Lesson 6 - Learning

law of effect

if a response in the presence of stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened

intermittent or partial reinforcement

occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time.

A worker gets paid every Friday for completing his 40-hour work week. He is being paid on a _____ schedule.

fixed-interval

Positive reinforcement

occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus.

instinctive drift

occurs when an animal's innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning processes

Reinforcement

occurs when an event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response.

Punishment

occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response.

resistance to extinction

occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer for it has been terminated.

stimulus discrimination

occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.

stimulus generalization

occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.

observational learning

occurs when an organisms responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.

continuous reinforcement

occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced.

Research suggests that parents who spank their children usually administer spanking

for trivial offenses

Food is an example of a ____; praise is an example of a ____.

primary reinforcer; secondary reinforcer

Explain Domjan's idea on the importance of ecologically relevant conditioned stimuli and discuss the evolutionary perspective on learning.

slot machine

Shaping

the reinforcement of closer approximations of a desired response.

fixed-ratio (FR) schedule

the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses.

variable -ratio (VR) schedule

the reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses

variable -interval (VI) schedule

the reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed.

fixed-interval (FI) schedule

the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed.

Describe the classical conditioning phenomena of acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery.

Acquisition: (learning) phase in which the conditioning occurred. Series of repeated conditioned stimulus learns the unconditioned stimulus. Extinction: gradual weakening of CS/Salivation. refers to the reduction in responding that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus. Spontaneous Recovery:The increase in responding to the CS following a pause after extinction

Describe the operant conditioning phenomena of acquisition, shaping, and extinction.

Acquisition: first stage of learning, when a response is established. In classical conditioning, repeated pairings of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) eventually lead to acquisition. For example, if you are trying to train a rat to press a lever in response to you ringing a bell (i.e., trying to condition the rat to press the lever when and only when you ring the bell), then once the rat presses the lever in only response to the bell, you can say the response is "acquired". Shaping: Shaping modifies behavior by reinforcing behaviors that progressive approximate the target behavior (operant response). Shaping can be used to train organisms to perform behaviors that would rarely if ever occur otherwise. For example, to teach a child to write his or her first name, you initially give praise for writing the first letter correctly. After the child has mastered that first step, letter-by-letter you give praise until the entire name is correctly written. Extinction: fading and disappearance of behavior that was previously learned by association with another event. Example: mom stops buying candy at the store to stop child rom throwing tantrums

Classical Conditioning

Documented by Ivan Pavlov, Famous study with dogs. - salivation occurred before food power. - paired salivation with neutral neurons. Food is the unconditioned stimulus

Discuss the phenomena of instinctive drift and conditioned taste aversion.

Done by John Garcia. -had a bad steak, got sick, didn't like steak again.

Describe Thorndike's work and explain his law of effect.

Edward Thorndike is famous for his work on learning theory that lead to the development of operant conditioning within behaviorism. operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of our behavior Edward Thorndike put forward a "Law of effect" which stated that any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped. Consequences of your behavior indicate if it will be repeated.

Explain what happens in higher-order conditioning.

Higher-Order Conditioning is a type of conditioning emphasized by Ivan Pavlov. It involves the modification of reaction to a neutral stimulus associated with a conditioned stimulus that was formerly neutral. For example, after pairing a bell with food, and establishing the bell as a conditioned stimulus that elicits salivation (first order conditioning), a light could be paired with the tone. If the light alone comes to elicit salivation, then higher order conditioning has occurred.

Discuss how classical conditioning may shape phobias and physiological processes, including sexual arousal.

Many kinds of everyday responses are regulated through classical conditioning, including phobias, mild fears, and pleasant emotional responses. Even physiological responses such as immune system functioning and sexual arousal respond to classical conditioning. Evaluative conditioning is a type of pavlovian conditioning that can influence attitudes.

Describe the punishment and its effects.

Positive and negative, punishment decreases the chances that a behavior will occur.

Explain the distinction between positive and negative reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement is a process that strengthens the likelihood of a particular response by adding a stimulus after the behavior is performed. Negative reinforcement also strengthens the likelihood of a particular response, but by removing an undesirable consequence.

Describe the processes of generalization and discrimination and summarize the classic study of Little Albert.

Process of generalization and discrimination: The process of fearing objects with similar characteristics and different effects. Discrimination: only respond when an award is avail Generalization: Look to see if rat presses bar when the light is different colors. Summary: Took a baby, established fear. Approached baby with a white rabbit, while producing loud scary noise. Albert crying was unconditioned response. Conditioned fear to white objects.

Describe and distinguish between escape learning and avoidance learning.

The main difference between escape conditioning and avoidance conditioning is that in escape conditioning, there is no warning signal before the aversive stimulus, while in avoidance conditioning, there is a warning signal before the aversive stimulus.

Describe Skinner's principle of reinforcement and the prototype experimental procedures used in studies of operant conditioning.

Skinners law of reinforcement: behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated, behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished. Prototype Experimental Procedures: Skinner Box, similar to Thorndikes puzzle box. AKA an operant conditioning chamber, a device used to objectively record an animals behavior in a compressed time frame. An animal can be rewarded or punished for engaging in certain behaviors, such as lever pressing (for rats) or key pecking (for pigeons).

Preparedness

Species-specific predispositions to be conditioned in certain ways and not others

Describe Pavlov's demonstration of classical conditioning and the key elements in this form of learning.

The key elements in classical conditioning are the unconditioned stimulus, the unconditioned response, the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. Demonstration: Salivated in response to a bell tone

Distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcer.

While a primary reinforcer is innate, a secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, treats, or money. Responding to the secondary reinforcer is a learned behavior, not a born reflex.

The initial stage of learning a response is called

acquisition

escape learning

acquisition of response that decreases or ends some aversion stimulation (running away from teasing)

avoidance learning

acquisition of response that prevents some aversion stimulation from occurring.

Phobias

an irrational fear of specific objects or situations

Discuss research on the side effects of punishment as a disciplinary procedure.

applying punishment teaches continginousy of life as they grow

discriminative stimuli

are cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response.

secondary or conditioned reinforcers

are events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers.

primary reinforcers

are events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs.

reinforcement contingencies

are the circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers

The principles of learning and conditioning have

been widely applied in education, business, and industry.

Escape learning is a type of learning in which a(n)

c. organism engages in a response that brings aversive stimulation to an end.

Describe research on latent learning, signal relations, and response-outcome relations, and explain their theoretical importance.

classical conditioning

Tolman's research on rats learning mazes challenged operant conditioning principles by demonstrating that rats developed _____ when they learned a maze.

cognitive maps

cumulative recorder

creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time.

If you find that you have more positive feelings toward a product after an attractive spokesperson gives you a free sample, your change in attitudes would be said to have resulted from

evaluative conditioning.​

Discuss the nature and importance of observational learning.

experimental and correlational studies suggest that violent TV shows, movies, and video games are related (r.31) to increased aggression among children and adults.

Trial

in classical conditioning consists of any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli.

higher-order conditioning

in which a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus.

conditioning (learning)

involves learning associations between events that occur in an organisms environment

operant conditioning

is a form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences.

conditioned response (CR)

is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

is a previous neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.

skinner box or operant chamber

is a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled.

schedule of reinforcers

is a specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time.

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

is a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning.

behavior modification

is a systematic approach to changing behavior through the application of the principles of conditioning.

classical or pavlovian conditioning

is a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. Sometimes called Pavlovian conditioning.

spontaneous recovery

is the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the conditioned stimulus

latent learning

learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs observational learningoccurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models

learning

refers to a relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience.

Acquisition

refers to the initial stage of learning something

While out trick-or-treating for Halloween, at first, Billy's neighbors had to remind him to say "Trick or treat" before they dropped their treats into his bag. As he continued to visit houses in the neighborhood, soon Billy would say "Trick or treat" as soon as the neighbors answered the door. The treats he received were the _____ for his saying "Trick or treat."

reinforcement

negative reinforcement

response strengthened because it is followed by the removal of aversive stimulus.

Operant Conditioning

responses are controlled by their consequences. Voluntary responses Thorndike - if the response leads to a positive response, it is strengthened.

Extinction

the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency.

In the Little Albert experiment on conditioned emotional responses, stimulus generalization was shown when Albert showed the fear response to

the rabbit

Identify various types of schedules of reinforcement and discuss their typical effects on responding.

types of schedules of reinforcement: Positive, negative. Reinforcement: continuous reinforcement, the desire is reinforced every time it occurs. Partial Schedules of Reinforcement: The response is reinforced only part of the time. There are four schedules of partial reinforcement. Two are ratio schedules, which are schedules based on how many responses have occurred. The other two are interval schedules or schedules based on how much time has elapsed. These four schedules of reinforcement are sometimes referred to as FR, VR, FI, and VI—which stands for fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval.

List the basic processes in observational learning and discuss Bandura's view on whether reinforcement affects learning or performance.

vicarious learning, learning from a model, like driving a car, albert bandura

Responses learned through classical conditioning would include all of the following EXCEPT

voluntary behaviors such as setting the table for dinner.

Conditioned taste aversions illustrate that an organism's biological heritage may place constraints on general learning processes. These phenomena add support to

​an evolutionary perspective on learning.

Nolan has learned to drink a cup of coffee whenever he gets a tension headache because drinking coffee makes the pain of the headache go away. This is an example of

​escape learning.

Research on spontaneous recovery suggests that

​extinction does not erase a learned association, it only suppresses or interferes with a conditioned response.

According to Rescorla, the single best way to ensure a strong CR is to arrange that the CS

​is the most predictive signal for the US.

With most behavior modification programs, once a terminal goal has been reached, it is a good idea to

​phase the program out gradually by reducing the frequency or potency of the reinforcers.

Species-specific predispositions to be conditioned in certain ways and not in other ways is known as

​preparedness

Mariah developed a fear of the water when she fell off a river raft last summer. This year, she took swimming lessons and thought she had finally overcome her fear of water. She was eagerly looking forward to an upcoming rafting trip, but as soon as she stepped onto the raft, she was instantly terrified again. This illustrates the classical conditioning process known as

​spontaneous recovery.