistan in the 1500's. They are closely related to Turkmens but also have close ties with Tajiks. The Uzbeks, who prospered greatly from the Great Silk Road, wear clothing make with fine fabrics, color, and ornamentation. All were expensive in earlier times and the ability to incorporate as much as possible in one's dress showed one's wealth. This earlier culture practice is evident today. On any given day, it is still common to see individuals elegantly dressed, though they have no special function to attend. >Tajiks probably acquired their name form an old Arab tribe. The Tajik language is a Persian language and was not distinguished from Persian (Farsi) until the Soviets designated Tajik as a unique language. At the same time, Tajiks had not differentiated themselves from Uzbeks, though the Uzbeks are a Turkic people both groups commonly speak each other's languages. Most people in Central Asia are Muslim.

Tundra

Around the shores of the Arctic Ocean and extending southward into the plateaus farther east is an area where trees will not grow. It is covered by grasses and low-growing shrubs. Such vegetation is underlain by permanently frozen ground, or permafrost, that also extends southward beneath the taiga forest. The continuous and broken permafrost areas cover most of central and eastern Siberia and are up to 10,000 ft. thick in parts of eastern Siberia. Farming is difficult here, if not impossible

ok

Describe agriculture in Russia. The Slavic countries northerly latitudes and distant locations from moderating maritime influences result in dry conditions. Low temperature climates in the north and high temperature ones in the south make farming difficult almost everywhere. Even in the best locations, the late arrival of spring or the early appearance of winter can ruin a year's crops. The most productive farming areas are in the west of Russia. Toward the north in the Russian Federation, around Moscow, arable land gives way to livestock farming. East of the Urals, farming is restricted to areas that have sufficient water and length of summer growing season. From 1996 to 2006, Russia's grain exports quadrupled. Russia is now a major exporter of grain. In 2001, Russia changed from a wheat importer to a wheat exporter.

ok

Describe the growth of the Russian empire. The Russian empire traces its roots back to the principality of Muscovy, which began to expand in the 1400's. Muscovy's leader, Ivan III (the great) married Sophie Paleologue, the niece of the alst Byzantine emperor. After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, Ivan was seen as the true inheritor of the Christain realm. He adopted the title "Czar", derived from the Latin Caesar for emperor. In 1613, Mikhail Romanov ascended the throne. The Romanov dynasty lasted until the last czar was deposed in 1917. From 1480, Muscovy's territory continued to expand, especially to the east into Siberia and Central Asia but also to the west, brining the Russians into contact with Central and Western Euroopean culture The greatest territorial expansions were made under Peter the Great, Catherin the Great, and Alexander I. By the early 1900's, the Russian Empire achieved its greatest extent, stretching from Europe to East Asia and the Pacific Ocean. Note: Russia was a world power, but only because of its vast size. It had way too many internal problems to deal with to make it an actual world superpower. Politically, the czars remained in total control and continued to speak in the name of God, but absolute power inhibited the creation of an efficient government. Technologically, Russia was decades behind Western Europe. Most Russians remained peasants in a feudal system farming with horses or oxen. At the same time, Russia had expanded its boundaries to include more than 100 different peoples. After the rise of nationalism in Europe in the mid 1800's, Russia's nationalities began clamoring for independence. The situation worsened as Russians themselves became nationalistic and began suppressing non-Russians. They developed "russification" policies to force Russia's minorities to become more Russian.

Continentally

Especially cold winters and hot summers resulting from locations on landmasses that are far from the moderating effects of large water bodies such as oceans

ok

What are the causes of the conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan? In 1924, the Soviet government created an autonomous territory within Azerbaijan known as Nagorno-Karabakh, it was 94.4% Armenian. By 1979, Armenians represented only 76% of the region's population. Armenians began to fear their loss of numbers and objected to Azerbaijani laws that restricted the development of the Armenian language and culture. Clashes between the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh and Azerbaijanis began in the 1960's and developed into war by 1992. Armenian forces of Nagorno-Karabakh seized most of the territory and advanced westward to link their territory with Armenia. Afterward, they moved into Azerbaijan proper, but the Turkish and Iranian governments warned the Armenians to cease hostilities. Peace talks sponsored by the UN, Russia, Iran and other counties ended the shooting war in 1994.

Czar

derived from the Latin word Caesar, meaning "emperor", it is the term Ivan III gave himself after his inheriting of Constantinople

Bolshevik

group of communists also known as "reds" who overthrew the provisional government in 1917

Zoroastrianism

no longer exists, but was a religious forerunner to Islam and Christianity and traces its origins back to Azerbaijan

russification

policies directed at making non-Russians into Russians by encouraging or forcing non-Russians to adopt Russian cultural characteristic such as the Russian language.

glasnost

the Soviet Union policy of the late 1980's designed to create greater openness and exchange of information

Perestroika

the Soviet Union policy of the late 1980's designed to reconstruct the political and economic structure of the country so that it could compete in the capitalist world economic system

Heartland

the area of a country that contains a large percentage of the country's population, economic activity, and political influence

Hinterland

the areas of a country that lie outside the heartland. The hinterland usually has a relatively small percentage of a country's population, economic activity, and political influence compared to the heartland, though it may be well endowed with natural resources

deserts

these ______ of the area east of the Caspian Sea contain few patches of grass and oasis vegetation and were once occupied by nomadic peoples

Coniferous Forest

these are northward and eastward—where temperatures and precipitation decline—the deciduous forest gives way to forests dominated by hardy birch trees and evergreen pine, fir, and spruce. This is also known as "boreal forests" (taiga), and they dominate vast areas of land from Moscow northward and across most of Siberia. Pine and fir trees in the west five way eastward to larch. The taiga forms the world's largest forest area, covering 2.9 million miles ^2) It provides a huge reserve of biodiversity and is important in world climate change, absorbing 1/3 as much carbon dioxide as the tropical rain forest in a similar period, however it is slow growing comparatively. Underlying the taiga are poor podzol soils which have a gray sandy layer under a surface of slowly decaying leaves and above a layer where iron minerals accumulate, often becoming very hard and impeding drainage

administrative, autonomous

what are the political divisions within Russia?

Steppe Grasslands

North of the desert, these grasslands grow on fertile black earth soils (chernozems; definition) which are similar to the soils of the North American prairies. The steppes extend form Ukraine into Kazakhstan, one of the world's major arable regions

Armenian Genocide

Somewhere between 600,000 and 2 million Armenians were exterminated out of a prewar population of about 3 million. This is because in 1895, the Ottoman government massacred 300,000 Armenians within its realm, and again in 19115 during WWI, the ottoman government tortured, exterminated, and deported its Armenian population, claiming that the Armenians were a threat

ok

25. Describe the conditions that a) created and then b) undermined the Soviet Union. Created: WWI exerted great stress on the Russian Empire. By 1917, starvation and a huge death toll worked together with long-standing opposition to czarist rule. Revolutionaries deposed Czar Nicholas II and set up a provisional government that proved to be weak. A number of national groups staked their claim to territory and declared independence. In late 1917, the Bolsheviks, a group of Communists also known as "Reds", overthrew the provisional government. Civil war ensued when anti-communists, called "whites" tried to dislodge the Bolsheviks form power. By 1922, the Reds gained the upper hand, expelled their enemies, and reclaimed many of the lost territories. In 1922, with Vladimir I. Lenin as leader, the Bolsheviks established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), commonly referred to as the Soviet Union, which succeeded the Russian Empire, although the Bolsheviks changed the old systems of government and economy. Undermined: Rigid governmental structures and the effects that Stalin's policies had on the economy caused it to decline in the 1970's. Mikhail Gorbachev's open information policies (glasnost), which were supposed to benefit the economy and the peoples of the Soviet Union, had negative effects due to the people's ability to find information regarding the corruption of the government. Non-Russians were upset about Russification tactics, and Russians claimed that the government suppressed Russian culture, especially the Russian Orthodox Church, and distributed Russia's resources to the country's minorities. Gorbachev believed in Communism and implemented many reforms, but his policies led to the unraveling of the country in 1991 and was the Soviet Union's last leader.

ok

29. What are the political divisions within Russia? The internal political geography of the Russian federation includes a mixture of political units. To a large extent, the country's political geography was inherited from the Soviet system, though some changes have been made since 1991. The units fall into 2 categories: Administrative: administrative units consist of 6 federal territories, 49 regions, and 2 federal cities, Moscow and St. Petersburg. Much like the states, counties and municipalities of the US, they were created to administer the large country. Autonomous: the autonomous units consist of 21 republics, 1 autonomous region, and 10 autonomous districts which are able to craft many of their own laws and govern themselves somewhat differently than the rest of the Russian Federation. These were established by the Soviet Union to reflect the presence of ethnic minorities, such as the Tatars, Sakha, and Buryats. Soviet law protected minority languages, religions, and cultures. However, only 52% of the Russian Federation's approximately 30 million non-Russians live in the autonomous territories today. As a way of controlling their vast country, the Soviets drew boundaries for the republics that deliberately left many members of ethnic groups outside their intended territories, and included many Russians within them. Also, many recognized nationalities did not receive republic status. Of the 90 numerically significant groups recognized in the 1989 census, only 35 had a homeland. In addition to the earlier mentioned policies of Russification, boundary drawing was clearly a means that the Soviets used to divide and dilute non-Russian groups. The situation is particularly true in the North Caucasus, where the native peoples have most fiercely resisted Russian rule through history. For example, the Karbardians were grouped together with the Balkars, though they had more in common with their neighbors the Cherkessians.

ok

33. What environmental problems are to be found in Russia and the CIS? Environmental damage of the tundra, forest, and desert areas are a serious issue for Russia and its neighboring countries today. For centuries, inhabitants of the region thought that vast quantities of resources in their lands were inexhaustible. Later, communism preached that nature should be transformed to serve human needs. Rapid industrialization led to the massive exploitation and extraction of minerals and the construction of enormous factories, often built quickly with little thought to environmental protection. Emphasis on chemicals, steel, and the nuclear industry coupled with faulty storage of toxic rocket fuel and oil, the testing of weapons, and the mining of metallic minerals laid waste to huge areas, many of which remain unreported and unreclaimed, a few examples illustrate the range of environmental problems facing Russia and the CIS: One of the major legacies of the Soviet Union is frequent oil pipeline breaks and leakages. Literally, hundreds occur every year. Some of the resulting oil spills are small but others cover hundreds of square kilometers. Inefficient construction practices are the major cause. However one incident in 2004, which resulted in a 209 mi^2 oil spill in the samara region, was caused by an incision carelessly made to illegally siphon oil The city of Norilsk in western Siberia has the most polluted environment in Russia. The region contains some of the world's richest deposits of mineral ore: 35% of the world's nickel, 10% of the world's copper, significant cobalt reserves, and 40% of the platinum group of metals. The Norilsk Metallurgical Combine releases millions of tons of pollutants into the atmosphere each year. In 1991, for example, the amount was nearly 2.4 million tons, with the sulfur dioxide content at 40-50 times legal limits. The stinking acidic haze blackens snow, kills trees for miles around, and poisons the river. Many locals, most of whom work in the factories, believe that the noxious fumes inoculate them against disease, but he local physicians report high incidents of respiratory illnesses and shortened life expectancy, as low as 50 years. In addition to industrial pollution, nuclear contamination caused major environmental damage. The 1986 Chernobyl nuclear reactor explosion, which became a symbol for such disasters, affected most of the area immediately around it north of Kiev, but the fallout was worst to the north in Belarus. Nuclear dumps on islands, peninsulas, and in seas, especially along the Arctic Ocean, have also released radioactive pollution. Well before Chernobyl, the "Kyshtym incident" in 1957 in the Urals exposed almost 500,000 people to harmful doses of nuclear radiation. Coupled with other industrial activities, nuclear contamination puts the Urals high on the list of the most polluted areas of the CIS. One of the greatest environmental disasters in the world occurred in the lands east of the Aral Sea. Although Central Asia is arid, snow on the high mountains to the east melts in spring, providing water to such rivers as the Amu Darya and Syr Darya that flow onto the Aral Sea. This water provided the basis of local irrigation farming and small urban settlements through history, but the Soviet Union adopted ambitious plans to use the water on irrigated cotton farms inside and outside the main river basin. Supported by growth-oriented, unbending bureaucrats who often acted against the advice of government scientists, the project was taken too far and so much water was extracted that the rivers stopped flowing into the Aral Sea. The Sea is now less than half its previous size, all transportation on it has ceased, and the supply of moisture for the mountain snows has dried up. Glaciers in the mountains are in retreat, groundwater levels have fallen accompanied by ground salinization, and dust storms now affect areas that had seldom experienced them. In 2005, and $86 million grant from the World Bank provided for an 8 mile long dam to regulate the flow of the Syr Darya. The dam is allowing the northern Aral to rise 138 feet, bringing the sea within 8 miles of the town of Aralsk. The Caspian and Black Seas are threatened by oil, toxic waste, ships' ballast water, and nutrients from fertilized fields. Only 5/26ish species caught in the 1960's in the Black Sea were still found in 1992.

CIS ( commonwealth of independent states)

A political and economic organization created in 1991 by 11 republics of the Soviet Union. Members included Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan; Georgia became the 12th member in 1993. The CIS coordinates relations between member countries, including issues involving economics, foreign policy, and defense matters.

ok

Describe the history of the new independent states in the CIS. The Slavic countries seen on the map today became independent only in 1991 with the boundaries they had as Soviet republics. This situation is also true for the Russian federation, though the Russians controlled the Soviet Union and its predecessor, the Russian Empire. Prior to 1991, Ukraine was only independent for a brief period after WWI until it became part of the Soviet Union in 1922. Before that, it was part of the Russian Empire. Belarus was never independent before 1991 and was usually either part of the Russian Empire of the Polish-Lithuanian Kingdom. Of the former soviet republics, Belarus is the most closely ties to the Russian Federation. Belarusians have considered creating a Russian-Belarussian Federation since 1991. Moldova too was never independent and only has been a distinct territory for fewer than 200 years. It was part of the Romanian province of Moldavia until the Russian Empire annexed the part east of the Dnieper River in the 1800's and named it Bessarabia. Romania annexed the territory after WWI, but the Soviet Union annexed it again after WWII. Many Romanians and Moldovans hoped to unite their two countries after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, but the Russian military stationed in the country prevented this. Worried about a union of Moldova and Romania, Russians and Ukrainians living in Moldova declared their own republic in the Transnistria region. Other ethnic minorities have made similar proclamation. The government has not been able to suppress these independence movements completely.

ok

Describe the main landforms of Russia and the CIS. The vast land area of Russia and neighboring countries results in a variety of natural environments. Plains, plateaus, and Major river valleys: plains and low plateaus dominate most of the landscapes of the region. The North European Plain widens eastward form Poland into Belarus, Ukraine, and European Russia until it ends against the Ural Mountains, which mark the line between Europe and Asia. Plains around the N. Shores of the Black Sea and along the rivers leading to the Caspian and Aral Seas extend into the nearly level, vast West Siberian Plains. Farther east, the relief again becomes hillier in the Central Siberian Plateau on ancient mineral bearing rocks. (Note: The extensive areas of plains, interrupted by low hills, was a major factor in facilitating the invasions from eastern Asia and central Europe into Russia in medieval times and the later Russian Expansion.) Across these landscapes flow some of the world's longest rivers. The Don River system in the West flows into the black Sea; the Volga River flows into the Caspian Sea but is connected to the Black Sea via the Volga-don canal. Southern Mountain Wall

deserts, steppe grasslands, deciduous forests, coniferous forests, tundra

Describe the natural vegetation of Russia and the CIS

ok

Describe the natural vegetation of Russia and the CIS. The latitude and climate (temp. and water availability) greatly influence what kind of natural vegetation grows. Hot deserts in the south change northward to steppe grassland, to deciduous and coniferous forest, and to tundra on the shores of the Arctic Ocean. These different areas are broken up only by mountain ranges. Deserts: the deserts of the area east of the Caspian Sea contain few patches of grass and oasis vegetation and were once occupied by nomadic peoples. Steppe Grasslands: North of the desert, these grasslands grow on fertile black earth soils (chernozems; definition) which are similar to the soils of the North American prairies. The steppes extend form Ukraine into Kazakhstan, one of the world's major arable regions. Deciduous forests: Farther north, trees can grow where evaporation rates decrease, and a zone of wooded steppe gives way to deciduous forest, linked to fertile brown earth soils. The trees have been largely cut to extend farmland. Coniferous Forest: these are northward and eastward—where temperatures and precipitation decline—the deciduous forest gives way to forests dominated by hardy birch trees and evergreen pine, fir, and spruce. This is also known as "boreal forests" (taiga), and they dominate vast areas of land from Moscow northward and across most of Siberia. Pine and fir trees in the west five way eastward to larch. The taiga forms the world's largest forest area, covering 2.9 million miles ^2) It provides a huge reserve of biodiversity and is important in world climate change, absorbing 1/3 as much carbon dioxide as the tropical rain forest in a similar period, however it is slow growing comparatively. Underlying the taiga are poor podzol soils which have a gray sandy layer under a surface of slowly decaying leaves and above a layer where iron minerals accumulate, often becoming very hard and impeding drainage Tundra: Around the shores of the Arctic Ocean and extending southward into the plateaus farther east is an area where trees will not grow. It is covered by grasses and low-growing shrubs. Such "tundra" vegetation is underlain by permanently frozen ground, or permafrost, that also extends southward beneath the taiga forest. The continuous and broken permafrost areas cover most of central and eastern Siberia and are up to 10,000 ft. thick in parts of eastern Siberia. Farming is difficult here, if not impossible.

Deciduous forests

Farther north, trees can grow where evaporation rates decrease, and a zone of wooded steppe gives way to deciduous forest, linked to fertile brown earth soils. The trees have been largely cut to extend farmland

ok

What are the characteristics of Russian urban areas? The highest rates of urbanization in this area are in places that emphasized urban-industrial development. The Russian federation, Ukraine, and Belarus are the most urbanized, while Moldova and most of the Central Asian countries with their traditional ways of life are among the least urbanized. The Russian federation has the greatest number of cities and the largest cities of the region. In the past (1917), during the Time of the Bolshevik Revolution, 17% of Russians lived in mainly small, provincial towns and cities. Moscow and St. Petersburg had grand designs for buildings and roads ordered by the Czars. In the Sothern Caucasus and Central Asia, the cities are very old with architecturally beautiful structures that attract tourists. Stalin's 5 year plans emphasized intensive centralization and rapid industrialization. Industrial centers expanded and new specialist resources (oil, mining) centers emerged, often in new towns in remote regions. Urbanization increased to 48% of the population in cities by 1959 and to more than 70% in the 1990's. Stalinist urbanization produced distinctive, standardized cities throughout the poor quality, high rise, concrete buildings with few shopping opportunities in their vicinity; this was because soviet planners didn't foresee the need for much shopping. The congestion and pollution of inner city streets due to growing use of cars and trucks, together with increased urban crime, is causing richer families to move out of the cities and into the suburbs around Moscow.

eastern slavs, central Asians, people of the southern caucasus

What are the three main cultural groups in Russia and the CIS

ok

What is happening to Russia's population? Not all of the countries in this region are experiencing the same population dynamics. The Slavic countries and the Southern Caucasus are experiencing dramatic decline, and Central Asia is showing great growth. Slavic populations may decline by several millions by 2025. Fertility rates were at 1.3, far below the 2.1 needed to sustain a population at its current number. The age-sex diagram of Russia shows an uneven pattern of age groups as a consequence of WWII and a baby boom from 1950 to 1970, when large families were encouraged by the state. Women dominate the over-60 age groups to a greater extent than in other parts of the world as a result of male deaths in WWII and Stalin's persecutions. In 2008, birth rates were 12 per 1,000 of the population, while death rates were 15 per 1,000, yielding one of the fastest rates of natural decrease in the world that year. This dynamic varies, however. In some parts, deaths outnumber births by 2-1. The most significant geographic variation is between the western regions of the Russian Federation and the more recently settled regions of the north and Siberia. In western Russia, birth rates are low, death rates high, and the population is aging quickly. Yet the total numbers how less of a decline because other Russians are immigrating to western Russia from the north and Siberia and from the former Soviet republics. Economic decline has been the major cause of population decline in the Slavic countries. Lack of government subsidies for industries in the north and Siberia is one factor. Elsewhere, many industrial cities have high employment because they have not been able to adapt to market economies. Many who are still working have not been paid for months or years. Abortion rates are high, a legacy of Soviet times when abortion because a common means of birth control. Health care has also suffered greatly with economic decline. Hospitals have frequently run out of basic supplies such as drugs and anesthetics. Economic hardship also has increased the incidence of alcoholism, particularly among men. Environments contamination is a major problem too. The entire situation has given women little incentive to have children. Some countries of the southern Caucasus sub region experienced some decline after 1991.The fertility rates of Azerbaijan indicate slow growth, while the fertility rates of Georgia and Armenia indicate a decline. However, in contrast to all that, the populations of central Asia are anticipating growth from the 60.2 million in 2008 to 72.9 million in 2025.Death rates are very low, a formula for increasing population. Fertility rates fell from around 6 to just less than 3 between 1970 and 2008.

ok

What is the current status of Russia as a world power? The fall of communism in east central Europe and the Soviet Union in 1991 brought about profound change for Russians. On the positive side, it promised political and economic reform, with greater freedom of expression and a better standard of living. On the negative side, it coincided with the loss of much of their country, the open expression of great anti-Russian feelings from people within their world region, and the questioning and potential end of Russia as a world power. These experiences were a tremendous blow to the prestige of the Russian people. Most of the accomplishments claimed by Russia occurred in places that established their own independence away from Russia, although Russia considers them to be a part of their "Near Abroad". Ex: The Baltic republics housed key military installations. The Crimean Peninsula is a major Russian naval facility. It is no wonder that the Russian government tried to hold onto the Crimean Peninsula and its naval fleet after Ukraine declared independence—it would take decades and billions of dollars of investment for Russia to re-create a comparable naval facility along the Russian coast of the Black Sea. Kazakhstan was the center of the Soviet space program. Russians see the Soviet space program as their accomplishment, one that only Americans have matched. Control over the oil in the Caucasus and Central Asia is also key to Russia's role as a world power. Russia's international reputation suffered from the war in Chechnya ( a the Soviet union disintegrated in 1991, the Chechens moved toward independence from the Russian Federation. The Russian Federation responded by supporting a Chechen rebel group that fought to overthrow the Chechen government and keep Chechnya within Russia. The military campaign was long and brutal and by early 1996, an estimated 40,000 to 100,000 people, mostly civilians, had been killed in a republic of just 1 million. Street-to-street fighting and bombings have made most of Chechnya's cities uninhabitable). Russian influence in world affairs has also diminished since 1991. However, huge profits in recent years allowed Russian oil and natural gas companies to invest in their industry abroad. If current trends continue, Russia will supply Europe with 94% of the natural gas that world region consumes by 2030. Poland, Slovakia and Hungary already receive 100% of their oil from Russia, and the Baltic states. Russian companies also have purchased significant shares of East Central European oil and gas companies. This situation has allowed Russia to use oil and natural gas as a foreign policy tool to exert itself as a world power. For example, in 2004, gas supplies were temporarily shut off to Belarus during a dispute between Belarus's leader and the Russian government. Russia, along with Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) in 2002, which is a lot like NATO in that an attack on one of them is considered an attack on all of them. Russia has also exerted its influence beyond the former boundaries of the Soviet Union. For example, it sold 7.5 billion in military tanks, fighter aircraft, and antiaircraft missiles to Algeria. Russian weapons have also been used to Hezbollah in their fight against Israel. Perhaps Russian ties to Iran are most significant. Beginning under the leadership of George W. Bush, the US began using sanctions and embargoes to force the Iranian government to end its nuclear research program for fear that Iran would produce not only nuclear energy but also nuclear weapons. In contrast, Russia is aiding the Iranian nuclear program and selling Iran military hardware. If successful, Russia will outmaneuver the US and gain great investment opportunities and influence in one of the world's biggest oil-producing counties, while the US will have neither. With an improving economy and a more effective political leadership, the Russian Federation has the opportunity to exert itself as a world power, however, Russia's political and military power has become highly dependent on commodities such as oil and natural gas, meaning that its power ebbs and flows with the price of these commodities.

ok

What was the position of women in Soviet Russia? Soviet Russia was communist, and being communist made them distinguish women as being equal to men, therefore women were able to take up many of the same roles as men in the early 1900's (1917, following the revolution), getting jobs in government, economics, medicine and engineering. This was before even women could vote in the U.S. In some professions, women were the majority; for example, most physicians were women, and during WWII, some of the most decorated fighter pilots in the region were women. Even though these jobs were cool, communism emphasized factory work opposed to jobs usually glorified by capitalist culture. Though they achieved equality in their careers, they didn't necessarily at home. After working, they would typically have to come home to undertake the traditional home duties like cleaning and caring for children. Men's attitudes in regard to their wives during communism; as a result, between home and work, women ended up working long hours. (With the onset of capitalism, this attitude is slowly changing).

ok

What were the main weaknesses in the Soviet economy? Since the majority of the Soviet economy was agricultural, they had a difficult time adjusting to the urban-industrial idea of communism. Also, in contrast to capitalism, supply, demand, or profit making did not have any influence on what would be produced. This is due to central planning. The military was also a large part of the Soviet economy and it saw very little need to be efficient. Since the government owned all businesses and the absence of competition, managers saw no need to use fuel wisely or look for other fuel sources even though their country is so rich in natural resources. Since everyone was guaranteed a job, labor costs were high even though wages were low and no moves were made to increase productivity through modern machinery or computers. Their inability to be efficient caused the rapid reduction of natural resources as well.

ok

Why are human rights still a concern in Russia? Since the end of communism, human rights abuses remain a concern. Human rights are still abused by police and in prisons. Court systems have yet to be reformed. Defendants sit in jail before their cases are heard, and low pay makes many judges prone to accepting bribes. Juries are rare. Judges frequently serve as prosecuting attorney as well as judge. In some ways, human rights have worsened as some leaders rule like Stalin once did. For example, sine Vladimir Putin came to power in 2000, wealthy businessmen, especially those who seek political power, have been accused of fraud, stripped of their wealth, and jailed if they do not first flee Russia. Journalists who investigate corruption or human rights abuses are found dead on city streets with bullets in their heads. Yet human rights abuses are worse in Central Asia, such as under Sparmurad Niyazov, who ruled Turkmenistan from its independence in 1991 to his death in 2006. In 1999, he had himself elected president for life and built a huge statue of himself cast from pure gold. The Statue revolves so that the sun is always behind it. Niyazov calls himself Turkmenbashi ("father of the Turkmens"). He renamed the days of the week and the months of the year, naming January after himself and April after his mother. Despite Niyazov's death, Turkmenistan still may have the most repressive regime though freedom of the press is almost non-existent across Central Asia. Political opposition groups are week and any of their leaders how do not operate outside their respective countries are most likely in jail, where torture is common. Despite these abuses, democratic reforms since 1991 allowed groups working for human rights to operate, especially in the Slavic countries. Some human rights groups are outgrowths of international organizations, such as Amnesty International, though Putin has since limited their activities and made some illegal. Others are unique to the concerns of the region's people. The Committee of Soldiers' Mothers of Russia, the "Mother's Right" foundation, and the Moscow Center for Prison Reform are a few examples.

virgin lands campaign

a Soviet agricultural campaign begun in the 1950's. It promoted farming in lands where it had never taken place before, primarily in lands that were very marginal because the soil was poor or not enough water or heat was present to grow crops. Much of the land was in Siberia and Central Asia, especially in the Kazakh Republic.

Gulag

a collection of prison camps in the former Soviet Union where criminals and those who opposed the communist government were sent to perform hard labor as punishment

Five Year Plan

a comprehensive economic planning scope in the former Soviet Union. These plans were followed from 1928 until 1991

Xenophobia

a fear of foreigners

Southern Mountain Wall

a long series of mountains in the southern boundary of the region. The Caucasus Mountains, between the Black and Caspian seas, are part of this line of mountain ranges that extends through the Elburz Mountains of Northern Iran to the Tien Shan and the Pamir Mountain along the southern borders of central Asian countries. These mountains are snowcapped and provide generous amounts of melt water in the spring for streams flowing through the dry areas of southern Russia; farther to the east, the East Siberian uplands and the volcanic peaks on the Kamchatka Peninsula parallel the Pacific coast

Operation Barbarossa

a mission launched by Hitler to invade the Soviet Union. It began successfully, but floundered with the onset of the Russian winter and aid from the US and UK

Black Earth Soils, chernozems

also known as _________; Highly fertile soil type in which organic matter accumulates near the surface, commonly beneath temperate grassland communities