HDFS 2320 Exam 1 Study Guide
Seeking only evidence that supports our beliefs and ignoring evidence that contradicts those beliefs is __________.
confirmation bias
A variable that affects the results of the study, but is not a variable of interest in the study, is called a(n) __________ variable.
confounding
Studies with children generally require __________.
consent from a parent or guardian
Predicting that a dog should breathe because all mammals breathe and all dogs are mammals is an example of __________ reasoning.
deductive
Theory-driven hypothesis rely on __________ reasoning, whereas data-driven hypothesis rely on __________ reasoning.
deductive; inductive
"Are women who are pregnant depressed?" is an example of a __________ research question.
descriptive
A researcher who examines the relationship between individuals' tooth flossing frequency and the incidence of heart disease in these individuals is using the _________ research design.
experiment
The research design that allows researchers to answer causal questions about manipulated and measured variables is a(n) __________.
experiment
A psychologist investigating the research question "Which neurotransmitters affect depressive behaviors?" is most likely conducting __________ research.
external
Social desirability
- participants want to portray themselves more positively to the researcher and intentionally respond in a way that achieves that goal - it can bias the results of a survey or questionnaire
Hypothesis
- prediction regarding the results of a research study
An introduction is a short summary of the study that allows readers to decide if the article is relevant to their literature review without their reading the entire article.
False; abstract
A correlational study allows a researcher to test a causal relationship.
False; experimental study
Data-driven hypotheses typically rely on deductive reasoning.
False; theory-driven
Choosing a research question is the __________ step in the research process.
first
Informed consent involves __________.
informing participants about what they will experience in a study
A __________ relationship indicates that as values on one variable increase, the values on the other variable decrease.
negative
The parsimony canon of the scientific method states that __________.
the simplest explanation of a phenomenon is most likely to be correct
The Zimbardo (1973) prison study resulted in all but which __________.
the study being extended because of adverse effects on the participants - what it did result in: adverse stress reactions from some of the participants assigned to be prisoners, cruel behavior from some of the participants assigned to be guards, & the study being cut short because of adverse effects on the participants
Explanations of behavior that need to be tested are called __________.
theories
Which of the following likely cannot help a researcher conduct a literature review?
typing your topic into google - what can help: PsycINFO, reading book chapters, & reading journal articles
The scientific method involves gaining new knowledge through __________.
observation
The empiricism canon of the scientific method states that new knowledge is gained from __________.
observations
The determinism canon of the scientific method states that __________.
phenomena have observable causes
A researcher who examines the difference between individuals who smoke and those who do not smoke is using the __________ research design.
quasi-experiment
A researcher who examines the difference in anxiety level between individuals who smoke and those who do not smoke is using the __________ research design.
quasi-experimental
These are all ways to use empiricism to learn about behavior except __________.
relying on common sense
Informed consent is an important element of this principle.
respect for persons
An Institutional Review Board (IRB) is __________.
responsible for overseeing the ethics of research with human participants
A risk-benefit analysis involves __________.
showing that the benefits of a study outweigh the risks
Participants who want to portray themselves more positively to the researcher and intentionally respond in a way that achieves that goal biases the results of a survey and is called __________.
social desirability
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
- a committee of knowledgeable individuals who oversee the ethics of research with human participants conducted at an institution
Confounding Variable
- an extraneous factor present in a study that may affect the results
Plagiarism
- claiming another's work or ideas as one's own
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
- committee of knowledgeable individuals that oversees the ethics with nonhuman animal subjects at an institution
Informed Consent
- consent obtained from participants for participation in research after the participants have been informed about the purpose, procedure, and risks of the research
Systematic observation
- data collection technique where control is exerted over the conditions under which the behavior is observed - when researchers want to exert the highest amount of control over behavior; typically done using a controlled task to indicate the behavior of interest
Levels of the Independent Variable
- different situations or conditions that participants experience in an experiment because of the manipulation of the independent variable
Debriefing
- discussing the purpose and benefits of a research study with participants, often done at the end of the study
Coercion
- forcing participants to participate in research without their consent
Empiricism
- gaining knowledge through systematic observation of the world - that the scientific method relies on observations
Theory-Driven Hypothesis
- hypothesis for a study that is based on a theory about the behavior of interest - involves deductive reasoning
Data-Driven Hypothesis
- hypothesis for a study that is based on the results of previous, related studies - involves inductive reasoning
Ways of Knowing
- intuition, deduction, authority, observation
Deception
- misleading participants about the purpose or procedures of a research study
Qualitative Data
- nonnumerical participant responses
Quantitative Data
- numerical data
Random Assignment
- participants are randomly assigned to levels of the independent variable in an experiment to control for individual differences as an extraneous variable
Closed-Ended Response Scale
- participants respond to survey questions according to the response options provided by the researcher
Open-Ended Response Scale
- participants respond to survey questions in any manner they feel is appropriate for the question
Naturalistic Observation
- a data collection technique involving noninvasive observation of individuals in their natural environments - used when researcher wants to learn about behavior that naturally occurs for an individual without influencing the behavior
Archival Data
- a data collection technique that involves analysis of preexisting data
Interviews
- a data collection technique that involves direct questioning of individuals about their behaviors and attitudes
Consent Form
- a form provided to the participants at the beginning of a research study to obtain their consent for the study and to explain the study's purpose and risks, and the participants' rights as participants
Scatterplot
- a graph showing the relationship between two dependent variables for a group of individuals
Zimbardo (1973) Prison Experiment
- a group of Stanford students were assigned to either play the role of prison guard or prisoner. - all were dressed in uniforms, and the prisoners were assigned numbers. The prisoners were locked up in the basement of the psychology building, and the guards were put in charge of their treatment. - the students took to their assigned roles perhaps too well, and the experiment had to be ended early because of the cruel treatment the guards were inflicting on the prisoners.
Inter-observer/Inter-rater Reliability
- a measure of the degree to which different observers observe or code behaviors in similar ways
Confederate
- a person who is part of a research study but acts as though he or she is not, to deceive the participant about the study's purpose
Descriptive Hypothesis
- a prediction about the results of a study that describes the behavior or the relationship between behaviors
Causal Hypothesis
- a prediction about the results of a study that includes the causes of a behavior
Literature Review
- a process of searching for and reviewing previous studies related to a study being developed to add to the knowledge in an area and make appropriate predictions about the data
Peer Review
- a process that takes place prior to publication of an article in many journals where experts make suggestions for improving an article and make a recommendation about whether an article should be published in the journal
Ex Post Facto Design
- a quasi-experiment where subjects are grouped based on a characteristic they already possess (e.g., age or gender)
Negative Relationship
- a relationship between variables characterized by an increase in one variable that occurs with a decrease in the other variable
Case Study
- a research design that involves intensive study of particular individuals and their behaviors
Descriptive Research Question
- a research question that asks about the presence of behavior, how frequently it is exhibited, or whether there is a relationship between different behaviors - Ex: Are college students anxious? How does anxiety manifest itself in college students? Do college students who smoke also tend to be anxious?
Survey Research
- a research study that uses the survey observational technique to measure behavior - often conducted to measure mood, attitudes about a topic, or frequency of certain behaviors through self-reports from the participants
Introduction
- a section of an APA-style article that introduces the topic of the study, reviews relevant background studies, and presents predictions for the data
Demand Characteristics
- a source of bias that can occur in a study due to participants changing their behavior based on their perception of the study and its purpose
Placebo
- a sugar pill given to the control group in a drug study to allow all groups to believe that they are receiving a treatment
Abstract
- a summary of an article that appears at the beginning of the article and in searchable databases of journal articles
Pretest-Posttest Design
- a type of research design (often a quasi-experiment) where behavior is measured both before and after a treatment or condition is implemented
Correlational Study
- a type of research design that examines the relationships between multiple dependent variables, without manipulating any of the variables
Experiment
- a type of research design that involves manipulation of an independent variable, allowing control of extraneous variables that could affect the results
Quasi-Experiment
- a type of research design where a comparison is made, as in an experiment, but no random assignment of participants to groups occurs
Dependent/Response Variable
- a variable that is measured or observed by an individual
Content Analysis
- an archival data collection technique that involves analysis of the content of an individual's spoken or written record
Variable
- an attribute that can vary across individuals - behavior, situation, or characteristic that can differ from individual to individual
Field Experiment
- an experiment conducted in the participants' natural environment
Small-n Design
- an experiment conducted with one or a few participants to better understand the behavior of those individuals
Milgram (1963) Obedience Study
- an experiment devised by Stanley Milgram, a psychologist at Yale University, to see how far ordinary people would go to obey a scientific authority figure - a series of psychological experiments which measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience.
Theory
- an explanation of behavior that can be tested through research studies
Respect for Persons
- provide information about the study before it begins (nature of participation, purpose, risks, benefits) - obtain voluntary consent from participants after they are informed (i.e., informed consent) - give participants opportunity to ask questions - inform participants of right to withdraw
Beneficence
- reduce risk of harm to participants - potential benefits of the study must outweigh risks - inhumane treatment of participants is never justified
Applied Research
- research conducted with the goal of solving everyday problems
Basic Research
- research conducted with the goal of understanding fundamental processes of phenomena - research questions are typically about how a behavior works
Applications of the Belmont Report Principle
- respect fo persons, beneficence, & justice
Discussion
- section of an APA-style article that compares the results of a study to the predictions and the results of previous studies
Method
- section of an APA-style article that describes the participants, design, stimuli, apparatus, and procedure used in the study
Results
- section of an APA-style article that presents a summary of the results and the statistical tests of the predictions
Confirmation Bias
- seeking only evidence that supports our beliefs and ignoring evidence that contradicts those beliefs
Justice
- selection of participants must be fair - all participant groups must have opportunity to receive benefits of research - no participant groups may be unfairly selected for harmful research
Nuremberg Code
- set of ethical guidelines developed for research with human participants based on information gained during the trials at Nuremberg of Nazi scientists conducting experiments on people without their consent under coercion after WWII.
Testability
- the assumption that explanations of behavior can be tested and falsified through observation
Determinism
- the assumption that phenomena have identifiable causes - by conducting studies to observe behavior, we can understand the factors that cause those behaviors to occur
Parsimony
- the assumption that the simplest explanation of a phenomenon is most likely to be correct
Operational Definition
- the definition of an abstract concept used by a researcher to measure or manipulate the concept in a research study Examples: - Depression: - score on a mood questionnaire, # of times someone has thought of suicide in the last month, or measure of certain neurotransmitters in the areas of the brain
Internal Validity
- the degree to which a study provides causal information about behavior - degree to which a study provides a good test of a causal hypothesis where alternative explanations of the data can be ruled out
External Validity
- the degree to which the results of a study apply to individuals and realistic behaviors outside the study - researchers want to be able to apply their results to a problem that generalizes to individuals who are not participants in their study
Reliability
- the degree to which the results of a study can be replicated under similar conditions
Outcome Variable
- the dependent variable in a correlational study that is being predicted by the predictor variable
Predictor Variable
- the dependent variable in a correlational study that is used to predict the score on another variable
Control Group
- the group of participants in an experiment that do not experience the treatment level of the independent variable
Experimental Group
- the group of participants in an experiment that experience the treatment level of the independent variable
Third-Variable Problems
- the presence of extraneous factors in a study that affect the dependent variable and can decrease the internal validity of the study
Independent Variable
- the variable in an experiment that is manipulated to determine whether it has an effect on another variable
Positive Relationship
- the variables change together in the same direction (both increasing together or decreasing together)
Deductive Reasoning
- using general information to make a specific prediction
Inductive Reasoning
- using specific information to make a more general prediction
Risk-Benefit Analysis
- weighing the risks against the benefits of a research study to ensure that the benefits outweigh the risks
__________ researchers are often concerned with the external validity of their studies.
Applied
When one encounters reports of research in the media, all but which question should you be asking yourself?
What is the gender of the researcher(s)? - Questions you should ask: Who were the research subjects? Was an appropriate sample tested? Was an appropriate method used to investiagte the question?
A literature review is __________.
a detailed review of past research in a topic area.
Causal Research Question
a research question that asks what causes specific behaviors to occur - Ex: What types of events cause college students to become anxious? many causal research questions are also designed to test a theory about the causes of behavior - Ex: Is anxiety in college students caused by lack of confidence in their abilities?
Deciding that it must be raining because the weather person said it would rain today is an example of which method of knowing?
authority
Observing behaviors as they occur in an individual's natural environment uses the _________ observation technique.
naturalistic
A psychologist investigating the research questions "Which type of therapy most effectively reduces depressive behaviors?" is most likely conducting __________ research.
basic
__________ research investigates fundamental aspects of behavior, whereas __________ research investigates solutions for real-world problems.
basic; applied
__________ refers to the reduction of risk of harm to the participants as compared with the benefit of the study.
beneficence
The researcher's responsibility to protect a participant's identity and right to privacy during and after the research study is known as __________.
confidentiality
The research design that allows researchers to gain a lot of descriptive information about a single individual or institution is a(n) _________.
case study
"Does lack of sleep cause depression?" is an example of a __________ research question.
causal
"Is anxiety in college students caused by a lack of confidence in their abilities?" is an example of a __________ research question.
causal
If a researcher makes a hypothesis for a study based on results that were reported in previous studies, they are making a __________ hypothesis.
data-driven
At the end of a study researchers often discuss the purpose and benefits of a research study with participants. This is known as __________.
debriefing
A study is conducted to examine the effect of instruction type on test scores. Participants in the study are asked to complete a simple math test with either time limit instructions (i.e., the participants are told they must complete the test within 3 minutes) or no time limit instructions (i.e., the participants are not given a time limit for the test). Participants are randomly assigned to one of the instruction types. The independent variable in this study is __________.
instruction type
A theory __________.
is an explanation of a behavior
Asking individuals to rate how often each of the 20 items related to depression symptoms occurs in their daily lives is an example of which observation technique?
survey observations
Asking individuals to complete a task under controlled conditions uses the __________ observation technique.
systematic
The first APA ethical code was based on __________.
the Nuremberg code