Grammar
semicolon
While the semicolon is actually "more correct" in the context of transcripts, you will see reporters that use commas instead. Because use of a comma doesn't usually affect the sense of the question, both are acceptable, as long as the reporter is consistent, and doesn't use a semicolon sometimes and a comma other times. Be cautious about pointing out little things like this to your clients. They want you to help them look good, not have you nit-pick the little things.
Comma
Use a comma after "Yes" and "No" when it's used as an introductory element (see Rule 3). - Yes, but we moved when I was seven.
Comma
Use a comma before "not" when indicating contrast. - The fire happened during the day, not at night. - The assistant provided the therapy, not the chiropractor.
Comma
Use a comma before "please" when it appears at the end of a sentence. - Can I see your driver's license, please?
The Possessive Form of Nouns
Use the possessive form of a noun to show ownership. To make the possessive form, put an apostrophe and an s 's after a singular noun. This is my bed and that is Peter's bed. We all like Dad's cooking. It is my job to collect everybody's plate after the meal. The flies are buzzing around the horse's tail. This is Susan and Jenny's room. This is Tom's hat and that is Tom's father's hat. After plural nouns that don't end in s, use an apostrophe and an s 's to make the possessive form. The children's room is always messy. Some people's houses are bigger than ours. Rats' tails are longer than mice's tails. Men's voices are deeper than women's voices. N o t e s ■ How do you make the possessive form when two names linked by and are the owners? Put an 's after the second name only. For example: Katy and Mike's house is very big. (= the house that belongs to both Katy and Mike) Joe and Sarah's dad works at the shoe factory. (= He is Joe's dad and he is also Sarah's dad.) ■ Sometimes two possessive forms with 's appear together, one after the other: This is John's brother's ball. (= The ball belongs to John's brother.) Paul's teacher's house has a swimming pool. (= the house that belongs to Paul's teach When a name ends in s, you can make the possessive form in either of two ways: add an apostrophe and an s 's , or add just an apostrophe ' . For example: This is James's house. or This is James' house. Which is Charles's bike? or Which is Charles' bike?
Em Dash
When a sentence begins with an independent clause and ends with a list, you can use a colon between the clause and the list. When the list comes first, it's better to use a dash to connect the list to the clause. This helps to take three potentially random things and focus them toward one idea<, which is easier for the reader to process. Dishes, laundry, dusting—they're all done now, and I need a rest. Crocodiles, alligators—they both look the same to me and they look equally dangerous! Chocolate, strawberry, vanilla—all ice cream tastes good, especially on a hot summer's day. Do this, do that, go here, go there—there's so much to do that I don't actually get much accomplished during the day.
capitalization
When capping a hyphenated word, cap the word after the hyphen, unless the hyphenated word was capped just because it began the sentence. Example: My book is called The Follow-Up. Follow-up appointment was scheduled for January 2.
positive connotation
When you look up a word in the dictionary, you will find its literal (denotative) meaning. However, the emotions and associations connected to a word is known as its connotative meaning. Depending on our experiences, certain words have a positive, negative, or neutral connotation.
Countable and uncountable nouns
Nouns can be either countable or uncountable. Countable nouns (or count nouns) are those that refer to something that can be counted. They have both singular and plural forms (e.g. cat/cats; woman/women; country/countries).
Noun Plural
Nouns that end in s, ss, ch, sh or x, are made plural by adding es.
Coordinating Conjunctions
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
euphemism
he substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant; also : the expression so substituted
commas
in dependent "that" clauses. Example: I know that he was there, that he had arrived in a blue car, that his mom was with him, and that he had a gun.
Don't use an apostrophe
in plurals of numbers and symbols. Example: Yeah, I will always remember the 1960s. BUT — use an apostrophe to show omission in numbers. Example: I will always remember the '60s. (NOT 60's)
dependent clause
is a group of words with a subject and a verb. It does not express a complete thought so it is not a sentence and can't stand alone. These clauses include adverb clauses, adjective clauses and noun clauses.
capitalization
Cap the names of historical events and periods, including named storms. Examples: He fought in the Vietnam War. My grandparents suffered in the Great Depression. During Hurricane Katrina, my home was destroyed.
capitalization
o not cap a series of short, individual questions at the end of a sentence. Example: When did she take her daughter to gymnastics? once a month? twice a month? several times a week?
commas
on both sides of an appositive expression: word or words used to further explain.
apostrophe
on possessives when not followed by a noun: add the punctuation as if the noun existed. Example: We went to my parents'. (House is inferred)
Official names: Use an apostrophe
only if the official name includes one. Example: The National Court Reporters Association met. (Not Reporters')
capitalization
Cap the names of institutions such as colleges, universities, hospitals, churches, and libraries. Cap the name of a sector within those institutions when it represents the official name of the sector. Examples: I attend the University of Texas. My major professor is in the Department of Political Science. NOT capped in sentences such as: "I am a student at the university."
capitalization
Cap the names of relatives (mom and dad) when used as a stand-in for the person's name. Examples: My father is in the courtroom today. I spent the day with my sister. I asked Mom to call my sister. I was unable to reach my brother on the phone. I called Dad on Sunday, but he didn't answer.
ABBREVIATIONS
1) For attorneys in transcripts (colloquy and by-lines), only MR. and MS. should be used. "MISS" or "MRS." should not be used when referring to a party's attorney. If attorneys address deponents or witnesses with Miss or Mrs., fine. 2) Esq. is the abbreviation of Esquire, used to denote an attorney. "Attorney at Law" is sometimes used to denote female attorneys, since the origins of "Esquire" are masculine. Make sure the use of "Esq." is consistent throughout the job; some reporters will have "ESQ."; "Esq."; and "Esquire" all in the same job! Also note that some agencies have preferences on whether or not Esquire is spelled out or abbreviated.
capitalization
Cap the word "Court" when referring to the judge. Examples: You heard the Court give you rules to follow in making a decision. The case was heard before Judge Leary.
Collective nouns
A collective noun names a group or a collection. Examples herd team swarm flock orchestra and club
Semicolon
A note on semicolons: I once heard a CR say that punctuation is the "seasoning" of the transcript, and semicolons are a strong flavor. Use them sparingly! Keep in mind that semicolons are meant to separate two INDEPENDENT clauses that are closely related. They are RARELY (I can't stress that enough!) used before a coordinating conjunction. (Usually only if there is a list of clauses that contain commas within themselves). Keep that in mind. 🙂
capitalization
Academic degrees are not capped when used in a general sense. Example: I have a bachelor's degree in communication. You've got your doctorate, right?
Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is a type of noun that refers to something with which a person cannot physically interact. A noun is a person, place or thing. However, in many cases, the 'thing' might be an intangible concept - which means it is an abstract form of noun. In this instance, abstract means to exist apart from concrete existence. A noun that is abstract is an aspect, concept, idea, experience, state of being, trait, quality, feeling, or other entity that cannot be experienced with the five senses. Recognizing When a Noun Is Abstract Concrete nouns are people, places, or things that we would experience with our five senses. The abstract class is the opposite - we can never experience these nouns according to our senses. If a noun is abstract, it describes something you cannot see, hear, touch, taste, or smell. Sometimes it can be difficult to recognize when the noun is abstract because there are a number of words that can function in different ways. For example, some words might function as verbs in some cases and abstract nouns in other cases. Love and taste are two examples. I love my husband. [In this sentence, the word love expresses an action and is therefore acting as a verb.] Send them my love. [In this sentence, the word love functions as an abstract noun because it is a thing that exists beyond the five senses.] Sarah could taste cilantro in the salsa. [In this sentence, the auxiliary verb 'could' functions with taste to illustrate action. She can physically taste the salsa.] Sarah has great taste in clothes. [In this sentence, taste functions in an abstract manner. Taste refers to her preferences.] Abstract nouns can be countable or non-countable (mass). They can also be in singular or possessive form. Abstract nouns follow the same grammar rules as other nouns. Common Abstract Nouns Emotions/Feelings Love Hate Anger Peace Pride Sympathy States/Attributes Bravery Loyalty Honesty Integrity Compassion Charity Success Courage Deceit Skill Beauty Brilliance Pain Misery Ideas/Concepts/Ideals Belief Dream Justice Truth Faith Liberty Knowledge Thought Information Culture Trust Dedication Movements/Events Progress Education Hospitality Leisure Trouble Friendship Relaxation More examples of abstract nouns are included in Examples of Abstract Nouns or view this word list of abstract nouns with definitions. Abstract forms of nouns are very common and an important part of communication. In many cases these types of nouns are derived from an addition of a suffix or alteration in the root word. Child is a concrete noun, for example, but childhood is an intangible state, so it is abstract. Nouns with the following suffixes are often abstract: -tion -ism -ity -ment -ness -age -ance -ence -ship -ability -acy Using Abstract vs. Concrete Nouns in Writing Abstraction is an important part of communication. Abstract nouns name things that can't be seen, heard, tasted, smelled or touched, but allow us to express information by defining them on some level. An important precaution for students and writers, however, is that there is the danger of the being misunderstood when using abstract forms in writing. Words like love, freedom, beauty, taste, and justice, might mean different things to different people. To one person, good taste means eclectic and original; to another good taste might mean clean and modern. Teachers and writing coaches often recommend using concrete nouns to support any abstract references, thereby clarifying the message you are trying to convey. Understanding and recognizing abstract nouns is important. Although these nouns give expression to intangible entities, sentences with fewer abstract and more concrete nouns are typically more concise and clear. Read more at http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/parts-of-speech/nouns/Abstract-Nouns.html#ZTT5Xztd2yv1kK4X.99
capitalization
Cap exact names of academic courses, but not general subject areas. Examples: I earned an A in Sociology 101. I plan to study sociology. A course in business English was offered. He was very interested in German history.
capitalization
Cap seasons of the year only if they are used as proper nouns. Examples: I plan to begin school in the spring. She played the role of Summer in the fall play. I took three courses in the summer semester.
capitalization
Cap the Pope and Secretary General of the United Nations. Other Examples: the Queen Mother, the Duke of Cambridge. (See? All titles where only ONE person has the title.)
capitalization
Cap the brand names of products, including prescription and non-prescription drugs. Don't cap the generic names or slang names. Sometimes you'll need to Google and see if something's a name brand or not. Examples: I needed to take at least three aspirin a day. I bought coke in my neighborhood. (the illicit drug) The doctor prescribed Coumadin for my condition.
capitalization
Cap the entire titles of places, things, and ideas. Don't cap the shortened forms used in place of the full name, though. Examples: They were leaving from O'Hare Airport. They were leaving from the airport in Chicago. Also, unless "the" is part of the title, leave it uncapped. Example: She donates to the American Medical Association.
capitalization
Cap titles only when it precedes a name. Examples: Will Sheriff Gilroy please come to the stand. Will the sheriff please come to the stand. Exceptions: important officials or dignitaries. Then, cap the name of the office even if it follows or replaces a specific personal name. Examples: President, Vice President, Attorney General, Director of the FBI, Commissioner of Education, Senator, and Representative on the national level or in foreign governments. [The following rule mentions some exceptions to the title capitalization — when deciding whether or not to cap, just think about whether the person you're speaking about is the ONLY one with that title. If so, you can safely cap it.]
em dash
Commas are usually used to offset the appositive, but if the appositive contains one or more commas, adding additional commas would be confusing for the reader. When using an appositive that contains a comma, offset it with dashes, instead. Four of us—Mike, Amanda, Katy and me—went to the conference last week. Mr. M. glanced surreptitiously at his watch—his gold, diamond-encrusted watch—and suggested the meeting might adjourn for the day. If you need something, call my assistant—Catherine, not Margaret—and she'll help you. Materialism—always wanting something more, something different—is good for the economy but bad for the soul. The question words—who, what, when, where, why, and how—are used to retrieve information in English.
em dash
Depending on the context, the em dash can take the place of commas, parentheses, or colons—in each case to slightly different effect.
capitalization
Don't cap grades in school or classification of year in school. Examples: He completed the sixth grade. I am a freshman in college.
apostrophe
Don't confuse adjectives with possessives. Example: The sales meeting was held yesterday. NOT The sales' meeting was held yesterday.
em dash
Em dashes are often used to set off parenthetical information. Using em dashes instead of parentheses puts the focus on the information between the em dashes. For this usage, make sure you use two em dashes. Use one before the parenthetical information and one after it. Putting spaces before and after an em dash is a matter of preference; just be consistent. Consider the examples below for reference: While I was shopping—wandering aimlessly up and down the aisles, actually—I ran into our old neighbor. An etymological dictionary is one of the few books—no, it's the only book—you'll ever need. There has recently been an increase—though opposed fiercely by many people—in alternative education practices. He was going to call off the project—or was he?—when the client increased the payment. Traveling—that is, traveling by public transit—can be a relaxing activity if you bring music and reading material along with you.
em dash
Em dashes can also signal an interruption or a sudden change in the direction a writer was heading with a particular sentence. This technique is best suited for creative or informal writing. If you use it in academic writing, you might look unsure of yourself. Consider the examples below: Mary, could you—no, Mikey, don't touch the sharp knife!—Mary, could you please set the table? Dinner is at 6:30—not 6:29 or 6:31. Where the heck is my—wait, what was I looking for? Would you please—oh, never mind.
4 most important comma rules
Examples of correct usage: - So the second doctor you went to, which I understand was a neurologist, sent you for an MRI? - And your two children, who were on a break from school, were both home at the time of the incident? - My husband, who was my boyfriend at the time, came to the scene of the crash. - Dr. Brown, whom I saw twice after the accident, prescribed me something for the pain.
adjectives from adverbs
For some, distinguishing adjectives from adverbs is impossibly confusing. Yet telling them apart should be easy. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns ( tight shoes, She is brilliant!), while adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs (drive carefully, rather hasty, more rapidly). Adjectives provide answers to "what kind," "which one," and "how many," while adverbs answer "how," "when," and "where" (to boldly go, see you later, happening here).
The Possessive Form of Nouns
How do you make the possessive form when two names linkedby and are the owners? Put an 's after the second name only. Forexample: Katy and Mike's house is very big. (= the house that belongs to bothKaty and Mike) Joe and Sarah's dad works at the shoe factory. (= He is Joe's dad and he is also Sarah's dad.) ■ Sometimes two possessive forms with 's appear together, one afterthe other: This is John's brother's ball. (= The ball belongs to John's brother.) Paul's teacher's house has a swimming pool. (= the house that belongs to Paul's teacher) When a name ends in s, you can make the possessive form in either of two ways: add an apostrophe and an s 's , or add just an apostrophe ' . For example: This is James's house. or This is James' house. Which is Charles's bike? or Which is Charles' bike?
HYPHENS ( - )
Hyphenate a compound adjective before a noun. THEY ARE NOT USED FOR ANYTHING ELSE. Do not use hyphens in place of dashes. Examples: It was a five-year loan. Let's take a 15-minute break. Do you have a 30-year mortgage? I have a five-year-old daughter. My mother-in-law drives me crazy. It's a full-length feature.
4 most important comma rules
Rule 1: Use a comma to separate a list of three or more things, including the last two. Many reporters leave out this comma... don't fight them on it, unless you read the transcript and the sentence means something else without the comma. Examples of correct usage: - I have trouble with walking, cleaning, and cooking. - My mom has pain in her arms, legs, and neck.
capitalization
In transcripts, titles like counsel, counselor, judge, doctor, etc. should be capped when used in place of names. Examples: Can you tell us what these results mean, Doctor? Yes, Judge, we can submit a new order. 8) Cap military branches of the government or their abbreviations. (NOT just "military") Examples: I joined the Marines after I graduated. The Army is always on duty at that location. The National Guard was called to handle the riot. He joined the Marines. (meaning Marine Corps) I taught for the U.S. military.
QUOTATIONS
Most reporters will do this their own way. The things you need to watch out for include missing quotations, where the reporter will begin a quote and then forget to put the end quote, and ... well, to be honest, that's about the only issue I run into on a regular basis! Whether or not they use quotations for certain words depends on two things: 1) What their preference is 2) Whether or not it helps the text make sense Don't get too bent out of shape with quotation marks and how your clients use them. Focus on 2), and make sure the way they use it helps the job make sense. If adding in quotes aids in the readability of the job, indicate that quotes should be used. If the reporter used quotes, but you don't agree with their use, yet the sense of the transcript is unaffected, don't worry about it. We don't get paid enough to spend time on little itty bitty things. But just so you're familiar with quotations and related punctuation, here are a few things to keep an eye out for: Periods and commas go inside quotations marks; colons and semicolons go outside quotation marks. Always. Question marks can go inside or outside quotation marks, depending where the question is asked. Is the whole sentence a question with a quote inside? Put the quotation mark on the outside. Example: Did you hear him say, "I don't care"? Is only the quoted portion a question? Put the question mark on the inside. Example: Are you sure he didn't say, "Should I care?" A question mark always goes with the question it's attached to. When quoting the words of a person, precede the quote with a comma. Example: He said, "I don't like driving by myself." When quoting a document or text, do not precede it with a comma. Example: The document said "The vehicle was traveling at about 55 miles per hour." Always cap quoted sentences, but do not cap single quoted words. Also, you may have noticed that I often use the British form of punctuation with quotation use: I prefer to put the punctuation on the outside of the "quotes". It just makes more sense to me that way, and so I openly refuse to do it the American way... that's just my preference, not an error! 🙂 Update: I've started doing it the American way... I started getting too many emails from PA readers telling me I was making mistakes, haha... I got tired of answering them ;-))
USING NUMBERS
Numbers one to ten should be spelled out in words; numbers larger than ten should be expressed in figures, with the following exceptions: 1. Amounts of money: always in figures such as $25; 3 cents; $4,200.70. 2. Percents: always in figures such as 2 percent; 300 percent. 3. Measurements: always in figures such as 4 feet; 12 gallons; 5 degrees. ***4. Beginning a sentence:**** always in words such as "Forty-five women were there." This applies to Nos. 1-3 above! INCORRECT: 4 feet away, I saw a dog. -> FOUR INCORRECT: 12 gallons of paint later, the job was done. -> TWELVE INCORRECT: 5 degrees warmer and we'd all die! -> FIVE 5. After a noun: always in figures such as No. 5; Room 214; page 7. 6. Dates: always in figures such as April 16, 1952; the 12th of March (or the twelfth of March). 7. House numbers: always in figures, except One such as 34 East Fifth; One South 12th.
Parentheticals
Parentheticals should be concise, aligned center, and they should look like this: (There was a break in the proceedings at 2:34 p.m.) (Exhibit 1 was marked for identification.) (Mr. Perez left the room.)
capitalization
Plaintiff and defendant are capped when referring to the case at hand, but not when parties are citing other cases to support their argument.
appositive expression
Recognize an appositive when you see one. An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun right beside it. The appositive can be a short or long combination of words. Look at these appositive examples, all of which rename insect: The insect, a cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table.
4 most important comma rules
Rule 2: Use a comma before the conjunctions—and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so—when they separate two independent clauses (pieces of a sentence that could stand alone as a complete thought). Violations of this rule are rampant in transcripts, especially with the conjunctions "but", "so", and "and". Examples of correct usage: - I went to the doctor, but I did not receive a diagnosis. - She had me on her insurance, so I didn't pay out of pocket. - We got home from the airport, and there was water everywhere.
4 most important comma rules
Rule 3: Use a comma to set off introductory elements. This is especially important with QUESTIONS in depositions or examinations under oath. Many reporters leave this comma out. (And "if, then"!!) Examples of correct usage: - When you got to the appointment, did you check in at the front desk? - Understanding I am not an expert, can you explain what you mean? - Once I received the insurance payment, I paid the contractor. - If you don't respond to our request, then we'll go to the judge.
Semicolons
Semicolons are used when there are independent clauses, but there is no conjunction. The phrases that start with that are dependent clauses
APOSTROPHES
Specifically, clients like to use them in plurals. For example, I see things like "And when did you last visit the Baxter's?" And "I go there on Monday's." ALL the time. THERE ARE NO APOSTROPHES in a plural last name, unless it is possessive. Then you identify whether it's 's or s'. Another favorite: "Is that car her's?" or "Can you tell me what the radiologist see's?" We will expand on this in the upcoming unit on apostrophes.
Direct Object
The direct object of a verb is the thing being acted upon (i.e., the receiver of the action). You can find the direct object by finding the verb and asking "what?" or "whom?". For example: Please pass the butter. (Q: pass what? A: the butter) I don't have a bank account, because I don't know my mother's maiden name. (Paula Poundstone) (Q: don't have what? A: a bank account) (Q: don't know what? A: my mother's maiden name) Read more about direct objects.
EM DASHES (appear as — in transcripts)
The em dash is used when a speaker has had an abrupt change of thought in his speech. Learn when the em dash is used, and do not use a hyphen in its stead. You'll see it often when proofreading. People rarely speak in complete sentences and often change thoughts midstream. 1) Use an em dash to indicate an interruption of a speaker by another speaker. Example: A. I was driving in the right lane, and — Q. Please answer the question, sir. 2) Use a dash when a speaker interrupts himself/herself and finishes the sentence with the new thought. Example: We were going to the park — the beach that weekend. 3) If the speaker resumes his original thought, use a pair of dashes. Example: A We have been together nine years — well, I could be wrong — and we have no children.
Indirect Object
The indirect object is the recipient of the direct object. You can find the indirect object by finding the direct object (see above) and then asking who or what received it. In the examples below, the indirect objects are shaded, and the direct objects are in bold. Please pass Simon the butter. (Q: pass what? A: the butter) (Q: Who (or what) received the butter? A: Simon) Never tell people how to do things. Tell them what to do, and they will surprise you with their ingenuity. (George S Patton, 1885-1945) (Q: tell what? A: how to do things) (Q: Who (or what) received it? A: people) (Q: tell what? A: what to do) (Q: Who (or what) received it? A: them) In the last example, the direct objects were noun clauses. An object can be a single word, a pronoun, a noun phrase, or a noun clause.
Object of a Preposition
The noun or pronoun after a preposition is known as the object of a preposition. In the examples below, the objects of prepositions are shaded, and prepositions are in bold. She lives near Brighton. She lives with him. You can tell a lot about a fellow's character by his way of eating jellybeans. (Ronald Reagan, 1911-2004)
SPACING
There should be two spaces between sentences in transcripts. In the practice transcripts, if you see the red stamp "spacing" it means the reporter either has too few or too many spaces. I also use this stamp if there are too many blank lines somewhere in the transcript. If this doesn't make sense, wait until you get to the practice transcripts — it will be very clear.
participle phrase
Today's Lunchbox Lesson: PARTICIPIAL PHRASES A participial phrase is a group of words beginning with a participle which acts like an adjective. A participle is a verb form that acts like an adjective. There are two kinds of participles: 1) Present participles are verbs that end in -ING (giving, taking, being, etc.) 2) Past participles are verbs that will fit into the phrase "I have ____" (walked, given, done, been, etc.). If you have a participle all by itself in a sentence, you would call it an adjective because that is how it acts. For instance, "A smiling policeman helped us." (The participle "smiling" is modifying the noun "policeman.") You will know that you have a PARTICIPIAL PHRASE when your verb form acts like a verb as well as an adjective. Here are some examples: *Your participial phrase could be a participle + a direct object. For example, "A box containing a birthday gift was delivered." The participial phrase is "containing a birthday gift". See how that entire phrase modifies the noun "box"? *Your participial phrase could be a participle + modifiers: For example, "I read a book written by Dickens." The participial phrase is "written by Dickens." See how that entire phrase modifies the noun "book"? **Your participial phrase could be a participle + a predicate nominative or an adjective: For example, "Smelling delicious, the turkey was carved by Dad." The participial phrase is "smelling delicious." Note: When a participial phrase is introductory (in other words, it comes at the beginning of the sentence), it is set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma. You can see this in the example above. Remember: A participial phrase functions as an adjective. It can modify an noun or pronoun in the sentence. If you need more help with participle phrases, try Grammar Planet -- our online grammar, punctuation, and usage program. www.grammarplanet.com
Articles
Words called articles or determiners are used to signal nouns. a river an armchair three biscuits a castle an idea five eggs The article an is used before nouns that begin with the vowels a, e, i, o and u. an artist an eye an insect an oven an umbrella The article a is used before nouns that begin with the other letters, called consonants. But some words don't follow these rules. • a uniform, a unit, a user: a, not an, is used because the vowel u in these words is pronounced like the word you; • an hour, an heir, an honor: an, not a, is used because the consonant h in these words is not pronounced.
Collective Nouns
Words for groups of people, animals or things are called collective nouns Collective nouns may be used with a singular verb or with a plural verb. If the group is acting as a single unit, use a singular verb. If group members are acting as individuals, use a plural verb.
Collective nouns
Words for groups of people, animals or things are called collective nouns. Here are some collective nouns for groups of people. a family a crew a team a club a community a committee a choir a company a band a gang an orchestra the government an audience the army Collective nouns may be used with a singular verb or with a plural verb. If the group is acting as a single unit, use a singular verb. If group members are acting as individuals, use a plural verb. For example: The crowd was orderly. or The crowd were clapping, yelling and cheering.
independent clause
a clause that could be used by itself as a simple sentence but that is part of a larger sentence
dependent clause
a clause that does not form a simple sentence by itself and that is connected to the main clause of a sentence : subordinate clause
ne·ol·o·gism
a newly coined word or expression. synonyms: new word, new expression, new term, new phrase, coinage; More the coining or use of new words.
collective noun
a noun that denotes a group of individuals (e.g., assembly, family, crew ).
pronoun
a word (such as I, he, she, you, it, we, or they) that is used instead of a noun or noun phrase
PREPOSITION
a word or group of words that is used with a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to show direction, location, or time, or to introduce an object The preposition "on" in "The keys are on the table" shows location. The preposition "in" in "The movie starts in one hour" shows time.
adjective
a word that describes a noun or a pronoun The words blue in "the blue car," deep in "the water is deep," and tired in "I'm very tired" are adjectives.
ADVERB
a word that describes a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence and that is often used to show time, manner, place, or degree In "arrived early," "runs slowly," "stayed home," and "works hard" the words "early," "slowly," "home," and "hard" are adverbs.
capitalization
adjectives which stem from proper nouns. Exceptions!! Don't cap congressional, constitutional, or senatorial. Examples: He is an Ecuadorian citizen. He is a Floridian.
Subordinating Conjunctions
after, although, as, as if, as long as, as much as, as soon as, as though, because, before, by the time, even if, even though, if, in order that, in case, in the event that, lest , now that, once, only, only if, provided that, since, so, supposing, that, than, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, whether or not, while
Colons
are most often used to precede lists
Concrete nouns
are things that you can experience through your five senses: sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch. On the other hand, abstract nouns refer to ideas and concepts.
Semicolons
are used to separate two complete but related clauses. They should be able to stand separately, but because they're related, a semicolon is appropriate and helps the reader understand that the second clause expands on the first.
semicolons
before a question that asks for verification of a statement. Example: You refused transportation to the hospital; correct?/is that correct?
Correlative Conjunctions
both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but, whether/or
appositive
is a small section of extra information that is inserted into a sentence for clarification.
parenthetical elements
is information that is nonessential to the meaning of a sentence, such as an example, a clarification, or an aside.
Relative Pronoun
relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause, a part of a sentence that includes a subject and verb but does not form a sentence by itself. The main relative pronouns are that, which, who, whom, what, and whose.
ellipsis
the omission from a sentence or other construction of one or more words that would complete or clarify the construction, as the omission of who are, while I am, or while we are from I like to interview people sitting down. the omission of one or more items from a construction in order to avoid repeating the identical or equivalent items that are in a preceding or following construction, as the omission of been to Paris from the second clause of I've been to Paris, but they haven't. 2. Printing. a mark or marks as ——, ..., or * * *, to indicate an omission or suppression of letters or words.
predicate
the part of a sentence or clause that expresses what is said of the subject and that usually consists of a verb with or without objects, complements, or adverbial modifiers
metonymy
the substitution of the name of an attribute or adjunct for that of the thing meant, for example suit for business executive, or the track for horse racing.
Don't use an apostrophe
to pluralize letters unless they are lowercase (her t's are crossed) or are capable of being misread (she got all A's on her report card). As is a word, so pluralizing a capital "A" requires an apostrophe in order to prevent it from being misread as "As." The letter "I" follows the same rule. Example: How many r's are there in "abhorrent"? Example: She got four Cs and two Bs.
commas
to set off words of direct address. Example: I object, Your Honor, if I may interrupt.
em dash
used when a speaker has had an abrupt change of thought in his speech.
Do not hyphenate
verbs or single adjectives modifying a noun. We agree with Margie Wakeman Wells' take on hyphenating fractions. They should only be hyphenated when they precede a noun. INCORRECT examples: We arrived to set-up the venue. I ordered a cheese-pizza for lunch. Are you the vice-president of the company? We need to sit-down and discuss this. (I've seen this in a transcript!!) I had to cancel my meeting- the architect never showed. (Do not use hyphens in place of dashes or semicolons). Incorrect: She had to cancel our date-she got a stomach bug. Incorrect: She had to cancel our date - she got a stomach bug. Incorrect: She had to cancel our date- she got a stomach bug. [No matter how you space it, a hyphen is ALWAYS incorrect here.] hyphen lesson
comma
when the "and" is omitted between two adjectives modifying the same noun. Example: It was a dark, stormy evening.
semicolon
when there is no conjunction between two closely related sentences whose meanings would be more clear if they were read as a unit. Use the semicolon instead of making two separate sentences. Example: Juan was at his father's house; his wife was out shopping.
appositive expression
word or words used to further explain.
