GESCI 101 - From Atoms to Humans - Unit 3
Which of the following best describes the Milankovitch Cycles?
Cyclical changes in the tilt, orbit, and precession of Earth, which change the Earth's exposure to the Sun, and therefore, global temperatures
Which of the following best describes the physical burial of carbon?
Dead microorganisms are covered in layers of sand or mud
Which of the following will help to warm the Earth?
Destroying/weathering carbon-bearing rocks
Which of the following best describes the process of dating Earth events?
Determining the time that has elapsed since a geologic event occurred
According to the text, what kinds of environments has a particular location experienced since the formation of the Earth?
Essentially every kind of surface environment has occurred multiple times.
What was the major cause of the Earth's transition from the Late Paleozoic Ice Age to the Mesozoic Greenhouse Climate?
Extensive volcanic activity
If you start out rolling 600 dice and subsequently remove all the threes that are rolled before rolling again, you can predict the general decline in the number of remaining dice based on the probability of each die rolling a three. If this is true, how reliable is our prediction of the decay of radioactive atoms when our samples are very large, often containing more than 6 x 1023 atoms?
Extremely reliable
How does falling global temperature affect the global weathering rate?
Falling global temperature decreases the global weathering rate
Which one of the following gives us a record of past earthquakes?
Faults
Approximately how many glacial-interglacial cycles have occurred within the Pleistocene Ice Age?
Fifty
As you read about the accounts of past civilizations that collapsed due to minor climate change events, what appears to be missing in their approach to these events?
Flexibility and the ability to adjust
Which of the following is NOT a source of carbon, which can increase atmospheric carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas?
Formation of carbon-bearing rocks
What is the term we use for the principle that unique sets of fossils are found in similarly-aged rock layers?
Fossil succession
According to the text, which of the following has NOT been used to provide evidence for the constancy of radioactive decay?
Historical written records that show the entire 4.5 billion year half-life of uranium-238
Our current climate conditions are such that we have persistently cool temperatures, but not really cool temperatures; and extensive ice sheets, but not very extensive. Based on this information, which of the following best describes these climate conditions?
Icehouse climate state; interglacial period
In which type of region would you typically find denser crustal rocks?
In an ocean basin
After the Earth cooled down from its molten state and began its "boring billion" (during the mid-to late-Precambrian), what was the atmosphere like?
Unbreathable atmosphere containing free-nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and about 1% of Earth's current atmospheric oxygen.
During the earliest stages of the Earth's development (the Hadean to the mid-Precambrian), what was the atmosphere like?
Unbreathable, dense, hot atmosphere containing free-nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water, carbon monoxide, ammonia, free-hydrogen, & methane.
How common is it for a terrestrial planet to have an atmosphere like Earth's modern atmosphere?
Uncommon
Which of the following is NOT mentioned in the text as something important that comes with understanding how the Earth changes?
Understanding that God had no part in the creation and development of the Earth
Which of the following best describes a mountain belt?
Uplifted bands of crust
Which of the following are carbon sources that act to warm the Earth? (choose two)
Volcanic activity Weathering of carbon-bearing rocks
What natural process prevents Earth's climate from becoming uninhabitably cold by releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere?
Volcanic eruptions
What is the term for a region where lots of magmatic eruptions occur?
Volcanic province
Which of the following describes our current climate state and phase within that climate state?
We are in an icehouse climate state and an interglacial period
Which of the following is true about our current climate state?
We live in the Pleistocene Ice Age of the Holocene Interglacial of the Late Cenozoic Icehouse State
How do we describe an element that is an unstable isotope that emits radiation or particles?
We say that it is radioactive
One of the principles used for relative dating is the law of original horizontality. Which of the following best describes this principle?
When sediments are originally deposited, they deposit in horizontal layers.
Which of the following is NOT a major feature that is directly caused by plate tectonics?
Wind patterns
Weathering. Are the following statements all true? - Weathering of carbon-bearing rocks is a carbon source. - Weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks is a carbon sink. - Overall, weathering rocks at Earth's surface is nearly always a carbon sink. (That is, the weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks nearly always overwhelms the effect of weathering carbon-bearing rocks.)
Yes
The 40 rock layers that can be seen in the Grand Canyon range in age from about 2 billion years to 200 million years old. Geologists love to study the canyon because it provides
a record of how Earth in that area has changed a lot and developed through such a long period of time
If carbon is trapped underground and not able to bind with atmospheric oxygen to form carbon dioxide, this will lead to ____________________
a rise in atmospheric oxygen and a drop in global temperatures
When carbon is readily available at Earth's surface it will _________________________, decrease the amount of atmospheric oxygen, and warm the global temperatures.
bind with oxygen to form carbon dioxide
A change in the global climate can result in a shift in climate zone. This change can then require adaptation in various biological populations leading to an overall
biological change
What affect does increased volcanic activity have on global temperature and the abundance of continental (polar) ice sheets?
Increased volcanic activity increases global temperature and decreases the abundance of continental (polar) ice sheets.
If the Yellowstone supervolcano erupted and emitted massive amounts of carbon dioxide gas but at the same time buried large regions of carbon-bearing rock layers found at the Earth's surface, what could you guess would happen to the global climate?
It could stay essentially the same
Which of the following can we say about the Geologic Time Scale?
It is continually being refined as scientists make new discoveries.
Which of the following would NOT be a characteristic of a radioactive isotope?
It is unstable due to having too many electrons
You find a meteorite and see that it is composed of a mixture of rock and metal. What do you know about the origin of the meteorite?
It originated from a planetesimal that formed early in the development of the solar system.
You find a meteorite and slice it open with a diamond saw. You see it has lovely geometric shapes and is composed almost entirely of iron. What do you know about the origin of the meteorite?
It originated from the core of a planetary body.
You find a meteorite and see it is composed almost entirely of pieces of silicates. What do you know about the origin of the meteorite?
It originated from the crust or mantle of a planetary body.
It took about 100-200 million years before the surface of the Earth had significant amounts of water on its surface. Why did it take so long?
It took that long for the Earth's surface to cool sufficiently.
You find a meteorite and see that it is composed of a mixture of rock and metal. What do you know about the age of the meteorite? Group of answer choices
It was formed in the early stages of our solar system (about 4.5 billion years ago).
You find a meteorite and see it is composed almost entirely of pieces of silicates. What do you know about the age of the meteorite?
It was formed later on in the formation of the solar system after planetary bodies had become layered.
Many shallow marine organisms (corals, sponges, etc.) build their shells out of calcium and carbon. If a large number of these shallow marine environments are suddenly buried by increased nearby erosion and deposition, or an undersea landslide, what might happen to the Earth's climate state?
It would move toward an icehouse state
After the "boring billion," during which the Earth cooled down from its molten state and developed small amounts of free-oxygen, what was the atmosphere like?
Just like Earth's modern atmosphere, which mostly consists of free nitrogen, oxygen, and argon.
If there were a large increase in volcanic eruptions leading to an increase in atmospheric carbon, which of the following might be a negative climate response?
Large amounts of ash that block sunlight from reaching the Earth's surface
What can we determine from looking at all the rock units found on the Earth today?
Life and environments on Earth have been and are constantly changing.
Earth's atmosphere is far from being in equilibrium with abundant free oxygen and few noxious gases. What keeps the Earth's atmosphere in this unbalanced state so it is able to sustain life?
Life on Earth
How does ~95% of carbon go through chemical burial in the ocean?
Life precipitates it into a solid carbonate mineral
What are three common sedimentary rocks that have significant amounts of carbon in them?
Limestone, shale, and coal
Which of the following best describes climate?
Long-term average weather
Why is the "boring billion" called the "boring billion?"
Low levels of oxygen remained virtually the same.
What are the two major layers that make up the rocky part of the Earth?
Mantle and crust
What do we call smaller rocks that come from the asteroid belt and collide with Earth?
Meteorites
During which time period did the Earth have about 1% our current level of atmospheric oxygen?
Mid- to late-Precambrian ("boring billion")
What is the current general composition of the Earth's atmosphere?
Mostly nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%)
What effect does mountain building have on the rate of weathering and the amount of carbon in the atmosphere?
Mountain building increases the rate of weathering and decreases atmospheric CO2.
What major process produced the Late Cenozoic Icehouse State?
Mountain-building leading to the extensive burial of carbon-bearing organisms
The word Phanerozoic means visible life. What kinds of life appeared in abundance at the beginning of the Phanerozoic Eon?
Multicellular life (e.g. fish, reptiles, birds, plants, mammals)
The Mesozoic Era marked the appearance of mammals, reptiles, insects, and flowering plants and the Cenozoic Era marked the development and success of mammals, primates, and grasses. What major developments to life happened before all that during the Paleozoic Era?
Multicellular life became more abundant and complex
Which of the following best describes a greenhouse gas?
Near-surface molecules in the atmosphere that can warm Earth's surface by trapping heat
How does the Earth not end up in a runaway greenhouse or runaway icehouse state?
Negative and positive climate responses (feedbacks) help to keep Earth's climate in the habitable range.
Which of the following best describes the biological changes that have occurred throughout Earth's history?
No life existed -> abundant single-celled life -> abundant multicellular life -> more diverse and complex life
Imagine that changes on Earth increase weathering. Will this affect global temperature immediately?
No, increasing weathering does not significantly affect global temperature immediately. Increasing weathering only affects global temperature over longer timescales
Are the essential doctrines of the creation as presented by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints in opposition to the findings of scientists that the earth is about 4.5 billion years old?
No; the essential doctrines that God is organized and created all things, worlds without end were created, and all things were created spiritually before physically are not in opposition to the Earth being around 4.5 billion years old
According to the text, which source of energy is the only one that can currently replace carbon-based sources of power and still maintain our current standard of living?
Nuclear power
First, identify the truthfulness of each statement about planetary habitability. Then, select the answer that best identifies the true statement(s). Earth's climate system prevents Earth from entering the runaway icehouse or runaway greenhouse states. Earth's magnetic field prevents Earth from falling into the Sun. Earth's oceans prevent dangerous solar radiation from eroding (and eventually removing) Earth's atmosphere. Mars is in the runaway greenhouse state Venus is in the runaway icehouse state
Only statement 1 is true
First, identify the truthfulness of each statement about the transition from mid-Mesozoic through early-Cenozoic greenhouse Earth to mid- through late-Cenozoic icehouse Earth. Then, select the answer that best identifies the true statement(s). This transition resulted from the formation of large mountain belts. This transition resulted from the conversion of atmospheric methane (a stronger greenhouse gas) to carbon dioxide (a weaker greenhouse gas). This transition resulted from the burial of vast quantities of dead trees—trees that were thriving in Earth's first abundant forests, which required swampy conditions to reproduce. This transition resulted from the burial of vast quantities of dead single-celled organisms, which were thriving in newly-formed shallows seas following the breakup of a supercontinent (Rodinia).
Only statement 1 is true
First, identify the statement(s) that correctly describe natural processes that produce long-term lowering of global surface temperatures. Then, select the answer that best identifies the true statement(s). Forming and burying oxygen-bearing rocks Forming and burying carbon-bearing rocksDestroying/weathering oxygen-bearing rocksVolcanic eruptions
Only statement 2 is true
First, identify the truthfulness of each statement about the primary process(es) that prevents Earth from entering a runaway icehouse state. Then, select the answer that best identifies the true statement(s). Sea level riseVolcanic eruptions The formation and burial of carbon-bearing rocksThe formation of metamorphic rocks The formation of continental ice
Only statement 2 is true
First, identify the truthfulness of each statement about the primary process(es) that prevents Earth from entering a runaway greenhouse state. Then, select the answer that best identifies the true statement(s). Sea level riseVolcanic eruptions The formation and burial of carbon-bearing rocksThe formation of metamorphic rocks The formation of continental iceThe destruction/weathering of carbon-bearing rocks
Only statement 3 is true
First, identify the truthfulness of each statement about the transition from mid-Paleozoic greenhouse conditions to late Paleozoic icehouse conditions. Then, select the answer that best identifies the true statement(s). This transition resulted from the formation of large, sustained volcanic outpourings. This transition resulted from the conversion of atmospheric methane (a stronger greenhouse gas) to carbon dioxide (a weaker greenhouse gas) .This transition resulted from the burial of vast quantities of dead trees—trees that were thriving in Earth's first abundant forests, which required swampy conditions to reproduce. This transition resulted from the burial of vast quantities of dead single-celled organisms, which were thriving in newly-formed shallows seas following the breakup of a supercontinent (Rodinia).
Only statement 3 is true
Continents collide, forming large mountain belts. A period of time during which large volumes of limestone and black shale (both rich in carbon) form. A period of time when organisms that are dying in shallow seas are efficiently buried. Upwelling solid mantle rock (a plume) causes a supercontinent to break up. The plume also produces magma that rises through the crust and causes large, sustained volcanic outpourings.
Only statement 4 is true
A period of uplift in which surface rocks are removed and replaced by those that were once at greater depths would be preserved for modern observers as an erosional surface. Ancient earthquakes are preserved for modern observers as inactive faults. The environments (e.g., shoreline, shallow ocean, mountains) distributed across the surface of the Earth at a particular time in Earth's history are recorded for modern observers by sedimentary rock bodies. The natural processes that operate in the interiors of ancient mountains are preserved for modern observers by metamorphic rock bodies.
Only statements 1, 2, & 3 are true
First, identify the truthfulness of each statement about Earth history. Then, select the answer that best identifies the true statement(s). Mammals dominated terrestrial landscapes during the Mesozoic era. Through most of the Precambrian eon, single-celled organisms were the only organisms on Earth (i.e., no multicellular organisms/metazoans). Earth's present is part of the Cenozoic era. During the Paleozoic, dinosaurs, flowering plants, and grasslands dominated terrestrial landscapes.
Only statements 2 & 3 are true
Radiometric ages of igneous crystals indicate when the crystal solidified from magma. Imagine that an igneous crystal—which contained only parent atoms and no daughter atoms when it formed (such as zircon crystals do in nature)—now contains one-eighth parent atoms and seven-eighths daughter atoms. The half-life of the parent atoms is 400 million years. How many half-lives have passed, and when did the crystal form? 2 half-lives have passed. 3 half-lives have passed. 8 half-lives have passed. The crystal formed 800 mya. The crystal formed 1.2 bya. The crystal formed 3.2 bya
Only statements 2 & 5 are true
The amount of argon in the atmosphere plays a central role in determining Earth's climate state. The governing variables in maintaining Earth's habitable climate are variations in the brightness of the Sun and in Earth's distance of the sun. Earth has a habitable climate primarily because natural processes and feedbacks move carbon between solid Earth and atmospheric reservoirs. Variations in the concentration of greenhouse gases determine Earth's climate state.
Only statements 3 & 4 are true
The official position of The Church of Jesus Christ requires that faithful members reject an ancient Earth. Earth is about 4.54 million years old. Radiometric decay rates are essentially constant; as such, they can confidently be used to determine the radiometric ages of Earth events.I f a radioactive isotope has a high probability of decay, it will have a short half-life.
Only statements 3 & 4 are true
What important life-sustaining element is a product of photosynthesis?
Oxygen
After the Earth's atmospheric oxygen levels rose to 1%, there was a mass extinction of many organisms on Earth due to a large increase in a gas that was "poisonous" to those ancient life forms. What was that "poisonous" gas?
Oxygen (O2)
Eons are longer periods of time some of which include shorter periods of time called eras. Which of the following are the eras discussed in the chapter that are subsets of the Phanerozoic Eon?
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic
What are the 1st and 2nd oxygen transitions?
Periods of time when there were significant and impactful changes in atmospheric oxygen
How did the Earth's biosphere have an impact on Earth's global climate and bring about the 1st oxygen transition?
Photosynthesizing organisms developed and became abundant, increasing the atmospheric oxygen concentrations.
What term is used for the long, narrow contact where two tectonic plates meet?
Plate boundary
Which of the following is NOT another method of dating mentioned in the text?
Pollen layers
Which of the following best describes a volcanic province?
Regions where lots of magmatic eruptions occur
The Law of Original Horizontality, The Law of Superposition, The Law of Crosscutting Relationships, The Law of Lateral Continuity, and the Principle of Inclusions are all principles of what?
Relative dating
Over time, scientists have continued to refine the Geologic Time Scale, which was originally based on which two principles?
Relative dating and uniformitarianism
The Paleozoic Era marked the development of more abundant and complex multicellular organisms, and the Cenozoic Era marked the development and success of mammals, primates, and grasses. What major developments to life happened in between those eras, during the Mesozoic Era?
Reptiles, mammals, insects, and flowering plants first appeared
Use the principles of relative dating to answer the question about the following image. Which of the following was the last rock unit to form?
Rock unit E
Which of the following best describes sedimentary rocks?
Rocks that form from broken up or dissolved pieces of other rocks and indicate the surface features at the time they form
Which of the following best describes igneous rocks?
Rocks that form from cooling magma or lava and indicate the presence of volcanoes and tectonic processes
Which of the following best describes metamorphic rocks?
Rocks that form from other rocks that have been subjected to intense heat and/or pressure and indicate how mountain belts and continental crust form
One of the principles used for relative dating is the law of lateral continuity. Which of the following best describes this principle?
Sedimentary rock layers separated by erosion (as in on both sides of a canyon) were once laterally continuous.
If you wanted to understand the role water and wind played to change the surface of the Earth in an area anciently, where would you find the best record to understand these processes?
Sedimentary rocks in the form of sand dunes and river deposits
What produced the first atmospheric oxygen in enough quantities to sustain animal life on Earth?
Single-celled photosynthetic organisms
What types of organisms primarily dominated during the Early Precambrian (before the "boring billion")?
Single-celled prokaryotes
Which of the following best describes a meteorite?
Small rocks from the asteroid belt that collide with Earth
What is the catchy term used for global conditions in which temperatures are cold enough to produce glaciers at sea level at the equator?
Snowball Earth
Early on, Earth had a deep magma ocean. Which of the following was NOT a source of heat listed in the text?
Solar winds
What is the composition of Earth's mantle and crust, which sit above its solid and liquid metal-rich core?
Solid rock
How far south did continental glaciers advance in North America during the last glacial period?
South of the USA-Canada border
According to the text, which one of the following is NOT an Earth system that is majorly impacted by global climate change?
Tectonic activity
Which of the following indirectly triggered the Late Cenozoic Icehouse State?
Tectonic activity that produced several continental collisions to form mountain ranges
What is the term that is used to describe the slabs of broken, rigid, outer layers (lithosphere) of the Earth?
Tectonic plates
Use the two principles of relative dating to answer the question about the following image. Which two processes occurred after deposition of rock layer H?
Tectonic process creating fault F and volcanic process creating intrusion D
While on a hike, you notice rock layers that are tilted up at nearly a 70-degree angle. What kind of process caused the rocks to tilt?
Tectonic processes
What caused the second "snowball Earth" climate in the late Precambrian Era?
Tectonic, climatic, and biological processes buried huge quantities of biological carbon in the form of single-celled organisms.
Which of the following is true about the current interglacial period in the Cenozoic Icehouse State?
Temperature and sea level have changed little during the current (Holocene) interglacial period.
How did plate tectonics play a role in the 2nd oxygen transition, which led to the second 'snowball Earth'?
The breakup of the supercontinent increased coastlines where photosynthetic organisms lived and then buried them through sediments eroded from the highlands.
What was the major cause of the Earth's transition from the Mid-Paleozoic Greenhouse Climate to the Late Paleozoic Ice Age?
The burial of major quantities of carbon in the form of trees in early swampy forests
When you look at the layers of rock in Rock Canyon (Provo, Utah), you see a layer of rock left behind a glacier. Just above that, you can find a layer of rock that once were beach dunes and atop that is a rock layer containing fossils from a shallow ocean environment. What can you determine from these various rock layers?
The climate in Provo has changed drastically throughout Earth's history.
If there is a large increase in the natural processes that move carbon from the atmosphere to the solid Earth, what effect will this have on the climate?
The climate will cool
Which of the following is NOT information you can get from studying a rock unit?
The complete list of organic species that lived during the time the rock was formed
How are banded iron formations evidence for the increase in oxygen during the 1st Oxygen Transition?
The increase in oxygen allowed it to react with iron to form several layers of iron oxide sediments.
In the image below, the horizontal (x) axis plots time units in millions of years, the vertical (y) axis plots the proportion (or percentage) of remaining parent atoms, and the colored lines show the decay of radioactive isotopes with different probabilities of decay. (In order, from top to bottom, the colors of the lines are red, bright green, blue, brown, and dull green.) Which isotope has the shortest half-life?
The isotope represented by the bottom, dull green line
Which of the following best describes a parent isotope?
The isotope that undergoes decay to form a new isotope
If you had a sample of each of the layers of the Earth, what might you notice as you look at those from the innermost layers to the outermost layers?
The layers become less dense as you move from the core outward.
Which of the following best describes the probability of decay of a radioactive isotope?
The likelihood that an isotope will decay within a certain time period
What is the Pleistocene Ice Age?
The most recent portion of the Late Cenozoic Icehouse State
What term do we use to mean a description of the attributes of a geologic event?
The nature of an Earth event
Which of the following best describes a daughter isotope?
The new isotope that forms after a radioactive isotope breaks down
Uranium has three naturally occurring isotopes. What distinguishes them from each other?
The number of neutrons
What determines the element type of a particular atom (i.e. what makes an Fe atom different from a Ca atom)?
The number of protons
Which of the following best describes the sequence of Earth events?
The order in which geologic events occurred
Which of the following best describes Earth's biosphere?
The part of the Earth that consists of living things
Which of the following best describes fossil succession?
The principle that unique sets of fossils are found in similarly-aged rock layers
Which of the following best describes the greenhouse effect?
The process by which atmospheric molecules warm the Earth's surface by trapping energy
Which of the following best describes weathering?
The process of breaking down rock
Which of the following best describes differentiation?
The process of separating planetary materials according to their density
Which of the following is true about radioactive decay?
The rate of decay for a radioactive isotope is exponential (decays quickly at first then gradually slower over time).
Which of the following best describes convection?
The rise and fall of solid rock in the Earth's mantle driven by heat
What information does the practice of relative dating give you?
The sequence of Earth events
What term do we use to mean the order in which geologic events occurred?
The sequence of Earth events
According to the text, what forms the foundation of humanity's modern interpretations of past geologic events?
The structure and composition of Earth materials
As erosion happens in the tops of the mountains, layers of carbon-bearing limestone can be uncovered providing a direct link between the earth and the atmosphere. The limestone would then act as a __________________________.
carbon source
What is one of the major reasons that the Earth has been able to maintain habitable climates?
Through natural processes and feedbacks that move carbon between solid Earth and the atmosphere
What do we call long-term average weather?
climate
The development of larger cold climate zones that result in a change to the types of organisms that can thrive in those zones is an example of
climate change
While Jupiter protects the Earth from nearly all possible asteroid impacts, without the Moon, Jupiter's immense size would
destabilize the Earth's tilt
Humanity's adaptation to rapid climate change would be _________________________
expensive
As humanity has used relative dating and reasoned truth to reconstruct the Earth's events since it was formed, we have created a beautiful story of the general development of the earth that has yet to be
falsified
The lower an atom's probability of decay, the _______________________________
longer the half-life of that atom
When the global climate cools, the sea levels lower and the shorelines extend out to sea. This leads to ______________________.
loss of habitat for reef ecosystems and biological change
When looking at the patterns of past glacial-interglacial cycles and the patterns of global temperature cycles predicted by the Milankovitch Cycle they _________________
match up
The Universe has been estimated to be about 13.8 billion years old. The Earth is about ___________.
one-third the age of the universe
As we contemplate the history of the Earth's global climate and the processes that keep it in the habitable range, we can see that the Earth's climate history is ________________.
ordered
The more stable an atom's nucleus, the lower the ____________.
probability of decay
Scientists use _______________ to give us a more exact age of Earth materials; scientists use _________________ to give us an age of a particular Earth material or events in relation to is surrounding Earth materials or events.
radiometric dating; relative dating
The shifting of the locations of shorelines and the change in the depth of the ocean are examples of
sea-level change
The higher an atom's probability of decay, the _____________________________
shorter the half-life of that atom
The breakdown and transportation of sediment from highlands (e.g. mountains) to basins is an example of
surface change
Acting as a negative climate response to cool the planet, the formation of carbon-bearing sedimentary rocks occurs most rapidly when ________________.
surface temperatures are high
Most natural climate responses (i.e. negative and positive responses) __________________.
take a lot of time
The development of a mountain range due to volcanoes or the collision of two land masses is an example of __________________.
tectonic change
The development of a mountain range due to volcanoes or the collision of two land masses is an example of _______________________
tectonic change
The 1st oxygen transition occurred because of the development of microorganisms that produced oxygen through photosynthesis. The 2nd oxygen transition occurred because of the scarcity of carbon to bind with oxygen and form carbon dioxide. This carbon shortage was caused by ______________________
the burial of carbon in the form of dead organisms
The 1st oxygen transition occurred because of the development of microorganisms that produced oxygen through photosynthesis. The 2nd oxygen transition occurred because of the scarcity of carbon to bind with oxygen and form carbon dioxide. This carbon shortage was caused by ___________________________
the burial of carbon in the form of dead organisms
The 1st oxygen transition occurred because of the development of microorganisms that produced oxygen through photosynthesis. The 2nd oxygen transition occurred because of the scarcity of carbon to bind with oxygen and form carbon dioxide. This carbon shortage was caused by ______________________________
the burial of carbon in the form of dead organisms
The 2nd oxygen transition occurred with the mass burial of carbon in the form of dead organisms, while the 1st oxygen transition was caused by _______________.
the development of photosynthetic organisms
Studying the various types of meteorites help us understand more about
the development of the solar system
When we say, "the composition of Earth materials," we are referring to
the elemental and isotopic makeup of a rock or mineral
When we say, "the composition of Earth materials," we are referring to __________________.
the elemental and isotopic makeup of a rock or mineral
When we say "the structure of Earth materials," we are referring to
the geometric relationships between rock bodies and components of the rock unit
The global climate is always changing. Is this is the case, that means that _________________.
the long-term average global temperature is either warming or cooling
When we discuss "the processes that form or modify materials," we are referring to _____________.
the natural events that cause the materials to change
The likelihood that an isotope will decay within a certain time period is called _______________.
the probability of decay
The more unstable an atom's nucleus, the higher the __________________________.
the probability of decay
You find a layer of ash in some nearby rock layers and you want to find out its age. You look at the ratio of potassium-40 (parent isotope) to argon-40 (daughter isotope) and find it is 1 to 7. In other words, three half-lives have passed. The half-life of potassium-40 is about 1.25 billion years. How old is the ash layer?
3.75 billion years
Approximately how long ago did the Little Cottonwood granite in Utah (used to build the Salt Lake Temple and Conference Center) form, or in other words, cooled from a magma to form a rock?
30 million years
How many half-lives have elapsed if you find a sample where 1/16 is Carbon-14 and the remaining is Nitrogen?
4
You find a sample of granite and want to find out its age. The zircon crystals in the granite contain radioactive uranium, which has a half-life of about 4.5 billion years. Through radiometric dating methods, you find out that the ratio of parent to daughter atoms is 1 to 1. In other words, one half-life has passed. What is the approximate age of your granite sample?
4.5 billion years
The Sun and planets in our Solar System all formed at about the same time as the Earth. This means they are approximately
4.5 billion years old
How many large ice ages has the Earth been through?
5
What is the oldest possible age that could be measured using Carbon-14 radiometric dating methods?
50,000 years old
Carbon-14 is an unstable (radioactive isotope) of carbon. How many protons and how many neutrons does it have?
6 protons; 8 neutrons
Approximately how long did the two oxygen transitions last?
600 million years and 200 million years, respectively
Approximately how long ago did the last oxygen state start, during which oxygen levels have been at life-sustaining levels?
650 million years (14% of Earth's history)
The half-life of uranium-238 is roughly around 4.5 billion years. If 2 half-lives have elapsed, how much time has passed since the uranium formed?
9 billion years
What would be a good description of the interactions of the components of Earth's climate system based on the reading?
A balancing act
Which of the following best describes an ice age?
A climate period characterized by the presence of extensive ice sheets at both poles
What do we call the time in between climate states?
A climate transition
Which of the following best describes an icehouse climate state?
A climate where the Earth is habitable but persistently cold
In which type of region would you typically find less dense crustal rocks?
A continent
In which of the following ways will the expansion of ice sheets produce a negative climate response?
A cool Earth causes ice sheets to form, but less water evaporates and precipitates slowing the expansion of the ice sheets.
What do we call the new isotope that forms after the radioactive decay of a former isotope?
A daughter isotope
What do we call a meteorite that is sourced from a particular layer of a planetary body and formed a little after solar system formation?
A differentiated meteorite
What is an iron meteorite?
A differentiated meteorite that originated in the core of a planetary body
Which of the following best describes a stony meteorite?
A differentiated meteorite that originated in the crust or mantle of a planetary body
Which of the following best describes a negative climate response?
A feedback that reduces or reverses a climatic effect
Which of the following best describes Earth's magnetic field?
A field that moves an electric charge and envelops Earth and nearby space
According to the text, what hypothesis has not yet been falsified to explain the formation of the Moon?
A giant impact: a Mars-sized body slammed into the Earth lopping off a piece of the molten mass.
The Middle Paleozoic climate state was similar to that during the Mesozoic (when dinosaurs roamed the Earth). What was the climate state during the Mid-Paleozoic?
A greenhouse climate
What climate state was the Earth in during the Mesozoic (when dinosaurs roamed the land)?
A greenhouse climate
What is the term for a climate that is habitable, but persistently hot?
A greenhouse climate state
While on vacation you spot a group of specific types of brachiopod, bryozoan, and rugose coral fossils in a rock layer. You realize this is the very same group of fossils found in a rock unit back home that you have determined to be about 360 million years old. What is the probable age of the rock layer you found on your vacation?
About 360 million years
According to repeated radiometric dating of meteorites and Earth's deep crustal rocks, what is the approximate age of the Earth?
About 4.5 billion years
What percent volume of the Earth is made up of mantle material?
About 84%
What natural process caused the warming that ended both of the planet's "snowball Earth" episodes?
Addition of carbon to the atmosphere through volcanic activity
During which time period did the Earth finally have concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide similar to those we have today?
After the Precambrian
When a mountain-sized asteroid collided with the Earth in the Yucatan Peninsula, it caused the disappearance of ___________________.
All flightless (non-avian) dinosaurs
Use principles of relative dating to answer the question about the following image. Which process occurred after the rock layer G was in place?
All of the above
Which of the following are part of Earth's biosphere?
All of the above
Which of the following is evidence that planetary bodies grow through accretion?
All of the above
Earth's atmosphere has always had about the same composition, including about 20% oxygen. The free oxygen (O2) in the atmosphere originally came primarily from volcanos. Although photosynthetic organisms produce oxygen and animals consume oxygen, these O-producers and -consumers have always balanced each other out; in other words, living things have never had a large effect on the concentration of atmospheric oxygen. The formation and destruction of oxygen-bearing rocks plays governs the concentration of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere.
All the statements are false
This image represents the geometric relationships between Earth features in a hypothetical area, as follows:'A' refers to the diagonal line, a fault 'B' refers to pasty magma that solidified inside Earth 'C' refers to layers of flat-lying sedimentary rock'D' refers to runny magma that solidified inside Earth'E' refers to recently-deposited sediments that once blanketed this and surrounding areas 'F' refers to the diagonal line, a fault 'G' refers to highly folded and metamorphosed rock bodies the 'squiggly' line between metamorphic rocks F and sedimentary layers C is an erosional surface. A occurred before D but after B E occurred after F A occurs after F F is older than D
All the statements are false
Within a few thousand years of Earth's formation, the area where the BYU-I campus now resides was pretty much like it is today (e.g., similar latitude and longitude, climate, organisms, topography, etc). The rising and lowering of sea level is caused primarily by the amount of oxygen in Earth's atmosphere. Volcanoes primarily result from the slow flow of metal in Earth's core. Impacts of extraterrestrial materials with Earth are the main source of surface change (e.g., weathering & erosion of existing rock and exposure of once-buried rock) on Earth.
All the statements are false
'A' refers to the diagonal line, a fault 'B' refers to pasty magma that solidified inside Earth 'C' refers to layers of flat-lying sedimentary rock 'D' refers to runny magma that solidified inside Earth 'E' refers to recently-deposited sediments that once blanketed this and surrounding areas 'F' refers to the diagonal line, a fault 'G' refers to highly folded and metamorphosed rock bodies the 'squiggly' line between metamorphic rocks F and sedimentary layers C is an erosional surface. Evidence for tectonic activity exists throughout the history represented by this image: it is recorded by the oldest, intermediate, and youngest features. The rock body B formed inside Earth, was once exposed at Earth surface, and today resides only inside Earth. At least two tectonic events caused the rocks near Earth's surface in this area to rupture and slide past each other. All of the following events are recorded by features represented in the image: flow of solid rocks in Earth's mantle that partially melted and produced magma that rose into the crust; the slide of tectonic plates past each other; the formation, development, and removal (by erosion) of large mountains; numerous earthquakes; and sediments were carried by water, wind, or ice into this area.
All the statements are true
Both the mid- and late-Precambrian periods of icehouse climate were associated with important changes in atmospheric oxygen concentrations. The first living organisms to produce oxygen through photosynthesis caused the mid-Precambrian icehouse period by converting atmospheric methane to carbon dioxide. The late-Precambrian icehouse period resulted from vast quantities of carbon being removed from Earth's atmosphere, through the burial (by sediment) of single-celled organisms that were abundant in shallow seas. There was essentially no free-oxygen in Earth's atmosphere before the mid-Precambrian icehouse period; after the late-Precambrian icehouse period, oxygen reached approximately modern atmospheric concentrations.
All the statements are true
Why did the Earth cool down when it converted large amounts of methane (CH4) to carbon dioxide (CO2)?
As greenhouse gases, methane traps more heat than carbon dioxide.
Over the long term (millions of years), how would progressively burying less carbon affect atmospheric carbon dioxide, global temperature, and global sea level?
Atmospheric carbon dioxide rises, global temperature increases, and global sea level rises.
During the 1st Oxygen Transition, oxygen reacted to dissolved iron and formed what important natural resource found worldwide?
Banded iron formations, which are our primary sources of iron ore
Why does crust make up the surface of the Earth?
Because crustal rock is less dense than the other layers that make up the solid portion of the Earth.
According to the text, why is radiometric dating the most accurate and widely applicable absolute dating method today?
Because scientists can use multiple dating methods to crosscheck validity
How can we be confident in decay rates when they are merely probabilities?
Because with such a huge number of atoms, regardless of the sample, we can predict that a certain proportion will decay within a certain amount of time
What are hominins?
Bipedal primates
What do you find in the asteroid belt?
Both differentiated and undifferentiated asteroids
Which important step in the process of the 2nd oxygen transition is missing from the sequence below? About 1% today's atmospheric oxygen -> Breakup of the supercontinent -> Development of more shallow marine environments -> Large increase in photosynthetic life -> Rapid erosion of highlands on the continent ->____________________-> Modern levels of atmospheric oxygen
Burial of carbon-bearing photosynthetic life
Which of the following are carbon sinks that act to cool the Earth? (choose two)
Burial of carbon-bearing rocks Carbon deposition
Over the long term (several millions of years), how does carbon burial affect global climate? Check all that apply.
CO2 is removed from the atmosphere in greater amounts than carbon sources can replace it. Global temperatures decrease. Polar ice accumulates, producing icehouse conditions.
Why did the Earth cool down when carbon-bearing rocks formed as limestone and shale?
Carbon dioxide was bound up in the rocks rather than warming the Earth as a greenhouse gas.
What do we call processes that move carbon from solid Earth to the atmosphere?
Carbon sources
Based on what you've learned in this class, how do increases in volcanic activity affect the relative strength of carbon sources and sinks, and what happens to global sea level?
Carbon sources strengthen relative to carbon sinks, and sea level rises.
Which types of elements play key roles in the change of the global climate?
Carbon-bearing gases
Which two processes of change are the primary controls for sea-level change?
Climate change and tectonic change
Looking over the material you have read about climate changes, what connection do you see between climate states and transitions and life on Earth?
Climate states and changes are closely tied to changes to life on Earth and vice versa
Which of the following describes how Earth's climate states have changed throughout history?
Climate states have changed quite a lot.
What were the conditions during the two "Snowball Earth" events that happened in the middle and late Precambrian?
Cold enough global temperatures to produce glaciers at sea level at the equator
Which of the following appears to have a major impact on global climate change?
Concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
Which of the following is not a common sedimentary rock in which you would find significant amounts of carbon?
Conglomerate
According to the text, what causes Earth's tectonic plates to move?
Convection in the Earth's mantle causes it to flow cyclically and move overlying plates with it.
According to the text, what causes Earth's tectonic plates to move? Group of answer choices
Convection in the Earth's mantle causes it to flow cyclically and move overlying plates with it.
Imagine a shift in tectonic plate begins to produce a line of volcanoes along the west coast of a major continent. The volcanic soil produced has many nutrients that helps plants grow more readily leading to ________________________.
thriving species, diversification, and biological change
What do we call the process of breaking down rock?
weathering
When large areas of forest die from a disease or infestation, this exposes the underlying rock to
weathering and surface change
When tectonic plates collide to produce tall mountain ranges, the rocks are exposed at the top of the mountains leading to
weathering and surface change
Approximately how many degrees (in Celsius and Fahrenheit) form Earth's habitable zone; that is, how many degrees separate coolest icehouse from warmest greenhouse climates?
~20 C (35 F)
Which of the following best describes an earthquake?
A violent shaking of the earth
What do we call the time periods during which there were significant and impactful changes in the concentrations of atmospheric oxygen?
1st and 2nd oxygen transitions
As you drive through southern Idaho, you see a lot of dark (nearly black) rock that is solidified from lava. What geologic feature can we infer used to be located in southern Idaho?
A volcano
Yosemite National Park in California is made up of granite, which is formed under the Earth's surface when molten rock cools. Inside what geologic feature did the igneous rock form?
A volcano
Which of the following best describes an isotope?
A way to identify an element that has varying numbers of neutrons
How much atmospheric oxygen was available during the mid-to late-Precambrian (the "boring billion")?
About 1% what we have today
What did William Smith do that led him to develop the principle of fossil succession?
He observed that rock layers in various areas occurred in the same sequence.
After two half-lives of a radioactive isotope have passed, what percentage of parent and daughter isotopes will you find in the sample? (Table included for your use, if desired)
25% parent, 75% daughter
How many different types of elements are in glucose (C6H12O6)?
3
Earth has been in an icehouse state for several million years. Earth has nearly made the transition to a greenhouse state—because of recent warming. Earth is currently in a glacial (cooler) period of an ice ageEarth is currently in an interglacial (warmer) period of an ice ageEarth recently (~12 kya) transitioned from a glacial period (cooler) to an interglacial period (warmer).
1, 4, & 5 are true
After three half-lives of a radioactive isotope have passed, what percentage of parent and daughter isotopes will you find in the sample? (Table included for your use, if desired)
12.5% parent (one-eighth), 87.5% daughter (seven-eighths)
Which of the following best describes a persistent climate state?
A long period in Earth's history with a fairly uniform climate
What is a differentiated meteorite?
A meteorite that is sourced from only one layer of a planetary body and formed a little after solar system formation
Which of the following best describes radiometric dating?
A method of determining the age of radioactive elements based on the ratio (or proportion) of parent to daughter atoms
Which of the following best describes a glacial period?
A period of time during an icehouse climate state when glaciers expand to cover large parts of the continents
Which of the following best describes an interglacial period?
A period of time within an icehouse climate state, during which there are warmer temperatures and less extensive ice sheets
Which of the following best describes a runaway icehouse climate state?
A persistently cold climate state that has no foreseeable possibility for change
What do we call a feedback that amplifies a climatic effect?
A positive climate response
According to climate scientists, what is a carbon source?
A process that moves carbon from solid earth to the atmosphere
What is a carbon sink?
A process that moves carbon from the atmosphere to solid Earth
Which of the following best describes accretion as it relates to planetary growth?
A process that produces large planetary bodies through collision of smaller bodies
What do we call an isotope that breaks down to form new isotopes?
A radioactive isotope
In your incredible adventures as an astronaut, you manage to complete a space mission to visit a planet in a distant galaxy. The planet has no oceans, water in the form of steam, and no plant or animal life. What climate state can you assume the planet is in without further data?
A runaway greenhouse climate state
In your incredible adventures as an astronaut, you manage to complete a space mission to visit a planet in a distant galaxy. The planet has no oceans, water only in the form of ice, and no apparent life. What climate state can you assume the planet is in without further data?
A runaway icehouse climate state
Which of the following best describes Earth's climate (carbon) thermostat?
A set of natural processes that help keep Earth habitable
Which of the following best describes a tectonic plate?
A slab of the broken, rigid, outer layer of the Earth
Which of the following best describes an element?
A substance composed of atoms each with the same number of protons
Use the principles of relative dating to answer the question about the following image. Directly after magma intrusion B, which of the following processes occurred?
A surface process creating erosion C
Use principles of relative dating to answer the question about the following image. Which process occurred after the rock layer G was in place?
A tectonic process creating fault A
Which of the following best describes an ocean basin?
An area which contains denser crustal rocks and is typically found under the oceans
What do we call a substance composed of atoms that each have the same number of protons?
An element
The Late Paleozoic had a very different climate from the Mesozoic (when dinosaurs roamed the Earth), which followed. What was the climate state during the Late Paleozoic?
An icehouse climate
In your incredible adventures as an astronaut, you manage to complete a space mission to visit a planet in a distant galaxy. The planet has large oceans, large ice sheets, and several varieties of trees. What climate state can you assume the planet is in without further data?
An icehouse climate state
What is the term for a climate that is habitable, but persistently cold?
An icehouse climate state
What is the difference between an icehouse climate state and a greenhouse climate state?
An icehouse climate state is sufficiently cool to produce substantial continental ice, and a greenhouse climate state is warm enough to melt the ice sheets.
What do we call a differentiated meteorite that originated in the core of a planetary body?
An iron meteorite
Which of the following best describes a stable isotope?
An isotope that is in balance and does not undergo decay
Which of the following best describes a radioactive isotope?
An isotope that is unstable and breaks down to form new isotopes
What do we call a meteorite of intermixed rock and metal that formed early on in our solar system formation?
An undifferentiated meteorite
One of the principles used for relative dating is the principle of inclusions. Which of the following best describes this principle?
Different material wholly included inside a rock existed before the rock that contains it.
What do we call the process that involves separating planetary materials according to their density?
Differentiation
As people have studied rock units and their properties, we have determined that certain environments and processes have happened in the past. This is a good example of which of the following kinds of truth?
Discovered truth
Which of the following best describes the nature of Earth events?
Discovering the attributes of a geologic event
During which time period did the Earth have little to no free oxygen in its atmosphere?
Early Precambrian (including the Hadean)
Which of the following best describes the Earth's hydrosphere/atmosphere?
Earth's least dense outermost layers that are composed of liquids and gasses
What acts as a huge shield to protect the Earth from life-destroying solar radiation?
Earth's magnetic field
According to the text, which of the following processes is NOT listed as a cause of change to the Earth's surface?
Empirical change
How does decreasing volcanic activity affect climate?
Global climate cools, because less carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere.
When the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere changes, how quickly does global temperature change?
Global temperature changes almost immediately.
Over the long term, how does the combination of more mountains and less volcanic activity affect global temperature?
Global temperature falls since mountain building increases weathering—a carbon sink—and volcanic activity is a carbon source.
What happens to global temperatures when atmospheric CO2 levels fall?
Global temperatures fall
What happens when atmospheric CO2 increases?
Global temperatures rise, causing increased precipitation and weathering—which acts as a negative feedback by removing atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Methane is a much more effective greenhouse gas (meaning it traps heat well) than carbon dioxide. With this in mind, what would happen to global temperatures if large quantities of methane were converted to carbon dioxide?
Global temperatures would drop.
The layered earth, the composition of its core, and other natural processes lead to convection in the mantle, which helps to drive plate movement. Plate movement creates volcanoes and builds mountains among other things; and these features add beauty, varied ecosystems, and provide resources. The Earth system is a magnificent testament to
God's works and His power
As we study Earth's climates and the other natural processes that help keep our Earth habitable, it is difficult to not be amazed at the miracle of it all working in perfect harmony to form a ________________ perfect for life to live and thrive.
Goldilocks Planet
What do we call the process by which atmospheric molecules warm the Earth's surface by trapping energy?
Greenhouse effect
What do we call gases that are near-surface molecules in the atmosphere capable of warming Earth's surface by trapping heat?
Greenhouse gases
Eons are longer periods of time some of which include shorter periods of time called eras. Which of the following are the eons discussed in the chapter?
Hadean, Precambrian, and Phanerozoic
Most people would be surprised to learn that we live in an Ice Age. How can scientists say we live in an Ice Age when we have such warm temperatures?
The Earth has experienced periods that are much warmer but only somewhat cooler than what we are currently experiencing
What would happen if we didn't have any greenhouse gases in our atmosphere?
The Earth would freeze and not be habitable
Which of the following is NOT one of the natural phenomena that help to create Earth's magnetic field?
The Earth's axial tilt
Which of the following is true about the Earth's climate since the formation of the Earth?
The Earth's climate has changed many times since the formation of the Earth.
What formed and stabilized the Earth's axial tilt, allowing the Earth to maintain habitable climates?
The Moon
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic mean old life, middle life, and recent life, respectively. These three eras took place during which eon?
The Phanerozoic Eon (abundant multicellular life)
What term do we use to mean the time that has elapsed since a geologic event occurred?
The age of an Earth event
At the bottom of a river, you will often find various sizes of sediments, including cobbles, pebbles, sand, and silt. One day while mountain climbing, you see a rock layer on the cliff you are scaling with various sizes of sediments. What can you assume about the area?
The area had a river long ago.
In shallow marine areas (e.g. reefs), many sea creatures make their homes and die. Their shells and structures are buried by mud continually. When we find a rock full of shallow marine sea creature shells and structures, what do we know about the location where we found the rock?
The area used to be in shallow ocean waters.
What is a major natural process that we know helps prevent the Earth from entering any of the runaway climate states such as a runaway greenhouse or a runaway icehouse state?
The balance between carbon sinks and carbon sources
What are we seeing evidence of when we see a shooting star?
The formation of planetary bodies through accretion
Which of the following is NOT something we can understand better by studying meteorites?
The fusion rates of hydrogen at the Sun's surface
Based on what you've learned in the course, how does the 'ice albedo (reflectance) feedback' affect global temperature?
The ice albedo feedback cools global temperature.
After the 1st oxygen transition, there was a mass extinction of life on Earth due to what change in the Earth's environment?
The increase in a "poisonous gas" in the atmosphere called oxygen
Which of the following is true about the current interglacial period in the Cenozoic Icehouse State?
The sunlight effects of the Milankovitch cycles were primarily responsible for triggering our current (Holocene) interglacial period
If the Earth formed through the process of accretion, why do we not see many impact craters on its surface?
The surface of the Earth is constantly changing through surface process and tectonic processes.
What is the half-life of an isotope?
The time it takes before half of the atoms have undergone radioactive decay
Which of the following is true regarding the Milankovitch Cycles?
The timing of Earth's glacial and interglacial cycles matches the changes in Sun exposure predicted by variations in the Earth's tilt and orbit
When we find fossils in a rock unit, we learn a lot of information about the past. Which of the following bits of information could we NOT get from looking at fossils in a rock unit?
The type of environment that was in that location directly after that particular period
Which of the following best describes relative dating?
The use of principles and observations of rock structure to determine the sequence of past geologic events
When global weathering rates increase, which typically has the greater effect on climate—the weathering of carbon-bearing rocks (a carbon source) or the weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks (a carbon sink)?
The weathering of igneous and metamorphic rocks (a carbon sink) typically has the greater effect on climate.
According to the text, what is the apparent paradox in using probabilities on large sample sizes?
There is no way to know if any one unit of the sample will be affected, but one can accurately predict the number of units that will be affected.
Which of the following is true about interglacial periods?
They are phases of an Icehouse Climate State during which there are less extensive ice sheets.
Which of the following is true about glacial periods?
They are phases of an ice age during which there are cooler temperatures and more extensive ice sheets
Which of the following is true about interglacial periods?
They are phases of an ice age that are marked by warmer temperatures and less extensive ice sheets
Impacts were quite common early on in the Earth's development and changed ecosystems and climates. According to the text, how common are large impacts on Earth today?
They are rare.
How do scientists measure the decay rates of elements in supernovae (which have been shown to match rates measured on Earth)?
They measure the dimming of light generated by the supernovae.
What are the three major ways plates interact with each other at plate boundaries?
They move towards, away from, and past each other.
In which of the following ways have volcanoes helped to maintain a habitable planet?
They release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and prevent the Earth from getting too cold.
