History Stalin

Alexandra Kollontai (1872-1952)

- Capitalism oppressed women - Collectives for family, childcare provided by the state - Motherhood was a duty but shouldn't be a burden - Marriage should be based on love - One of the leaders of workers opposition and clashed with Lenin

Timeline till 30's

1917 February Revolution October Revolution 1918 Civil War 1921 March: Kronstadt Rebellion; 10th Party Congress; NEP is adopted 1922 April: Stalin becomes general secretary of the Communist Party December: Lenin writes his last Testament; triumvirate is formed against Trotsky 1923 January: Lenin's Postscript recommends Stalin's dismissal February: Triumvirs begin their company against Trotsky and Trostkyism. 1924 January: Lenin dies May: Central Committee keeps Lenin's Testament secret and decides not to dismiss Stalin November: Stalin reveals socialism in one country for the first tme 1925 January: Trotsky dismissed as commissar of war May: Leningrad Opposition starts December: 14th Party Congress; Leningrad Opposition outvoted 1926 July: United Opposition is formed 1927 November: Trotsky and Zinoviev are expelled from the Communist Party, and Kamenev from the Central Committee December: 15th Party Congress; Zinoviev and Kamenev end United Opposition 1928 January: Trotsky is deported to Alma-Ata July: Bukharin wins Central Committee vote to slow down collectivisation October: First Five-Year Plan starts 1929 January: Trotsky is deported to Constantinople April: Bukharin is removed as editor of Pravda; 16th Party Conference; right is defeated over collectivisation; first Five-Year Plan is approved November: Bukharin is removed from the Politburo December: Stalin calls for kulaks to be 'liquidates as a class' 1928-1930 Party purge expels thousands of lower ranking party members 1930 January: Start of mass collectivisation June: 16th party congress (signs of some opposition)

Timeline 40's

1932 September: Ryutin Affair 1932-1933 Crisis in undustry; forced collectivisation causes famine 1933 January: Smirnov's anti-party group is charged with attempting to replace Stalin 1934 February: 17th Party Congress approves Second Five-Year Plan December: Kirov is murdered; thousands are arrested 1935 January: Mass arrests continue; secret trial of Zinonviev, Kamenev and 17 other members of a 'Moscow Centre' Augustus: Start of the Stakhanovite movement 1936 June: New family law is introduced Augustus: First show trial (Trial of the Sixteen); Great Purge starts September: Ezhov replaces Yagoda as head of NKVD (secret polixe) 1937 January: Second show trial (Trial of the Seventeen) February: Bukharin is expelled from the party May: Purge of the Red Army starts 1938 March: Third show trial (Trial of the Twenty One) December: Beria replaces Ezhov as head of the NKVD 1939 March: 18th Party Congress approves third Five-Year plan; Purges end; Stalin is in control

Timeline till Stalin's Death

1945 June: Stalin becomes Generalissimo and starts to reassert control over the party and state 1946 Fourth Five-Year Plan is announced 1948 Augustus: Zhdanov dies 1949 July: Leningrad Affair 1951 Mingrelian Case Fifth Five-Year plan starts 1953 January: 'Doctors Plot' March: Stalin dies

Congress

: In theory, this was the CP supreme decision-making body, made up of delegates elected by local party organs. At first, congresses were held frequently, as were conferences, which were held to decide on specific problems.

Kolkhoz

A kolkhoz was a collective farm operated by a number of peasant families on state-owned land. Peasants could use a kolkhoz rent-free in return for fulfilling the state grain procurement quotas. Any surplus was divided amongst the members, according to how much work they had done. Each family was also allowed access to a small plot of land and to keep some animals. Before 1930 these collective farms were set up on a voluntary basis, but after 1930 forced collectivisation was common. A kolkhoz shouldn't be confused with a sovkhoz which was a state farm with workers being paid a regular wage.

Democratic centralism

All party members right to form factions/ give opinion

Andrei Vyshinkshi (1883-1954)

At first he supported the Mensheviks but joined the Bolsheviks during the civil war. He acted as deputy state prosecutor during the show trials.

Lavrenti Beria (1899-1953

Beria was an early supporter of Stalin. In 1938, he replaced Ezhov as head of the NKVD and was responsible for his elimination and several other NKVD officials at the end of the Great Terror. When Zhdanov died in 1948, it was thought Beria would succeed Stalin. However, when Stalin died he was arrested and executed.

Fact 4

Between 1941 and 1945, the Soviet Union suffered staggering losses; the USA was the only power to emerge richer from the war. According to historian Chris Ward, by 1945, 25% of the USSR pre-war capital stock had been destroyed. It was worse in western region that had been occupied by the Axis forces. According to Robert Service, there was a 25% population loss. As the Axis forces retreated, they carried out systematic destruction. In addition, over 1700 towns and 70,000 villages were razed to the ground. One result of this deliberate destruction was the over 2,5 million civilians were forced to live in makeshift underground hovels. By May 1945, the Soviet economy was turmoil.

Nikolai Bukharin (1888-1938)

Bukharin joined the Bolsheviks in 1906 and at first was at the left of the party. However, from 1924 he moved to the right and remained the main defender of the NEP until 1928, when he was defeated by Stalin. He was allowed back into the party in the 1930s but was executed in 1938. - an intellectual, liked the arts, 'golden bouy

Uninterrupted workweek

Four days of work, one day off.

Genrihk Yagoda (1891-1938

He joined the Bolsheviks in 1907 and the Cheka in 1917. He was put in charge of forced-labour camps in 1930 and, in 1934, the NKVD. He is suspected of having been involved in Kirov's murder and, in 1936, he supervised the first show trial. He was replaced by Ezhov after failing to get Bukharin convicted. He was arrested in 1937, found guilty of plotting with Trostky and others, and executed in 1938.

Leon Trotsky (1879-1940)

He sided with the Mensheviks against Lenin. However, he joined the Bolsheviks in 1917 and was the main organiser of the November Revolution. He led the Red Army during the civil war (Commisar for War). Expelled from the Soviet Union in 1929, he set up the Fourth International, an international communist organisation, in 1938 while in Mexico. He was assassinated in Mexico by one of Stalin's agents. - Best orators, popular with young people, maybe too loyal and arrogant - Undiagonased fever

Mikhail Tomsky

Important figure in the trade unon movement

Central Committee

In theory, this was the Communist Party's ruling body between Congresses. It was elected by Congress delegates. The Central Committee then elected the Politburo. In practice, the Politburo soon came to dominate the Central Committee and Congresses.

Sergei Kirov (1888-1934

Joined the Bolsheviks in 1904 and was elected to the Politburo in 1930. He was head of the Leningrad CP. He was a moderate and opposed some of Stalin's more extreme measures. He was assassinated in mysterious circumstances.

Nikolai Ezhov (1895-1940

Joined the Bolsheviks in 1917 and played an active part in the November Revolution. He helped to organise the collectivisation of agriculture. As head of the NKVD from 1937 to 1938, he organised the show trials against the Old Bolsheviks and the purge of armed forces. He was removed from his post in 1938 and executed in 1940.

Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924

Joined the RSDLP in 1989. He provoked the split in 1903 and formed the Bolshevik faction. In exile from Russia until April 1917, he returned and pushed for the Bolsheviks to overthrow the Provisional Government in November 1917. He acted as prime minister from 1917 to 1924.

Lev Kamenev (1883-1936)

Kamenev joined the Bolsheviks and was elected to their Politburo in 1917. He, like Zinoviev, opposed Lenin's call for a second revolution in November, following the revolution in March 1917. He became the leader of the Moscow party organisation. As one of the triumvirs, he had supported Stalin immediately after Lenin's death but later joined with Zinoviev in forming a United Opposition with Trotsky. After this was defeated he made peace with Stalin but was executed in 1936. - liked maybe too soft

Ezhovshchina

Literally 'the time of Ezhov', this term refers to the height of the Great Terror, from 1937 to 1938, when Ezhov was head of the NKVD.

Georgi Zhukov (1896-1974

Marshal Zhukov oversaw the defence of Leningrad and Stalingrad, becoming deputy commander-in-chief of the Red Army in August 1942. He was the most successful Soviet general in WW2 and led the liberation of Eastern Europe and the capture of Berlin

Proletariat

Marx's term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production

dictatorship of the proletariat

Marx's theory of a proletariat controlled world following the taking from the wealthy; eventually it will wither away into a classless society.

Vyacheslav Molotov (1890-1986)

Molotov was a great supporter of Stalin, becoming a member of the Politburo in 1926. He backed Stalin's economic policies (as well as the great purge). From 1939 to 1949 he was commissar for foreign affairs. He continued to hold high office after Stalin's death but was removed from the Central Committee in 1957.

Nepmen

Nepmen were traders and middle men who began to grow wealthy under the NEP.

Soviet

Originally set up as strike committees, these workers' councils spread throughout Russia during 1917, with each town or rural soviet sending delegate to an All-Russian Congress of Soviets. Afer 1917, the soviets became the main political authority, in theory controlling the government. From 1917 to 1922 Russia was known as the 'Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic' after it was the 'Union of Soviet Socialist Republics'.

Bedniak

Poor peasant

Kulak

Rich peasant

permanent revolution

Russia needs help from other countries

Politburo

Short for Political Bureau, this was the Communist Party's body responsible for making political decisions.

Fact 2

Socialism in one country is an aspect of Stalinist ideology that can be seen as having contributed to the rapid industrialisations of the USSR by stimulating national confidence and pride in what the Soviet people could achieve by their own efforts.

Joseph Stalin (1880-1953)

Stalin = man of steel. His real name was Ioseph Djugashvili. He Joined the RSDLP, a Marxist Party, an sided with Lenin when the party split in 1903. In 1917, he became Commissar for Nationalities and, in 1922, took the role of general secretary of the Communist Party. After Lenin's death, he made himself supreme ruler. He grew up in a peasant family, was arrested several times and escaped Siberia

Alexei Rykov

Succeeded Lenin as Chairman of the Sovnarkom Supporter of NEP and return to War Communism

Fact 8

That Stalin's regime kept racism in check is illustrated by the thousands of Ukrainians who, once removed from Soviet control after the Nazi invasion, eagerly co-operated with the SS.

Fact 1

The Marxist principle of internationalism was based of Marx' and Engels' Communist Manifesto in 1847: 'workers of the world, unite!' They believed workers in different countries had more in common with each other than with the capitalist of their 'own' country. In 1914 at the start of WW1, the Bolsheviks refused to support their government. Instead, they called on all workers - including those in the armed forces - to begin a revolutionary class struggle to end the war and establish socialism in Europe.

NEP

The New Economic Policy was proposed by Lenin and adopted in 1921. It involved allowing small, privatel owned firms and traders to operate. It also established an alliance (smychka) with the peasants, allowing them to sell some of their surplus produce in private markets. However, the state remained in control of the main industrial enterprises and of foreign trade. Many workers referred to the NEP as rhe 'New Exploitation of the Proletariat'.

Paris Commune

The Paris Commune of 1871 refers to the revolutionary provisional government that took over Paris from April to May 1871, following the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71.

Dictatorship of the proletariat

The term 'proletariat' refers to the industrial working class (factory and mine workers). Dictatorship = dominance based on the ownerships of the means of production (factories, land, mines and banks). The dominant idea of any class-divided society is always being those of the dominant classes, who own the major means of communication. Marx described the parliamentary democracy of the last 19th century Britain as a 'dictatorship of the bourgeoisie'. He believed their ownership of wealth ensured that their major interest were protected and advanced, even though ordinary people had many political and individual freedoms.

Sharia Courts

These are the courts that apply Sharia Law in most Muslim societies, based on a combination of sources, including the Qur'an, the teachings of Mohammed and rulings by Islamic scholars. The Bolsheviks mainly opposed this as they saw it as oppressing women.

Old Guard Bolsheviks

These were the Bolsheviks who had been members of the party for a long time - often since the 1903 split. They had played key roles in the Revolution and the civil war that followed. Many had been close to Lenin, and many knew the existence of his Testament and Postscript.

Show Trials

These were the public trials of 1936-38 in which leading communists were accused of plotting against Stalin and the Soviet Union. The interrogation methods of the NKVD (sleep deprivation, beatings and continued questioning) led to many bizarre 'confessions'.

Komsomol

This is the Communist Union of Youth, set up for young people aged 18-28. It provided volunteers for various party programmes and policies, and also assisted the police and the Red Army. Many went on to join the CP as full members.

Bureaucracy

This refers to the tendency for administrative directives from the centre to take the place of decision arrived at democratically by party and soviet institutions. Bureaucracy first emerged as an emergency measure during the civil war, but continued afterwards and was greatly increased by Stalin as general secretary.

Purge

This term initially referred to checking the personal qualities and behaviours of party member. In such purges of 'cleansings' (chitski), those found guilty had their party cards taken away. Violence wasn't involved and former members later allowed to rejoin in behaviour was improved. Purges took place in 1919, 1921, 1929 and 1933. The Great Purge was a very different phenomenon, with mass imprisonment and executions.

Gulag

This term refers to a Soviet government agency set up in 1930 to administer the system of forced labour camps. Gulag is an acronym for the Russian term for the 'Chief Administration for Corrective Labour Camps'. Initially it was under the control of a special section of the OGPU, in July 1934, the NKVD took over the OGPU and its Gulag administration.

Great Russian Chauvinism

This term refers to a form of nationalism associated with Imperial Russia, whereby the non-European parts of the empire were forced to adopt European Russian language and culture. After 1917, Stalin increasingly took this approach - leading to a clash with Lenin over the 'national question'.

Zionism

This term refers to a movement for the re-establishment of a Jewish nation. Because of the persecution throughout Europe, a minority of Jewish leaders during the 19th century came to believe that Jews should have their own state. They decided on Palestine. Soviet Jews supporting Zionism were seen as disloyal.

NKVD

This term refers to the People's Commissariat for International Affairs, set up in 1917. In July 1934, it took over the secret police and kept this responsibility until 1943.

Smychka

This term refers to the economic link between the town and the countryside/workers and peasants. This was the cornerstone of the NEP.

OGPU

This term refers to the secret police from 1from 1917 to 1934, the Cheka had been the secret police and, from 1922 to 1923 the GPU.

Triumvirate

This terms comes from the Latin for a group of three rulers acting together.

Pravda

This was the Bolshevik/Communist Party newspaper. Its name is Russian for truth. It was first edited by Stalin and later by Bukharin.

Fact 3

Under Lenin, freedom of debate amongst members of the Communist Party continued at least until 1921-1922. During the debates on whether to make a separate peace with Germany in 1918, Lenin faced so much opposition he considered stepping down as leader and continuing the argument as an ordinary party member.

Literature

Union of Soviet Writers included non-proletarian and non-party writers

Grigori Zinoviev (1883-1936

Zinoviev joined the Bolsheviks and worked closely with Lenin from 1908. He became the powerful leader of the Leningrad Party and president of Comintern (the Communist International, founded in Moscow in 1919). After Lenin's death, he worked with Kamenev and Stalin (triumvirs) to prevent Trotsky taking over. He later opposed Stalin and was executed in 1936. - Good orator but not intellectual, weak, vain, not popular

Bureaucracy further explanation

a system of government in which most of the important decisions are made by state officials rather than by elected representatives

socialism in one country

accept that the world revolution won't happen. Build socialism without help (nationalism/patriotism)

Was stalin's state totalitarian?: pluralist

argue that the Stalinist state acted as a referee for different competing interest groups. State and society are more dynamic than in totalitarian theories

internationalism

global socialism

Seredniak

middle peasant

Was stalin's state totalitarian: totalitarian

personal dictatorship based on coercion via the use of the secret police and repression, politicisation, control over cultural and artistic life, important areas of the economy state-owned, social structure, utopia, all-powerful leader, censorship and propaganda

Was stalin's state totalitarian: reconstruction-consolidation

state is important but also takes account of sectional and social resistance to official policy

stalin's state after 1912

¬ 'Cult of Personality': Stalin as a national hero who defeated the Nazi's. ¬ Stalin wanted to reassert and maintain tight control of the armed forces, party and society as a whole ¬ In June 1945 promoted himself to 'Generalissimo' (supreme leader of the army) ¬ Georgi Zukhov lost his place on the CC and other high ranking army officers also lost influence and positions ¬ From December 1945, in order to reassert political control, the Politburo met ¬ Stalin became more suspicious: - excluded leading party members from decision-making process - dispensed the politburo and the central committee between 1947-1952 - purges within the party until his death on 5th of March 1953 ¬ Thus, it would appear that it was Stalin who exercised real power rather than the Party

Stage 3: the defeat of the Right (1927-29)

¬ 1928: Stalin turned against the right and the N.E.P. He favoured: - Rapid industrialization - Forced to make the peasants cooperate ¬ Many Bukharinists were removed ¬ By May 1928, Stalin was planning a second revolution to move from the part-capitalist NEP to full socialism ¬ Trotskyists thought they should join Stalin against the right ¬ Bukharin mounted a strong defence, got outvoted by Stalin's supporters and the left, supported the anti-N.E.P. line ¬ Trotsky and Bukharin had an alliance but this actually just cost Trotsky his support ¬ 1928-29: Bukharin, Tomsky and Rykov removed from the politburo

Campaign against kulaks

¬ Action was taken first against kulaks who resisted the grain collections - Identification of kulaks often went beyond Stalin's definition of a peasant with two horses and four cows

Lenin ideology

¬ Adaption of Marx: democratic centralism ¬ Because tsarist Russia was a police state, decisions should be supported by all members ¬ Trotsky disagreed as he believed that it would allow a dictator to rise ¬ Lenin also argued that the stages of human society as identified by Marx could be 'minimised' ¬ As soon as one revolutionary stage had been achieved, the struggle for the next began almost immediately ¬ Trotsky also had this view Russia couldn't succeed in carrying through any uninterrupted revolution to socialism without any outside assistance

Socialist realism

¬ Art and literature must educate the workers in the spirit of Communism ¬ Stalin liked realism because it was clear - Good for propaganda

Art

¬ Artists were given detailed guidelines when they were commissioned to produce specific works on a given subjects - Museum directors were given bonuses if they exceeded their targets for visitors

The Great Purge: Trial of the Seventeen, January 1937

¬ At the second show trial, 17 communist leaders were accused of plotting with Trotsky to carry out assassinations, sabotage of industry and spying ¬ 13 were sentenced to death ¬ Following the second show trial, the Central Committee met during February and March ¬ It's main business was to consider the destruction of the 'Trotskyist Conspiracy' ¬ Bukharin was accused of having known Trotsky's plan, he was expelled from the party and arrested

Cultural revolution, 1928-31

¬ Attack on bourgeois values ¬ New Soviet Man Young Commies broke up 'bourgeois' plays, critiiscised painters and writers who didn't follow the party line

Jews

¬ Before 1917 there were 5 million Jews ¬ They suffered considerable persecution under the Tsars ¬ Russian Jews were the first to develop Zionism ¬ In 1917, all anti-Semitic laws were abolished, many early Bolsheviks were Jews ¬ The Bolsheviks opposed Zionists and Yiddish was an acceptable language ¬ Anti-Jewish prejudices began to reappears in campaigns against 'subversives' and 'saboteurs' during the purges ¬ Jews were arrested as suspected counter-revolutionaries or reactionary nationalists rather than as Jews ¬ In the Gulag population, Jews were under-respented ¬ In 1926, Soviet Jews granted a special 'national homeland' in part of the far eastern region; in 1935 this became an autonomous republic but only 50k settled ¬ In 1939-40 the USSR gained an extra 2 million from Poland and Baltic republis: Zionism was strong in these regions ¬ This and the Nazi invasion led to strong campaigns against Zionism: rabbis and community leaders were arrested ¬ After the emergence of Israel 1948, emigration to Israel was banned ¬ Policies were essentially anti-Zionist rather than anti-Semitic Policies were politically, not biologically, motivated and weren't intended to be genocidal

Impact of Great Purge

¬ Before Gorbachev and his policy of 'glasnost', estimates of total victims of the Great Purge varied from 5 million to 18 million ¬ In 1990, KGB archives were made public, these gave much lower figures just under 2 million victims ¬ There's also the problem of trying to separate deaths due to the 'liquidation' of the kulaks and the famine from deaths connected to the Great Terror

Ethnic minorities

¬ Bolsheviks campaigned against Slav and Great Russian chauvinism ¬ Earlly CP allowed all the major nationalities to have separate party sections ¬ Stalin had a great desire for central control which led to greater assimilation of the various national groups in order to achieve a 'Soviet' identity ¬ Many historians believe that Stalin was a Great Russian nationalist ¬ Russian became the official language ¬ By 1936, Stalin had divided central Asia into five separate republic in order to weaken any pan-Turkic loyalities ¬ Other historians, say Stalin wasn't a Russian nationalist but that his policies were political and strategic rather than ethnic and racial ¬ Stalin was trying to construct a Soviet patriotism to unite all nationalities in a common commitment ot building socialism and defending the 'motherland' ¬ Stalin's actions were against reactionary nationalism For example, national groups living on the Soviet borders were moved if they shared ethnic origins with potential enemies

Great Terror

¬ By this time the Great Purge had begun to transform into the Great Terror or Ezhovshchina as the number of denunciations, expulsions, trials, imprisonments and executions multiplied ¬ By mid 1937, the purges widened and included large numbers of administrators and specialists, including engineers and railway workers ¬ In 1937-38, almost the entire party structure in Ukraine, from the Politburo downwards was purged ¬ In most of the other republics, high-ranking party officials were purged of 'nationalists' ¬ The Great Terror also spread to the Red Army ¬ As the threat of war from Nazi Germany increased, Stalin worried about a military coup ¬ By the end of 1938, 3/5 Red Army marshals, 14/16 top commanders and all 8 admirals were executed ¬ Airforce officers and the military intelligence service were also badly hit ¬ In all, 35k (50%) of the entire officer corps were either executed or imprisoned Also ordinary people were affected and in order to avoid suspicions, many denounced

Bolsheviks win the war

¬ Causes: - Bigger and a better organized army (Red Army, led by Trotsky) - Bolsheviks were better organized with Moscow as base of operation - The Whites were divided

Religion

¬ Churches were seen as aspects of class-divided societies which tried to reconcile the lower classes to poverty, inequality and exploitation ¬ 'Opium of the people' ¬ After the November revolution, religion wasn't seen as a threat and freedom of religion was allowed ¬ Lands owned by the Churches were confiscated ¬ Church and State legally separated ¬ Registration of deaths, births and marriages become secular rather than religious ¬ In 1921, giving religious instructions to minors was banned and anti-relgious campaign allowed ¬ In 1927, orthodox church was granted official recognition in return to be loyal to the state ¬ In 1928, closing of places of religious worship ¬ In 1929, worship was restricted to 'registered congregations ¬ In 1936, Constitution made pro-religious propaganda a crime ¬ In 1930, Church leaders were banned from conducting religious services, those who resisted were imprisoned ¬ In 1932, uninterrupted work week was introduced partly to prevent church attendance ¬ Anti-religion spread to Buddhism and Islam ¬ Sharia courts were abolished: frequency of ritual prayers, fast and feasts were reduced; Muslim women granted equality and wearing the veil was forbidden ¬ In 1935, pilgrimages to Mecca were made illegal ¬ However, religious belief and worship persisted, the 1937 census shows that 57% of the population still defined themselves as believers ¬ During WW2, Stalin removed many restrictions on the Orthodox church ¬ In 1943, the post of patriacrch was re-established as part of new Soviet patriotism ¬ Stalin allowed the reopening of churches along with 67 monastic houses ¬ In 1944, anti-relgious propaganda made a return as Soviet victory seemed certain ¬ Protestans and Catholics continued to suffer more sever persecution

Mass collectivisation

¬ Collectives were set up ¬ Kulaks were divide into three categories: two groups of 'counter-revolutionaries' and 'exploiters' were given harsh punishments ¬ Richer peasants often destroyed their crops and livestock than hand them over to the local kolkhoz, or they raided them to re-take their property ¬ Local parties were given targets of how many households should be collectivised ¬ By March 1930, it was reported that 58% of peasant households had been collectivised ¬ Stalin was pressurised by the Politburo into calling a halt ¬ Official policy returned to voluntary collectivisation and many peasants had their property restored By October, only about 20% of households were still collectivised

First Five Year PLan, 1928-1932

¬ Concentrated on heavy industry: coal, iron, steel, oil and machine-production ¬ Overall production was planned to increase by 300% ¬ New factories and mines were set up in many regions ¬ New rail-links, hydroelectric scheme and industrial complexes were built ¬ The Soviet Union had a relative economic backwardness (50 to 100 years) However, no major targets had actually been met

Economic reconstruction after WW2

¬ During WW2, nearly 100k kolkhozes, 2k sovkhozes and 5 million homes were destroyed ¬ 17 million cattle were lost ¬ Railway, roads and bridges were also destroyed Retreating German armies stripped the occupied areas of all industrial equipment and agricultural produce and destroyed what they couldn't carry

Education

¬ Early Bolsheviks realised that an educaed workforce was vital if they were to create a modern socialist industrial society ¬ Mass provision of primary education with equal opportunity for all had been their first aim in order to overcome the high illiteracy rate ¬ Individuality and creativity were encouraged ¬ Under Stalin, provison of secondary and higher education expanded ¬ By 1939, illiteracy had been almost eradicated The proportion of working class students in higher technical education doubled after 1928

Socio cultural

¬ Emphasis on the impact of the social structure on the politics and development of the CP and the Soviet state ¬ During the civil war, careerist flocked to join the winning side ¬ New party member had no real understanding of Marxism or recent Bolshevik history ¬ They were easily manipulated

NEP

¬ Farmers were allowed to grow their own food again ¬ Trade, after paying taxes, was allowed again ¬ Small factories were returned to their owners

Economic policies

¬ Foreign threats: heavy industry needed for future wars ¬ Grain crisis (1927): Stalin wanted to abandon the NEP ¬ Ideology: socialism in one country ¬ Aim: industrialize and modernize SU, being able defend itself and secure its own position. Backward Russia would become 'Soviet-America' ¬ Reasons for this - increase military strength - achieve self-sufficiency - increase grain supply - achieve a socialist state - establish his credentials - improve standards of living ¬ Methods: - Collectivization --> modernize agriculture - Five Year Plans--> boost industry - Propaganda --> make people believe in his policy - Social policies --> women, education, religion and creating the Soviet citizen - Class struggle - Elimination of opposition

Agriculture

¬ From 1924 to 1926, the NEP had led to a gradual increase in agricultural production ¬ Low state purchases of grain threatened hunger in the expanding towns and undermined increasing industrialisation ¬ By the time of the 15th Party Congress many communists saw the NEP as blocking both agricultural and industrial development ¬ Stalin argued that the problems could be overcome by strengthening co-operative farms, increasing mechanisations and supporting the voluntary collectivisation of farms ¬ By the end of 1928, a combination of a fall in sales of grain to the state and crop failure led to dramatic increases in free-market prices, a further slump in grain deliveries to the state and rationing ¬ During 1919, the forcible Ural-Siberian method (resistors were arrested, increased grain procurements, closed markets) was implemented all over the Soviet Union - Stalin launched a programme of forced collectivisation and called for the kulaks to be liquidated as a class

How can the GP be explained: Revisionist

¬ Genuine opposition ¬ Trotskyist-Zinovievist plot were partly based on fact ¬ the NKVD and local party bosses were often out of control in the chaos of the 1930s and often took matters well beyond Stalin's intentions The Great Terror was an opportunity for rival local leaders to settle old scored

The Crisis Year, 1932-33

¬ Implementation costs had been much greater than allowed for by Gosplan ¬ The enormous increases in coal, iron and industrial goods proved too much for the railway system to cope with ¬ At the same time, urban populations rapidly expanded ¬ There were housing shortage, which threatened continued industrialisation ¬ The effects of forced collectivisation led to food shortages, rationing and famine ¬ Many workers changed jobs frequently Managers had to increase wage and offer unofficial perks in order to retain skilled workers so that they could meet their targets

Young people

¬ In 1918, a communist youth organisation was created ¬ Age of entry was 15 and membership continued to 21 ¬ Membership wasn't compulsory ¬ Youths had to be sponsored by adult commies ¬ In the 1920s, a junior organisation was set up for those aged 10 to 15, this was known as the Pioneers ¬ By the 1940s most children of school age belonged to this organisation ¬ During the power struggle, radicalism and independence was ended as many sections tended to support Trotsky and the Opposition ¬ In 1926 it bcame the Communist Union of Youth or Komsomol ¬ In 1939 it was directly affiliated to the party ¬ Membership rose from 4 million to 9 by 1919 and to 16 after Stalin's death ¬ There was a militaristic elemts to some Komsomol activities with an emphasis on national service ¬ This included girls and boys ¬ All students in uni, higher and middle schools had to do some military training ¬ Stalin's main was that young people were ensured future workers which were skilled enough ¬ One aim was the creation of a new socialist citizen who accepted collectivist rather than individualistic ideals ¬ Later, as fear of war increased, nationalism was stressed in history ¬ Stalin arrested teachers and university lectures if they were suspected of opposing such principle ¬ Youth life style rebellion: listening to jazz or simply avoiding Komsomol activities ¬ Open political revolt was rare There were many small secret youth orgganisations before 1941 and after 1945

Position of women

¬ In 1926, a new Family Code consolidated earlier rights and gave women in 'common law' marriages the same rights as those in registered marriages ¬ In muslim regions, women were a subject class ¬ The minimum age was raised in these regions to 16 and 18 in the European parts of the Soviet Union ¬ Polygamy and bride money were banned ¬ Mass political activity known as the khudzhum were organised to oppose traditional practices ¬ Education was provided equally ¬ State nurseries and workplace creches and canteens ¬ Abortion and divorce legal ¬ USSR highest divorce and marriage rates ¬ However, women could be abandoned when pregnant ¬ Due to short housing divorced coupled still lived together: violence and rape ¬ Under Stalin some of these reforms and benefits were reduced or removed ¬ Fear of war was growning and the population growth was in decline ¬ Stalin created policies which promoted the traditional family in order to increase population ¬ Most of the rights stayed in tact ¬ New family law was introduced in 1936: more restrictions on divorce and abortion which was only required for medical reasons ¬ Tax exemptions given ¬ Medals to mothers with large families ¬ Unmarried people taxed more ¬ From 1944 only registered marriages recognised, children born outside marriage were no longer allowed to inherit property from their father ¬ New welfare reforms: free health care, accident insurance, expansion of kindergarten and paid holiday ¬ Women position at worked improved as they were actively encourgaged to play their part in the economic development ¬ All employment was thrown open to women who had the same rights as men ¬ By 1939, a third of all enigneers and 79% of doctors were women ¬ Despite the emphasis on family life during the 1930, women of all ages continued to work ¬ There were many hero-workers in the Stakhanovite movement ¬ Access to higher administrative posts was unequal and the patriarchal tradition was still widespread in society Zhenotdel: department CP

Stakhanovite Movement

¬ In August 1935, Aleksei Stakhanov, a miner, dug out a massive amount of coal in one shift ¬ Following his success, production targets were greatly increased as workers were urged to follow his example

17th Party Congress in 1934

¬ In January 1933, Smirnov was expelled for leading an anti-party group against Stalin ¬ Apparently, before the Congress began, some leading local officials asked Kirov (a politburo member and the party boss of Leningrad) to replace Stalin but he refused ¬ Congress abolished the post of general secretary, making Stalin no more important than Kirov, Kaganovich and Zhdanov (3 other secretaries) ¬ It's possible Stalin wanted this in order to share responsibility for the economic crisis The CC, elected by Congress, voted for the majority of the 1225 delegates for Kirov

Gulag

¬ In order to overcome immediate labour shortages, the OGPU was instructed to establish timber camps in remote area ¬ Initially to earn foreign currecncy via export of timer ¬ From 1934, all prisons, camps and colonies were under gulag control ¬ Conditions were hard and food was scarce ¬ Prisoners (Zeks) undertook huge construction projects Many were deported ex-kulaks or workers or from thepurges

Cinema

¬ Increased production of documentaries supporting the five year plans objectives ¬ Films had to be presented in a form that everyone could understand ¬ 'Cast-iron' scenario system: subjects of films were often prescribed, elaborate scripts, working with people who enforced the strict execution of the plan ¬ Stalin liked musical comedies, Charlie Chaplin and westerns The general public liked Hollywood films

Third Five Year Plan, 1938-1942

¬ Industrialisation programme was hit by problems again in 1937 despite significant successes ¬ Growing impact of the purges ¬ Worsening international situation which resulted in funds being diverted to defence ¬ Proposals to develop light industry and increase the production of consumer's goods were being undermined by an emphasis on heavy industry and defence ¬ Molotov claimed that the third plan would complete the process and enable the Soviet Union to begin the transition to communism ¬ However, it was disrupted when Germany launched its invasion

Second Five Year Plan, 1933-37

¬ Intended to create a fully socialist economy ¬ However, it was changed to simply call for increased production and improve living standards From 1934 to 1936, there were many successes in machine-production, iron and steel making the Soviet Union practically self-sufficient

Success collectivisation

¬ Intended to solve a serious shortfall in the amount of grain needed to feed the urban population ¬ The destructive resistance by kulaks led to 2.5 million people deported to the Gulag in 1930-31 ¬ Drop in food production and famine in 32-33 ¬ Famine deaths: estimates about 3.5 to 7 million ¬ Total number of deaths including the famine range from 6 million to 20 million ¬ Economic results are also an area of controversy ¬ After 1928, grain deliveries to the state increased ¬ One group supports the orthox standard model: argues that while agriculture output declined, collectivisation shifted resources and funds from rural to urban areas and allowed for rapid industrialisation ¬ Some claim collectivisation provided food, labour and funds for the first 5 year plan ¬ Other argue that the NEP continued, industrial growth rates would've been much lower than those achieved by the five year plans Some offer a revisionist argument, claiming that collectivisation was an economic disaster that made little contribution to the industrialisation programme

Marx ideologt

¬ Internationalist movement ¬ However, capitalisms contradictions (overproductions leading to recessions, depressions and high underemployment) and its political reliance on individual nation states led to frequent and violent class conflicts and wars between competing capitalist states ¬ To overcome this, an international working-class movement would establish world socialism and then communism ¬ Although class struggle was inevitable, societies could stagnate and remain stuck in an inefficient system ¬ Marx also argued that in special circumstances, a relatively backward society could jump a stage but only if that state was aided by sympathetic advanced societies Tsarist Russia couldn't move to socialism on its own

Stage 2: The defeat of the Left (1924-27)

¬ Kamenev & Zinoviev urged not to publish the Testament, afraid that it would help Trotsky and they though that Stalin wasn't a threat anyway ¬ In November 1924, a campaign against 'Trotskyism' was launched ¬ In January 1925, the triumvirs removed Trotsky from his position as commissar of war Divisions within the triumvirate ¬ Disagreements about the NEP caused a split between triumvirs, and left, centre and right factions emerged ¬ Stalin began to remove Kamenev supporters from their positions in the Moscow party ¬ At the 14th Congress in December 1925, Stalin ensured that the majority supported him and Bukharin, and a new CC and PB were elected ¬ Stalin then accused Zinoviev of Trotskyism and Zinoviev lost the leadership of the Leningrad Party The United Opposition ¬ Stalin moved to the right: - Favouring 'Socialism in One Country' - N.E.P. as the USSR's own route to socialism ¬ Results: - Trotsky joined Kamenev and Zinoviev in the 'United Opposition' - Stalin accused them of 'factionalism', 1927-28 all three were expelled from the party -In January 1928, Trotsky was forcibly deported to Alma-Ata

Kirov Affair in 1934

¬ Kirov was known to have doubts about the pace of industrialisation and Stalin's methods of disciplining the party ¬ In December, Kirov was assassinated. Stalin claimed it was a plot to overthrow him and the rule of the CP ¬ The plot was allegedly organised by a 'Leningrad Opposition Centre' which had links with Trotsky's Left Opposition and the United Opposition ¬ The NKVD (which absorbed the OGPU) headed by Yagoda was given sweeping powers of arrest, trial and execution under a special terrorist decree ¬ Over 100 party members where shot and thousands of Trotskyists and Zinovievists were arrested including Kamenev and Zinoviev ¬ In January 1935, Zinoviev, Kamenev and 17 others were tried and imprisoned for 5 to 10 years ¬ A few days later, 12 important NKVD members in Leningrad were also tried and imprisoned Several thousand 'bourgeois elements' were then rounded up

October Revolution (1917)

¬ Lenin (exiled from Russia) is smuggled from Germany to Russia ¬ He would start a revolution ¬ After the revolution, Lenin promised to sign a peace treaty with Germany ¬ Results: - 1918: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, a peace treaty with Germany. The Russian lost a lot of territory such as the Ukraine, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania etc. It became the first 'Communist country'

Ryutin Affair in 1932

¬ Martemyan Ryutin, a rightist, wrote a document calling for the end of forced collectivisation, rehabilitation of oppositionists and the dismissal of Stalin ¬ The document was signed by several prominent communists ¬ Ryutin, Zinoviev, Kamenev and 17 others were expelled from the Central Committee ¬ Stalin wanted Ryutin executed, but the Politburo refused ¬ During the next two years nearly a million party members were expelled as 'Ryuntinites'

Stalin ideology

¬ Marxism-Leninism became the official ideology ¬ Stalin's invention of socialism in one country was key in the power struggle against Trotsky ¬ Trotskyism was portrayed as a petit-bourgeois ideology ¬ Trotsky's ideas seemed to spell continued revolutionary turmoil and even conflict with capitalist states ¬ Many Marxist believed that Stalin's ideas and practices were an almost total distortion of what Marx and Lenin had done ¬ They stress how he rejected socialist democracy in favour of a one-party state and how Stalinism placed the national interest about the struggle to achieve world revolution ¬ Trotskyists came to see themselves as the only true defenders of Marxism

Musics

¬ Music was to be joyous and positive ¬ Symphonies should be in major key - Folk songs and dances in 'praise of the happy life on onward-marching Soviet Man'

The Great Purge: Trial of the Sixteen, August 1936

¬ NKVD claimed to have uncovered a Trotskyist-Zinovievist conspiracy ¬ Zinoviev, Kamenev and 14 others were found guilty of organising the conspicary and plotting to kill Stalin and other Politburo members and were executed ¬ Bukharin and other Right Opposition leaders were questioned but not arrested ¬ Stalin had Yagoda replaced by Ezhov on the grounds that Yagoda wasn't active enough in exposing the full scope of the conspiracy

Collectivisation of agriculture

¬ Officials arrested, deported and confiscated the property of any peasant who failed to hand over the grain quota ¬ 16 million tonnes were collected ¬ In some areas over 30% of the entire crop was taken

Nature of stalinist state

¬ One party state ¬ Dictatorship of the party/one man ¬ Some historians claim that dictatorship was the logical outcome of both Marxist theory and Leninist practice - Only person on 4 bodies of government ¬ David Lane points out that the Stalinist state contained many features of Russia tsarist style autocracy: - the belief in the need for an all-powerful leader - an official orthodox ideology: communism replacing religion - the belief of a national community

How can the GP be explained: totalitarian

¬ Rational response ¬ Mental illness ¬ Trotsky saw the Great Terror as a way of providing scapegoats to explain the economic problems and as a consequence of inevitable paranoia resulting from the increasing isolation of Stalin]and the bureaucracy from Soviet society ¬ Threat of war ¬ 'lust for power' and his 'measureless ambition' to the huge support given to Kirov ¬ Great Purge can be seen as a deliberate and intentional action that was designed to strengthen the regime and Stalin's Position

Civil War in Russia 1917-1918

¬ Reds vs. Whites ¬ Reds are communists, whites are anti-communists or monarchist

Fifth Five Year Plan 1951-55

¬ Set relatively lower targets ¬ Cold War resulted in increasing amounts of state funds going to the defence industry ¬ Tremendous improvements had been made by the time of Stalin's death ¬ Rationing had ended in 1947 and real wages began to rise steadily

Ideological

¬ Some historians argue that the leading Bolsheviks used ideological positions to hide any personal desire for power ¬ The left feared the NEP as it might lead to the restoration of capitalism ¬ The right argued that the Soviet Union was overwhelmingly agricultural and backward and that industry was in crisis; NEP was essential to revive the economy ¬ However, the right tended to overlook the conflicts between the kulaks and the nepmen and the workers ¬ Stalin's rise can be seen as a genuine political response by the centre to steer a midway policy course ¬ Thus, Stalins policies can be seen as consistent and in tune with the bulk of the party membership, who desired stability above all Stalin's ideas seemed safer than Trotsky's

Cult of personality

¬ Stalin as a hero and to equate his political thinking with that of Marx and especially of Lenin ¬ Stalin tried to portray himself as a true 'disciple' of Lenin ¬ opponents were anti-Leninistst ¬ It Stalin was the Lenin of today ¬ Photographs or faces of Stalin's opponents who had been defeated in the 1920s were airbrushed out, simply torn from books or blanked out with pens ¬ the 'father of the nation' who had saved the SU from its enemies ¬ Posters, paintings and statues appeared everywhere in streets, factories, schools, offices and even Soviet homes ¬ The media referred to Stalin in glowing terms such as 'Universal Genius' and 'Shining Sun of Humanity' ¬ made the SU the envy of the world through the achievements of the Five Year plans ¬ Artists, writers and film directors were ordered to produce work in praise of Stalin and his achievements ¬ After WW2, Stalin was portrayed as the one who had saved the Soviet 'motherland' as he also promoted himself to Generalissimo

How succesful were Stalin's economic plans

¬ Stalin didn't have a master plan ¬ Change because of unforeseen effects of NEP ¬ Stalin's constant interference prevented the plans from being coherently and successfully implemented ¬ Response to the grain crisis of 27-28 is seen as an emergency short-term measure that triggered off a sequence of developments that led to more and more radical decisions ¬ Stalin wanted the modernise the Soviet Union by implementing agricultural and industrial policies ¬ Stalin wanted to complete the Bolshevik revolution of 1917

History, nationalism and education

¬ Stalin insisted that education and school life became more stricts: school uniform, report cards and test results were reintroduced and teaching became more formal ¬ In 1943, co-education in urban areas were replaced with single-sex ¬ Core recommendation of physics, chemistry and mathematics ¬ Authority of parents and teachers over pupils was supportend School uniforms ¬ Marxism ¬ Tsars and generals were barely mentioned - Role of the proletariat in the revolution emphasised

Structuralist

¬ Stalin was a product of Russian history and the administrative system set up after 1917 ¬ Some historians see Stalin as essentially a ruler in the long tsarist tradition of absolutist rule ¬ Others point to the impact of the civil war, which led to the development of appointment rather than elections ¬ There was a 'circular flow of power': increase in administrative apparatus increase Stalin's power at national and local level bureaucracy increased Stalin can take control of Congresses, CC and PB Bad positioning of administrative posts led to communist leaders to recruit former tsarist bureaucrats strict central control

Power politics

¬ Stalin's rise can be seen as a result from his deliberate and skilful manipulation of genuine political and ideological differences amongst the Bolsheviks leaders ¬ Robert Conquest argues that Stalin's aim was to gain supreme power by crushing his opponents ¬ Tucker argues that Stalin's aim was to become a revolutionary hero ¬ Stalin's success is seen as dependent on his political shrewdness, ruthlessness and the weaknesses and mistakes of his rivals

How reliable are statistics

¬ Suspicion for official figures ¬ The official figure for 1928-40 is 852% ¬ Most historians accept that there were tremendous increases especially in heavy industry ¬ Not reliable because many factory managers were scared of being punished for non-fulfilment of targets ¬ The lack of skill of many of the industrial workers since many were peasants with basic training Machines frequently broke down

War communism/1921 ban

¬ Temporary because of war ¬ Lenin (head of the politburo) and Trotsky (head of the Red Army) basically have all the power ¬ Property was abolished ¬ Factories and farms were state-owned ¬ Society tightly organised like an army ¬ Ban on opposition parties in the soviets

The Great Purge: Trial of the Twenty-One, March 1938

¬ The last and biggest of the show trials ¬ Focus on Bukharin and 20 others who were accused of membership of a 'Trotskyist Rightist Bloc' ¬ Most of the accused 'confessed' to their 'crimes' but not Bukharin Bukharin and 16 others were shot

Collectivisation, 1930-37

¬ The retreat was only temporary ¬ Once the 1930 harvest had been secured, collectivisation made a return ¬ 1931: 50% 1934: 70% 1935: 75% 1937: 90% of Soviet households were in collective farms ¬ Drought ¬ Stalin persisted with forced collectivisation and high state grain procurements and million died ¬ The number of deaths is difficult to determine because of the Great Purge and Terror

Revival of agriculture

¬ The revival was less successful ¬ The collective system had collapsed and many peasants had grabbed land to work on private and sold produce on the black market ¬ Stalin announced previously collectivised land would be reclaimed ¬ Drought, genuine lack of labour poor harvest ¬ The reduced number of farm animals also led to a drop in meat production Things began to improve after 1946

Stage 1: Moves against Trotsky 1923-24

¬ Triumvirate: Zinoviev & Kamenev ask Stalin to form a block against Trotsky obtaining the majority in the Politburo ¬ Congress re-elected Stalin as general secretary and elected a new enlarged Central Committee (only 3 were Trotsky supporters) ¬ Stalin began to replace Trotsky's supporters with those of the triumvirs ¬ At the end of 1923, Stalin had enough control of the party machine at local level to ensure that most of his nominees were elected to future congresses The formation of the Left Opposition ¬ In October 1923, Trotsky formed the Left Opposition ¬ Stalin tricked Trotsky not turning up for the funeral and set himself up as Lenin's disciple This raised suspicions

February Revolution (1917): Causes and results

¬ Tsar Nicholas II ¬ Causes: - Many losses during the war - Food shortage in Russia ¬ Results: - Nicolas was solely blamed - In February there was a result and the Tsar was arrested

Impact on workers

¬ Uninterrupted work week was introduced ¬ Shift work was organised ¬ Absenteeism and late arrival were punished by loss of job and housing ¬ After 1931, this was criminalised ¬ This strict discipline led to many workers to change jobs frequently ¬ The rushed pace of industrialisation drastically reduced living standards ¬ Plans did end high unemployment and the huge increase in the numbers of workers enabled joint family income to increase ¬ Many young women found employment in offices Many workers benefited from the opening up and expansion of education

Collectivisation

¬ if you didn't meet the quota, farms were confiscated. Individual farms were put into state-owned collective farms. ¬ Objectives: food for export and workers, free up workers for the city goal is industrialization ¬ Economically speaking, it was a success because the workers got their food and there were a lot of workers in the city. But, there was a low harvest output. ¬ Politically speaking, it was a success because there was a control of the peasants Humanitarian speaking, it was terrible; around 10 million were dispossessed. 2 to 3 million people lost their lives. During the famine of 1932-33, 5,5 million to 8 million lost their lives according to western historians. According to the Russian government around 7 million people died.

Fourth Five-Year Plan, 1946-50

¬ mphasis was placed on re-building heavy industry and reviving agriculture ¬ Civilian needs were also given priority, 2.5 million homeless people were rehoused ¬ The first year wasn't very successful ¬ Once mines and factories were re-opened, industrial revival took off ¬ By 1950, Stalin claimed that the targets set were already succeeded These were exaggeration

How can the GP be explained: STalin and Lenin

¬ roots of early Bolshevism and Leninism ¬ traitors and class enemies ¬ Also, purges of party membership in the 1920s under Lenin, civil war and as the NEP was introduced ¬ In 1919 and 1921 about 15% and 25% of members respectively lost their party cards ¬ These expulsion rate were much higher than those of the 1930s ¬ However, violence hadn't been used against party members ¬ Trotsky rejected the argument that Stalin and Stalinism were a logical outcome of Lenin's ideas and methods of rule ¬ Historians have also portrayed Stalinism of being distinct from Leninism, pointed to the fact that terror wasn't used against Communist Party members ¬ Stalin was attempting to create an ideologically 'pure' and monolithic party ¬ Thus, Stalin's Great Purge appears to have been uniquely violent and a clear break with Leninist traditions