HL Psychology of Human Relationships
8.8 - Investment model of commitment
Accomodation is a important strategy to maintaining a relationship. Accomodation means that a person is willing to adopt a constructive approach and inhibit the impulse to react destructively.
8.7 - Maintenance of relationships
- A large proportion of marriages in the Western world end up in divorce (in some countries up to 50% of marriages). In some cultures divorce is non-existant or rare. (e.g. China) - Arranged marriages usually last longer than romantic marriages. Marriage in traditional societies is a contract between families and often involves economic and social engagements that create powerful bonds between the families and makes divorce impossible. This could be the reason for stability of marriages.
8.4 - Examine factors influencing bystanderism
- Bystanderism can be defined as the phenomenon that an individual is less likely to help in an emergency situation when passive bystanders are present. (Darley and Latane) - The background research on "bystanderism" was the case of Kitty Genovese who was murdered in New York city in 1964. She was attacked, raped and stabbed several times by a psychopath. Later, a number of witnesses explained that they had either heard screaming or seen a man attacking a woman over a period of 30 minutes. Nobody called the police or intervened until it was too late. Afterwards, they admitted that they did not want to get involved or that they thought someone else would intervene. This inspired research into what is now known as bystanderism.
8.8 - Equity theory or relationship satisfaction
- Equity theory suggests there must be a balance between the two partners in the relationship. - Buss found that sexual dissatisfaction were linked to extramarital sex in the first year.
8.6 - Levenson and Gottman - Observational study of relationship between maritial dissatisfaction and negative affect
- In a lab 30 couples were observed while they had a low-conflict discussion of a event of the day and a high-conflict discussion of a major source of disagreement in their relationship. The discussions were video-taped and each spouse returned to the lab to make a self evaluation of their communication (positive, negative or neutral) - Results showed that martial dissatisfaction was associated with higher levels of expressed negative emotions (negative effect) and return of negative affect. - Researchers took physiological measures during both the sessions and found that the unhappy couples displayed similar physiological arousal. - The researchers concluded that unhappy couples experience a negative spiral of expressed negative emotions that lead to increased stress and mutual unhappiness.
8.3 - Comparison of prosocial behaviour in 6 cultures as a result of child-rearing practices
- Observation of child-rearing practices and the consequence of that on prosocial behavior. - The researchers observed children between the age of 3 and 11 years old in Kenya, the Philippines, Japan, India, Mexico and the USA) during their daily interactions with people. - Results showed that there were differences in the prosocial behavior of the children. Children from Mexico and the Philippines generally acted more prosocial than Japan, India and the USA. The most prosocial children were from Kenya. The most egoistic were children from the USA. - The results overall indicate that degree of modernization influences prosocial behavior.
8.5 - Psychological origin of attraction
- Relates to perception and social cognition - Researchers have suggested that people possess different love schemas and that these schemas may shape attraction and reactions to impending commitment - An analysis of interpersonal relationship shows that there are three important cognitive factors that help to form such a relationship: 1) how individuals perceive themselves 2) how an individual perceives the other person 3) how an individual believes the other person perceives him/her. - If we perceive another person as similar to oneself -could be the explanation behind the attraction - Opposites attract - false! Couples tend to be similar in age, religion, social class, cultural background, personality, education, intelligence, physical attractiveness, attitudes
8.4 - Latane and Darley- Theory of the unresponsive bystander
According to the theory, the presence of other people or just the perception that other people are witnessing the event will decrease the likelihood that an individual will intervene in an emergency due to: - Diffusion of responsibility: Responsibilities are diffused when more bystanders are present and this reduces the psychological costs of not intervening. - Informational social influence (pluralistic ignorance): If the situation is ambiguous people will look to other people around to see what to do. - Evaluation apprehension: Individual bystanders are aware other people are present and may be afraid of being viewed negatively if they react. Fear of social blunder.
8.2 Batson - Experimental testing of empathy-altruism
Aim: To investigate participants motives to help when they had the opportunity to escape. Method: Participants were students in an intro psychology class at university. They were tested individually. Before they participated they filled out a questionnaire about themselves. Each participant was led to believe that they were an observer to a test where another student (Elaine) was being tested in recall of digit numbers. Participants read a short description of Elaine. Each description was manipulated so that the real participants could either identify with Elaine (high empathy) or not (low empathy). Participants then watched Elaine over a TV (pre-recorded) . After two trials Elaine received electric shocks. She clearly expressed pain. Participants were asked if they would help Elaine by taking her place. Half of them were told that they could either take her place or fill out a questionaire and leave (Easy escape option). The other half were told that they could either take her place or see Elaine go through the remaining 8 trials (Difficult escape option) When they had chosen, the experiment ended and they were debriefed. Results: High empathy condition: Most participants agreed to help Elaine. It did not matter whether it was hard or easy escape. Low empathy condition: Most participant withdrew in the easy escape option. When it was difficult some preferred to help. This could support egoism.
8.8 - Flora and Segrin
Aim: To investigate the extent to which shared interests and spending time together was a predictor of quality of the relationship. Procedure: The participants were young dating couples and married couples. The study was longitudinal and data collection took place through questionnaires and interviews. At the beginning of the study the participants described positive and negative feelings, disappointment and contentment with their partner. After 12 months the participants filled out questionnaires to measure well being and satisfaction between the couples. 25% of the dating couples had split up and all married couples were together. Results: The first interview showed that preference of shared interests and spending time together was important in martial satisfaction, especially for the men. Positive and negative feelings were not considered very important. For women, the amount of negative feelings and disappointment predicted break up.
8.5 - Fisher et al fMRI scan of neurobiological mechanism of attraction
Aim: To investigate the neural mechanisms associated with the attraction system (romantic love) Method: Participants were 10 women and 7 men aged from 18 to 26. The participants first filled out questionaires (The Passionate Love Scale) to investigate how they felt about their partner. They were then placed in an fMRI scanner. They first looked at a photo of their partner, then performed a distraction task of counting backwards, then they looked at a picture of a neutral aquantance. This was repeated six times. Results: There was increased activity in the dophamine rich brain areas associated with reward, motivation and goal orientation when participants looked at their love. The results indicate the possibility pf brain circuits dedicated to attraction. The same brain circuits associated with 'addiction'. This supports the hypothesis that romantic love is like an addiction.
8.4 - Latane and Darley - Experiment to investigate bystander intervention and diffusion of responsibility
Aim: To investigate whether number of witnesses of an emergency influences people's help. Method: As part of course credit, 72 students participated in an experiment. They were told to discuss what problems college students may have in urban areas. Each participant sat in a booth with a pair of headphones and a microphone. At one point during the experiment a participant (confederate) staged a seizure. The IV of the study was the number of persons that the participant thought listened to the same discussion. The DV was the time it took for the individual to react from the start of the fit until the participant contacted the experimenter. Results: The number of bystanders had a major effect on the participants reaction. Of the participants in the alone condition, 85% went out and reported the seizure. Only 31% reported the seizure when they believed there were 4 bystanders. Gender did not make a difference. During debriefing, participants had to fill out a questionnaire to say how the felt during the experiment. Many students said that "they didn't know what was happening".
8.1 - Distinguish between altruism and prosocial behaviour
Altruism is defined as behaviour that benefits other organisms but has some costs. In social psychology altruism is a subcategory of helping behaviour. Whereas, Prosocial behaviour refers to acts intended to benefit others. Therefore results in being positively valued by society. Agressiveness and violent behaviour is seen as antisocial behaviour and not valued by society. • Prosocial behaviour can also be called "helping behaviour" with the aim to benefit other people.
8.6 - Gottmans theory of the four horsemen of the apocolypse
Communication that predicts martial dissatisfaction: - Criticism: Making dispositional attributions - Contempt: Attacking partners sense of self with the intention to insult or psychologically abuse him or her. - Defensiveness: Seeing yourself as the victim - Stonewalling: Withdrawing from the relationship as a way to avoid
8.5 - Examine biological, psychological and social origins of attraction.
Evolutionary explanation 1: Neurobiology of love - According to fisher love is a human universal and evolution has produced three distinct motivational brain systems to direct courtship, mating, reproduction and parenting. These are: attraction, sex drive and attachment. The three systems interact with each other to produce behaviours associated with 'love'. - Attraction is the equivalent to to human romantic love in animals. It is characterized by focused attention on a specific mate, obsessive following. Atrraction evolved to motivate individuals to select and focus courtship on a favoured partner. - The sex drive (libido) is characterized by craving sexual gratification. In humans, it is associated with the hormone testosterone in males and females. The sex drive evolved to produce offspring. - Attachment evolved to motivate individuals to stay with the preferred reproductive partner long enough to complete parental duties.
8.7 - Explain the role that culture plays in the formation and maintenance of relationships.
Formation of relationships: - Individualist cultures assume that the free choice of a spouse is based on romantic love but they may be arranged by a social position, religion, wealth, opportunities and class. - Western cultures tend to be individualistic, voluntary and temporary. - Non-Western cultures tend to be collectivist, involuntary and permanent. In the collectivist cultures, social networks motivate marriages. Families play an active role in deciding on marriage partners for the young. Love is supposed to be discovered after marriage. Singh - Arranged marriages in India - The majority of marriages in India are still arranged by the parents with or without the consent of the boy or girl involved. There is no room for romantic marriage. Buss et al - Cross cultural study of mate preferences in 33 countries. - In all cultures, men and women agreed that love and mutual attraction are primary factors in mate selection. - In countries with traditional values (collectivist countries such as China, India and Iran) men placed woman's chastity, her desire for home and children and her ability to cook. In the same societies, women valued men with good financial prospects, high social status and ambition.
8.7 - Are arranged marriages happier?
Gupta and Singh interviewed 50 Indian couples who had married for love or lived in an arranged marriage. The couples who married for love reported diminished feelings of love after a few years of marriage. Those who lived in arranged marriages reported higher levels of love. Yelsma compared 28 indian couples in an arranged marriage, 25 indian couples in a love marriage and 31 american couples. Individuals in arranged marriages scored higher on martial satisfaction than the couples in love marriages.
8.2 - Contrasting the two theories
Kin Selection Theory: - Focus on genes that operate the biological level without human conciousness. Theory is largely based on animals. Human's are much more complex. - Altruism is seen as a behaviour that has a cost to the individual. - The theory is based on egoism (the genes are selfish and humans tend to favour kin due to gene similarity) - Doesn't explain why people help non-relatives. - Difficult to test evolutionary theories. Empathy-altruism theory _ The focus is on human emotion of empathy as the primary factor influencing altruism. - A behaviour that increases another persons welfare. - The theory does not rule out the idea of an altruistic personality. - Easy to test but hard to test concepts such as empathy.
8.2 - Contrast two theories explaining altruism in humans
Kin-Selection Theory • Is based on the idea that individuals are more likely to sacrifice themselves for relatives than non relatives. By helping your relatives, you ensure the survival of your genes through close relatives. • Selfish gene theory suggests that what could look like self sacrifice could, in reality, promote ones own genes because it is not the individuals survival but the genes survival. Simmons et al: • The study investigated whether close relatives were more likely to be kidney donors. •The results showed that 86% of parents said yes but only 47% of the siblings who could be donors said yes. The theory suggests that both should agree to make this sacrifice, therefore cannot be explained in terms of kin alone. • Researchers asked potential kidney recipients to rate their emotional closeness to all possible donors before a choice was made. Generally, the donors felt very close to 63% of the potential donors but only 42% of the non-donors. It was found that when siblings were donors, the recipient and donor were significantly closer in age and usually same sex. Strengths: • Supported by studies, which generally show a preference for helping blood relatives. • Mathematical computer stimulations demonstrate that kin selection is one of the possible selection processes.
8.5 Psychological - Markey and Markey (2007)
Markey et al (2007) Pt. I •Aim: To investigate the effects of Similarity on attraction. •Participants: Young people •Procedures: A group of young people were asked to give a description of their 'ideal' romantic partner in terms of psychological characteristics, values and attitudes without thinking of anyone in particular. Then, they were asked to describe themselves. •Results: The experiment showed that the participants' descriptions of their ideal partners are similar to that of themselves. Markey et al (2007) Pt. II, follow-up study •Aim: To investigate the effects of Similarity on attraction. •Participants: 206 young couples who had been together for a year •Procedures: The participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire about their partner's characteristics. •Results: The same as the first part. •Strengths: The results were derived from a large sample size which increases validity. •Weaknesses: Based on questionnaires, this reduces the reliability of the study because participants might have not given the most honest answers. Participants were American which reduces the generalizability of the results.
8.5 - Evolutionary explanation 2: Partner selection based on genes
Natural selection would favour couples which mutually enhance their offspring's chances of survival. This could be one way to choose a "prefered partner". Wedekind - The sweaty T-shirt experiment. - The experiement studied whether females would be able to identify males who had the same genetic make-up which, in combination with her own, would boost the immune system of potential children. The study focused on a particular complex gene in the immune system known for its ability to protect against pathogens. - A group of 94 students (half male, half female) participated in the experiment. The men were asked to sleep with a T-shirt for two nights and keep it in a plastic bag. - After two days, the women were asked to rate how agreeable they found the smell of the T-shirts. The women had to smell 7 different T-shirts. One was the control. 3 were of participants with an immune system like their own and 3 were dissimilar immune systems - ( these should be the best in terms of genes). - Results showed that women preferred the odour of men with an immune system dissimilar to their own. - This demonstrates that attraction was influenced by biological factors.
8.5 Social Origins
Research strongly suggests that we grow attracted to those things that we are consistently exposed to. This phenomenon is known as the Mere Exposure Effect Similarity also has do with same social and cultural norms How contact and interaction take place makes a difference/ or influence Frequency of interacting is a good prediction of liking and also if one lived close (dormitories, elderly homes, campuses, work, school...right Anna?) Interaction provide us with connectedness and attachment and this is a human need, EVALUATION AFTER STUDY: well supported by the experiments and researches done about it. The theory is able to explain why people would more likely like one another. The theory explains that if we are more familiar or interact with someone, the more we would like that person, due to the reason people live close to one another their social and cultural norms would be similar. The theory could not explain why relationships change, or why some last longer than others. There are also some flaws in the researches and experiments done to support it, which could lead to wrong conclusions made.
8.6 - Discuss the role of communication in maintaining relationships
Role of attribution in the maintenance of relationship Fletcher - Attributions in dating couples Aim: To study whether patterns of attributions were related to relationship satisfaction factors (happiness, commitment and love) Method: Participants were 100 female and 31 undergraduate students in a heterosexual relationship and not living together. The study was conducted in the USA. First participants completed various questionnaires. After two months 95 participants were still in the relationship. They were asked to write a free response description of the relationship in their own words and fill out a questionnaire. Results: Individuals with the highest relationship satisfaction after two months attributed positive behaviour to themselves and their partner and attributed negative behaviour to situational factors. Participants who were happy in their relationships tended to use more interpersonal pronouns such as 'we' in the free response description. Role of communication in maintaining relationships: - Emotional expression and control seem to play a role in conflict resolution and marital satisfaction. Non-verbal factors predict emotional expressions. - Dissatisfied couples displayed more negative affects and were more likely to return negative affect.
8.3 - Using one or more research studies, explain cross-cultural differences in prosocial behaviour
Sociocultural factors in prosocial behaviour: - Cultural noms, socialisation practices in the family, and socioeconomic status are factors that influence how and when prosocial behaviour is exhibited. - Cultural dimensions such as individualism and collectivism seem to influence the degree to which prosocial behaviour is encouraged in children. - Collectivist cultures value helping family members, therefore children inhibit more prosocial behaviours. In individualist cultures that value personal success and competitiveness, child-rearing activities encourage competitiveness and pursuit of personal achievement because that will enhance the childs likelihood of future social success.
8.5 Social - Buss et al (1990)
Study: Buss et al(1990) Type of study: cross-cultural study Aim: aim of the International Mate Selection Project was to identify the characteristics that individuals valued in potential mates worldwide Procedure: participants were 9,474 individuals from 37 cross-cultural samples (33 countries and 5 islands on 6 continents; mean age 23.15). the data was collected through 2 questionnaires developed in the USA and translated Results: Respondents in nearly all cultures rated "mutual attraction and love" as most important in a relationship. This suggests that the desire for mutual love in a relationship is not merely a Western phenomenon "chastity" showed the largest effect for culture, it was valued in China, Taiwan, India, Palestine, and Iran. Respondents in the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries did not care about chastity "good financial prospects" "good earning capacity" ambition and social status are consistently valued more in a partner by women then men cross-culturally "youth" is valued more by men than women. Men prefer wives that are younger but how much younger depends on the culture. In cultures that allow many wives, there may be large age differences "physical attractiveness" in a partner is valued more by men than women. Cross-cultural norms of physical attractiveness are, for example, clear and supple skin, regular features, full lips Evaluate: Methodological considerations: researchers had problems with translation-back-translation, because they had to translate it the first time to get participants to understand, and then they had to translate the responses, so that could decrease the validity of the results. Since this relies on self-reported data, it cannot be completely reliable Cultural considerations: surveyed wide variety of cultures makes it more easily generalizable
8.5 Social - Festinger et al (1950)
Study: Festinger et al(1950) Type of study: field study Aim: To investigate the extent in which proximity can affect the likelihood of relationship in college students. Procedure: participants were college students in MIT Westgate and Westgate West housing project for students. The researchers asked the participants and their family to do a survey asking about 3 people that they considered as close friend or individuals that they most frequently interact with, including how far they live from each other. The participants were selected at random from the target population. Researchers made observations and interviewed the residents regularly. Results: showed that the closer the person's room to them the more they are considered to be close, or best friends. (65% of close friend live in the same build, 41.2 % live next door, 22.5 live 2 doors apart, 16.2% live 3 doors apart, 10% live at the opposite end of the hall) Conclusions: proximity or physical closeness is important in attraction- simply being in the physical presence of another individual will enhance the probability of becoming friends Physical proximity increases opportunities for interaction, which in turn increases familiarity Evaluate: Methodological considerations: Ecologically valid: Investigate relationships that were formed naturally before the experiment. Easily replicable: low cost, not time consuming. Low generalizability: college students from MIT and some participants may give false data, b/c they don't completely trust the researchers. Ethical considerations: minimal stress level for participants
8.5 Psychological - Kiesler and Baral (1970)
Study: Kiesler and Baral (1970) Type of study: lab experiment Aim: to investigate the effect of self-esteem on partner selection Procedure: They asked a group of men to fill out an IQ test. They gave half of them an "off the charts" score, where their scores were so incredibly high like they've never seen before. The other half they told that there must have been a misunderstanding, since their scores are too low. After the scores were given privately, the men were asked to sit in a waiting room to receive their paycheck (individually). The researchers let a very attractive women walk into the room. Results: in the waiting room, found that men with a high IQ score were more likely to talk to the woman, rather than the low scored people Evaluate: Methodological considerations: somewhat ecologically valid i.e. woman situation and IQ test, however an IQ test is not fully determinant of intelligence, it's debatable but since this isn't an important issue to the experiment, its fine. The men may have taken IQ tests before and know of their true intelligence level so they probably were not concerned with what they got on the IQ test Alternative explanations: the men actually believed their IQ score so they were upset about it in the waiting room and didn't notice the woman, they may be married or in a relationship so they wanted to remain completely faithful(no temptations) Gender considerations: male sample bias, should be done with women to see how that effects them Ethical considerations: lied to the participants/ deception used, long-term trauma, severe or long-lasting impact on their self-esteem
8.4 - Latane and Darley - Cognitive decision model
They argue that helping requires that the bystander: 1. Notice the situation (if you are in a hurry, you may not see what is happening) 2. Interpret the situation as an emergency. 3. Accept some personal responsibility for helping even though other people are present. 4. Consider how to help. 5. Observe how other people react At each stage, the bystander can decide whether t help or not.
8.4 - Pilliavin et al - The cost reward model of helping
The theory stipulates that both cognitive (cost-benefit analysis) and emotional factors (unpleasant emotional arousal) determine whether bystanders to an emergency will intervene. The subway samaritan Aim: The aim of this field experiment was to investigate the effect of various variables on helping behaviour. Method: - Teams of students worked together with a victim, a model helper and observers. The IV was whether the victim was drunk or ill (carrying a cane), and black or white. - The group performed a scenario where the victim appered drunk or where they appeared ill. - The participants were subway travellers who were observed when the 'victim' staged a collapse to the floor after the train had left the station. The model helper was told to intervene after 70 seconds if no one else did. Results: The results showed that a person who appeared ill was more likely to be helped than one who appeared drunk. In 60% of the trials, more than one person offered to help. Conclusion: The researchers did not find support for 'diffusion of responsibility'. They argue that the observers could clearly see the victim. Based on this study, researchers suggested that the cost-reward model of helping involves observation of an emergency situation that leads to emotional arousal.
8.8 - Analyse why relationships may change or end.
Triangular theory of love. These three components are important in relationships: - Intimacy (feeling close, connected and bonded) - Passion ( romance and physical and sexual desire) - Commitment ( desire to maintain relationship) Buunk suggested that one of the most prominant features in which happy and unhappy couples tend to differ is the way they communicate with each other. Couples are happier when their interaction is characterised by problem solving and open communication. Building intimacy is dependant on being able to communicate openly. Happy Couples - - Express their feelings openly and disclose their thoughts. - Show affection and understanding of each others feelings. Unhappy Couples - - Show conflict-avoidance - Demonstrate soothing - Take part in destructive competition.
8.2 - The Empathy-altruism theory
• Some helpful actions are truly altruistic behaviors because they are motivated by the genuine desire to increase another person's welfare. It is the helper's motives that distinguish whether it is truly altruistic or not. • Observing another person's situation may either produce empathetic concern (i.e positive emotions such as sympathy or compassion) or personal distress (i.e. negative emotions). "Empathy" evokes altruistic motivation to reduce another person's distress whereas personal distress evokes egoistic motivation to reduce one's own distress. Batson: Three factors facilitate perspective taking - The observer has had similar experiences - The observer is attached to the victim - The person is instructed to imagine what it is like to be in the victim's position. • A major criticism of Batson's theory points to problems in finding out whether the motives is really due to empathetic concern (altruism) or to reduce personal distress (egoistic). Strengths: - Supported by many studies. - The theory, can to some extent, predict conditions to which altruism will happen. Limitations: - It is difficult to generalise findings to real life. - Empathy is not always the sole cause of altruism.