Machine Learning Interview Questions
Encoding?
Don't know
What are 3 ways of reducing dimensionality?
1. Removing collinear features. 2. Performing PCA, ICA, or other forms of algorithmic dimensionality reduction. 3. Combining features with feature engineering.
What are 3 data preprocessing techniques to handle outliers?
1. Winsorize (cap at threshold). 2. Transform to reduce skew (using Box-Cox or similar). 3. Remove outliers if you're certain they are anomalies or measurement errors.
What is classifier in machine learning?
A classifier in a Machine Learning is a system that inputs a vector of discrete or continuous feature values and outputs a single discrete value, the class.
Why is Area Under ROC Curve (AUROC) better than raw accuracy as an out-of- sample evaluation metric?
AUROC is robust to class imbalance, unlike raw accuracy. For example, if you want to detect a type of cancer that's prevalent in only 1% of the population, you can build a model that achieves 99% accuracy by simply classifying everyone has cancer-free.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of k-nearest neighbors?
Advantages: K-Nearest Neighbors have a nice intuitive explanation, and then tend to work very well for problems where comparables are inherently indicative. For example, you could build a kNN housing price model by modeling on other houses in the area with similar number of bedrooms, floor space, etc. Disadvantages: They are memory-intensive.They also do not have built-in feature selection or regularization, so they do not handle high dimensionality well.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of neural networks?
Advantages: Neural networks (specifically deep NNs) have led to performance breakthroughs for unstructured datasets such as images, audio, and video. Their incredible flexibility allows them to learn patterns that no other ML algorithm can learn. Disadvantages: However, they require a large amount of training data to converge. It's also difficult to pick the right architecture, and the internal "hidden" layers are incomprehensible.
Explain bagging.
Bagging, or Bootstrap Aggregating, is an ensemble method in which the dataset is first divided into multiple subsets through resampling. Then, each subset is used to train a model, and the final predictions are made through voting or averaging the component models. Bagging is performed in parallel.
What is the difference between artificial learning and machine learning?
Designing and developing algorithms according to the behaviours based on empirical data are known as Machine Learning. While artificial intelligence in addition to machine learning, it also covers other aspects like knowledge representation, natural language processing, planning, robotics etc.
Entropy
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Isotonic Regression
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Platt Calibraiton
Don't know
When would you use GD over SDG, and vice-versa?
GD is preferable for small datasets while SGD is preferable for larger ones
What is Genetic Programming?
Genetic programming is one of the two techniques used in machine learning. The model is based on the testing and selecting the best choice among a set of results.
What are hierarchical cluster models? Give an example.
Hierarchical (or connectivity) cluster models are distance-based models that represent clusters using dendrograms. They do not provide a single partition of the dataset, but instead produce a hierarchy of clusters that merge at certain distances. An example is single-linkage clustering.
How can you choose a classifier based on training set size?
If training set is small, high bias / low variance models (e.g. Naive Bayes) tend to perform better because they are less likely to be overfit. If training set is large, low bias / high variance models (e.g. Logistic Regression) tend to perform better because they can reflect more complex relationships.
What is not Machine Learning?
a) Artificial Intelligence b) Rule based inference
What is Inductive Logic Programming in Machine Learning?
Inductive Logic Programming (ILP) is a subfield of machine learning which uses logical programming representing background knowledge and examples.
What is the Box-Cox transformation used for?
It's used to stabilize the variance (eliminate heteroskedasticity) and normalize the distribution.
Explain the difference between L1 and L2 regularization.
Laplacean prior, Gaussian prior
Explain Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA).
Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) is a common method of topic modeling, or classifying documents by subject matter. LDA is a generative model that represents documents as a mixture of topics that each have their own probability distribution of possible words. The "Dirichlet" distribution is simply a distribution of distributions. In LDA, documents are distributions of topics that are distributions of words.
What is algorithm independent machine learning?
Machine learning in where mathematical foundations is independent of any particular classifier or learning algorithm is referred as algorithm independent machine learning?
In what areas Pattern Recognition is used?
Pattern Recognition can be used in a) Computer Vision b) Speech Recognition c) Data Mining d) Statistics e) Informal Retrieval f) Bio-Informatics
What is the ROC Curve and what is AUC (a.k.a. AUROC)?
The ROC (receiver operating characteristic) the performance plot for binary classifiers of True Positive Rate (y-axis) vs. False Positive Rate (x- axis). AUC is area under the ROC curve, and it's a common performance metric for evaluating binary classification models. It's equivalent to the expected probability that a uniformly drawn random positive is ranked before a uniformly drawn random negative.
How can you help our marketing team be more efficient?
The answer will depend on the type of company. Here are some examples. Clustering algorithms to build custom customer segments for each type of marketing campaign. Natural language processing for headlines to predict performance before running ad spend. Predict conversion probability based on a user's website behavior in order to create better retargeting campaigns.
Explain what is the function of 'Supervised Learning'?
a) Classifications b) Speech recognition c) Regression d) Predict time series e) Annotate strings
What is the difference between heuristic for rule learning and heuristics for decision trees?
The difference is that the heuristics for decision trees evaluate the average quality of a number of disjointed sets while rule learners only evaluate the quality of the set of instances that is covered with the candidate rule.
List down various approaches for machine learning?
The different approaches in Machine Learning are a) Concept Vs Classification Learning b) Symbolic Vs Statistical Learning c) Inductive Vs Analytical Learning
What are the two methods used for the calibration in Supervised Learning?
The two methods used for predicting good probabilities in Supervised Learning are a) Platt Calibration b) Isotonic Regression These methods are designed for binary classification, and it is not trivial.
Why are ensemble methods superior to individual models?
They average out biases, reduce variance, and are less likely to overfit. There's a common line in machine learning which is: "ensemble and get 2%." This implies that you can build your models as usual and typically expect a small performance boost from ensembling.
What are some key business metrics for (S-a-a-S startup | Retail bank | e- Commerce site)?
Thinking about key business metrics, often shortened as KPI's (Key Performance Indicators), is an essential part of a data scientist's job. Here are a few examples, but you should practice brainstorming your own. Tip: When in doubt, start with the easier question of "how does this business make money?" S-a-a-S startup: Customer lifetime value, new accounts, account lifetime, churn rate, usage rate, social share rate Retail bank: Offline leads, online leads, new accounts (segmented by account type), risk factors, product affinities e-Commerce: Product sales, average cart value, cart abandonment rate, email leads, conversion rate
Which method is frequently used to prevent overfitting?
When there is sufficient data 'Isotonic Regression' is used to prevent an overfitting issue.
If you split your data into train/test splits, is it still possible to overfit your model?
Yes, it's definitely possible. One common beginner mistake is re-tuning a model or training new models with different parameters after seeing its performance on the test set. In this case, its the model selection process that causes the overfitting. The test set should not be tainted until you're ready to make your final selection.
How much data should you allocate for your training, validation, and test sets?
You have to find a balance, and there's no right answer for every problem. If your test set is too small, you'll have an unreliable estimation of model performance (performance statistic will have high variance). If your training set is too small, your actual model parameters will have high variance. A good rule of thumb is to use an 80/20 train/test split. Then your train set can be further split into train/validation or into partitions for cross-validation.
Explain what is the function of 'Unsupervised Learning'?
a) Find clusters of the data b) Find low-dimensional representations of the data c) Find interesting directions in data d) Interesting coordinates and correlations e) Find novel observations/ database cleaning
What's the difference between Type I and Type II error?
false positive, false negative
What is Model Selection in Machine Learning?
he process of selecting models among different mathematical models, which are used to describe the same data set is known as Model Selection. Model selection is applied to the fields of statistics, machine learning and data mining.
What is the difference between stochastic gradient descent (SGD) and gradient descent (GD)?
methods for finding a set of parameters that minimize a loss function
What are the advantages of Naive Bayes?
n Naïve Bayes classifier will converge quicker than discriminative models like logistic regression, so you need less training data. The main advantage is that it can't learn interactions between features.
What does it mean to "fit" a model? How do hyperparameters relate?
process of learning the parameters of a model using training data,
How is KNN different from k-means clustering?
supervised classification algorithm, unsupervised clustering algorithm, mechanisms, unlabeled points and threshold, Computing the mean of the distance,
Define precision and recall.
true positive rate, amount of positives, positive predictive value, 10 apples and 5 oranges
Lasso Regression
Don't know
Multicollinearity
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One hot encoding?
Don't know
Training error
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Types of encoding?
Don't know
Validation error
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What is a Support Vector Machine?
Don't know
What is the difference between covariance and correlation?
Correlation is the standardized form of covariance. Covariances are difficult to compare. For example: if we calculate the covariances of salary ($) and age (years), we'll get different covariances which can't be compared because of having unequal scales. To combat such situation, we calculate correlation to get a value between -1 and 1, irrespective of their respective scale.
Explain machine learning to me like a 5 year old.
It's simple. It's just like how babies learn to walk. Every time they fall down, they learn (unconsciously) & realize that their legs should be straight and not in a bend position. The next time they fall down, they feel pain. They cry. But, they learn 'not to stand like that again'. In order to avoid that pain, they try harder. To succeed, they even seek support from the door or wall or anything near them, which helps them stand firm. This is how a machine works & develops intuition from its environment.
Explain prior probability in context of naiveBayes algorithm?
Prior probability is nothing but, the proportion of dependent (binary) variable in the data set. It is the closest guess you can make about a class, without any further information. For example: In a data set, the dependent variable is binary (1 and 0). The proportion of 1 (spam) is 70% and 0 (not spam) is 30%. Hence, we can estimate that there are 70% chances that any new email would be classified as spam.
What are the different Algorithm techniques in Machine Learning?
The different types of techniques in Machine Learning are a) Supervised Learning b) Unsupervised Learning c) Semi-supervised Learning d) Reinforcement Learning e) Transduction f) Learning to Learn
What is inductive machine learning?
The inductive machine learning involves the process of learning by examples, where a system, from a set of observed instances tries to induce a general rule.
What is the standard approach to supervised learning?
The standard approach to supervised learning is to split the set of example into the training set and the test.
You are given a data set. The data set has missing values which spread along 1 standard deviation from the median. What percentage of data would remain unaffected? Why?
This question has enough hints for you to start thinking! Since, the data is spread across median, let's assume it's a normal distribution. We know, in a normal distribution, ~68% of the data lies in 1 standard deviation from mean (or mode, median), which leaves ~32% of the data unaffected. Therefore, ~32% of the data would remain unaffected by missing values.
What are the five popular algorithms of Machine Learning?
a) Decision Trees b) Neural Networks (back propagation) c) Probabilistic networks d) Nearest Neighbor e) Support vector machines
Why is "Naive" Bayes naive?
applications - text mining,
What's a Fourier transform?
decompose generic functions
Bias-variance tradeoff
Error due to simplistic assumptions, underfitting, Error due to complexity, Overfit, too much noise, bias-variance decomposition, optimally reduced amount of error, no high bias or high variance
Do you suggest that treating a categorical variable as continuous variable would result in a better predictive model?
For better predictions, categorical variable can be considered as a continuous variable only when the variable is ordinal in nature.
What is 'Overfitting' in Machine learning?
In machine learning, when a statistical model describes random error or noise instead of underlying relationship 'overfitting' occurs. When a model is excessively complex, overfitting is normally observed, because of having too many parameters with respect to the number of training data types. The model exhibits poor performance which has been overfit.
What is 'Training set' and 'Test set'?
In various areas of information science like machine learning, a set of data is used to discover the potentially predictive relationship known as 'Training Set'. Training set is an examples given to the learner, while Test set is used to test the accuracy of the hypotheses generated by the learner, and it is the set of example held back from the learner. Training set are distinct from Test set.
Explain marginal likelihood in context of naiveBayes algorithm?
Marginal likelihood is, the probability that the word 'FREE' is used in any message.
OLS is to linear regression. Maximum likelihood is to logistic regression. Explain the statement
OLS and Maximum likelihood are the methods used by the respective regression methods to approximate the unknown parameter (coefficient) value. In simple words, Ordinary least square(OLS) is a method used in linear regression which approximates the parameters resulting in minimum distance between actual and predicted values. Maximum Likelihood helps in choosing the the values of parameters which maximizes the likelihood that the parameters are most likely to produce observed data.
You are given a train data set having 1000 columns and 1 million rows. The data set is based on a classification problem. Your manager has asked you to reduce the dimension of this data so that model computation time can be reduced. Your machine has memory constraints. What would you do? (You are free to make practical assumptions.)
Since we have lower RAM, we should close all other applications in our machine, including the web browser, so that most of the memory can be put to use.
What is the difference between supervised and unsupervised machine learning?
Training labelled data, train the model, No labeling data
You are given a data set consisting of variables having more than 30% missing values? Let's say, out of 50 variables, 8 variables have missing values higher than 30%. How will you deal with them?
We can deal with them in the following ways: Assign a unique category to missing values, who knows the missing values might decipher some trend We can remove them blatantly. Or, we can sensibly check their distribution with the target variable, and if found any pattern we'll keep those missing values and assign them a new category while removing others.
Is it possible capture the correlation between continuous and categorical variable? If yes, how?
Yes, we can use ANCOVA (analysis of covariance) technique to capture association between continuous and categorical variables.
You have built a multiple regression model. Your model R² isn't as good as you wanted. For improvement, your remove the intercept term, your model R² becomes 0.8 from 0.3. Is it possible? How?
Yes, it is possible. We need to understand the significance of intercept term in a regression model. The intercept term shows model prediction without any independent variable i.e. mean prediction. The formula of R² = 1 - ∑(y - y´)²/∑(y - ymean)² where y´ is predicted value. When intercept term is present, R² value evaluates your model wrt. to the mean model. In absence of intercept term (ymean), the model can make no such evaluation, with large denominator, ∑(y - y´)²/∑(y)² equation's value becomes smaller than actual, resulting in higher R².
You are given a data set on cancer detection. You've build a classification model and achieved an accuracy of 96%. Why shouldn't you be happy with your model performance? What can you do about it?
If you have worked on enough data sets, you should deduce that cancer detection results in imbalanced data. In an imbalanced data set, accuracy should not be used as a measure of performance because 96% (as given) might only be predicting majority class correctly, but our class of interest is minority class (4%) which is the people who actually got diagnosed with cancer. Hence, in order to evaluate model performance, we should use Sensitivity (True Positive Rate), Specificity (True Negative Rate), F measure to determine class wise performance of the classifier. If the minority class performance is found to to be poor, we can undertake the following steps: We can use undersampling, oversampling or SMOTE to make the data balanced. We can alter the prediction threshold value by doing probability caliberation and finding a optimal threshold using AUC-ROC curve. We can assign weight to classes such that the minority classes gets larger weight. We can also use anomaly detection.
You are working on a classification problem. For validation purposes, you've randomly sampled the training data set into train and validation. You are confident that your model will work incredibly well on unseen data since your validation accuracy is high. However, you get shocked after getting poor test accuracy. What went wrong?
In case of classification problem, we should always use stratified sampling instead of random sampling. A random sampling doesn't takes into consideration the proportion of target classes. On the contrary, stratified sampling helps to maintain the distribution of target variable in the resultant distributed samples also.
What is convex hull ? (Hint: Think SVM)
In case of linearly separable data, convex hull represents the outer boundaries of the two group of data points. Once convex hull is created, we get maximum margin hyperplane (MMH) as a perpendicular bisector between two convex hulls. MMH is the line which attempts to create greatest separation between two groups.
You've got a data set to work having p (no. of variable) > n (no. of observation). Why is OLS as bad option to work with? Which techniques would be best to use? Why?
In such high dimensional data sets, we can't use classical regression techniques, since their assumptions tend to fail. When p > n, we can no longer calculate a unique least square coefficient estimate, the variances become infinite, so OLS cannot be used at all. To combat this situation, we can use penalized regression methods like lasso, LARS, ridge which can shrink the coefficients to reduce variance. Precisely, ridge regression works best in situations where the least square estimates have higher variance. Among other methods include subset regression, forward stepwise regression.
Feature Selection
Don't know
Label encoding?
Don't know
Ridge Regression
Don't know
Running a binary classification tree algorithm is the easy part. Do you know how does a tree splitting takes place i.e. how does the tree decide which variable to split at the root node and succeeding nodes?
A classification trees makes decision based on Gini Index and Node Entropy. In simple words, the tree algorithm find the best possible feature which can divide the data set into purest possible children nodes. Gini index says, if we select two items from a population at random then they must be of same class and probability for this is 1 if population is pure. We can calculate Gini as following: Calculate Gini for sub-nodes, using formula sum of square of probability for success and failure (p^2+q^2). Calculate Gini for split using weighted Gini score of each node of that split Entropy is the measure of impurity as given by (for binary class): Entropy, Decision Tree Here p and q is probability of success and failure respectively in that node. Entropy is zero when a node is homogeneous. It is maximum when a both the classes are present in a node at 50% - 50%. Lower entropy is desirable.
Rise in global average temperature led to decrease in number of pirates around the world. Does that mean that decrease in number of pirates caused the climate change?
After reading this question, you should have understood that this is a classic case of "causation and correlation". No, we can't conclude that decrease in number of pirates caused the climate change because there might be other factors (lurking or confounding variables) influencing this phenomenon. Therefore, there might be a correlation between global average temperature and number of pirates, but based on this information we can't say that pirated died because of rise in global average temperature.
After spending several hours, you are now anxious to build a high accuracy model. As a result, you build 5 GBM models, thinking a boosting algorithm would do the magic. Unfortunately, neither of models could perform better than benchmark score. Finally, you decided to combine those models. Though, ensembled models are known to return high accuracy, but you are unfortunate. Where did you miss?
As we know, ensemble learners are based on the idea of combining weak learners to create strong learners. But, these learners provide superior result when the combined models are uncorrelated. Since, we have used 5 GBM models and got no accuracy improvement, suggests that the models are correlated. The problem with correlated models is, all the models provide same information. For example: If model 1 has classified User1122 as 1, there are high chances model 2 and model 3 would have done the same, even if its actual value is 0. Therefore, ensemble learners are built on the premise of combining weak uncorrelated models to obtain better predictions.
How can you avoid overfitting ?
By using a lot of data overfitting can be avoided, overfitting happens relatively as you have a small dataset, and you try to learn from it. But if you have a small database and you are forced to come with a model based on that. In such situation, you can use a technique known as cross validation. In this method the dataset splits into two section, testing and training datasets, the testing dataset will only test the model while, in training dataset, the datapoints will come up with the model. In this technique, a model is usually given a dataset of a known data on which training (training data set) is run and a dataset of unknown data against which the model is tested. The idea of cross validation is to define a dataset to "test" the model in the training phase.
While working on a data set, how do you select important variables? Explain your methods.
Following are the methods of variable selection you can use: Remove the correlated variables prior to selecting important variables Use linear regression and select variables based on p values Use Forward Selection, Backward Selection, Stepwise Selection Use Random Forest, Xgboost and plot variable importance chart Use Lasso Regression Measure information gain for the available set of features and select top n features accordingly.
You are given a data set. The data set contains many variables, some of which are highly correlated and you know about it. Your manager has asked you to run PCA. Would you remove correlated variables first? Why?
Chances are, you might be tempted to say No, but that would be incorrect. Discarding correlated variables have a substantial effect on PCA because, in presence of correlated variables, the variance explained by a particular component gets inflated. For example: You have 3 variables in a data set, of which 2 are correlated. If you run PCA on this data set, the first principal component would exhibit twice the variance than it would exhibit with uncorrelated variables. Also, adding correlated variables lets PCA put more importance on those variable, which is misleading.
We know that one hot encoding increasing the dimensionality of a data set. But, label encoding doesn't. How ?
Don't get baffled at this question. It's a simple question asking the difference between the two. Using one hot encoding, the dimensionality (a.k.a features) in a data set get increased because it creates a new variable for each level present in categorical variables. For example: let's say we have a variable 'color'. The variable has 3 levels namely Red, Blue and Green. One hot encoding 'color' variable will generate three new variables as Color.Red, Color.Blue and Color.Green containing 0 and 1 value. In label encoding, the levels of a categorical variables gets encoded as 0 and 1, so no new variable is created. Label encoding is majorly used for binary variables.
Number of observations ( machine learning )
Don't know
Explain likelihood in context of naiveBayes algorithm?
Likelihood is the probability of classifying a given observation as 1 in presence of some other variable. For example: The probability that the word 'FREE' is used in previous spam message is likelihood.
You came to know that your model is suffering from low bias and high variance. Which algorithm should you use to tackle it? Why?
Low bias occurs when the model's predicted values are near to actual values. In other words, the model becomes flexible enough to mimic the training data distribution. While it sounds like great achievement, but not to forget, a flexible model has no generalization capabilities. It means, when this model is tested on an unseen data, it gives disappointing results. In such situations, we can use bagging algorithm (like random forest) to tackle high variance problem. Bagging algorithms divides a data set into subsets made with repeated randomized sampling. Then, these samples are used to generate a set of models using a single learning algorithm. Later, the model predictions are combined using voting (classification) or averaging (regression). Also, to combat high variance, we can: Use regularization technique, where higher model coefficients get penalized, hence lowering model complexity. Use top n features from variable importance chart. May be, with all the variable in the data set, the algorithm is having difficulty in finding the meaningful signal.
What cross validation technique would you use on time series data set? Is it k-fold or LOOCV?
Neither. In time series problem, k fold can be troublesome because there might be some pattern in year 4 or 5 which is not in year 3. Resampling the data set will separate these trends, and we might end up validation on past years, which is incorrect. Instead, we can use forward chaining strategy with 5 fold as shown below: fold 1 : training [1], test [2] fold 2 : training [1 2], test [3] fold 3 : training [1 2 3], test [4] fold 4 : training [1 2 3 4], test [5] fold 5 : training [1 2 3 4 5], test [6] where 1,2,3,4,5,6 represents "year".
When does regularization becomes necessary in Machine Learning?
Regularization becomes necessary when the model begins to ovefit / underfit. This technique introduces a cost term for bringing in more features with the objective function. Hence, it tries to push the coefficients for many variables to zero and hence reduce cost term. This helps to reduce model complexity so that the model can become better at predicting (generalizing).
'People who bought this, also bought...' recommendations seen on amazon is a result of which algorithm?
The basic idea for this kind of recommendation engine comes from collaborative filtering. Collaborative Filtering algorithm considers "User Behavior" for recommending items. They exploit behavior of other users and items in terms of transaction history, ratings, selection and purchase information. Other users behaviour and preferences over the items are used to recommend items to the new users. In this case, features of the items are not known.
Both being tree based algorithm, how is random forest different from Gradient boosting algorithm (GBM)?
The fundamental difference is, random forest uses bagging technique to make predictions. GBM uses boosting techniques to make predictions. In bagging technique, a data set is divided into n samples using randomized sampling. Then, using a single learning algorithm a model is build on all samples. Later, the resultant predictions are combined using voting or averaging. Bagging is done is parallel. In boosting, after the first round of predictions, the algorithm weighs misclassified predictions higher, such that they can be corrected in the succeeding round. This sequential process of giving higher weights to misclassified predictions continue until a stopping criterion is reached. Random forest improves model accuracy by reducing variance (mainly). The trees grown are uncorrelated to maximize the decrease in variance. On the other hand, GBM improves accuracy my reducing both bias and variance in a model.
You've built a random forest model with 10000 trees. You got delighted after getting training error as 0.00. But, the validation error is 34.23. What is going on? Haven't you trained your model perfectly?
The model has overfitted. Training error 0.00 means the classifier has mimiced the training data patterns to an extent, that they are not available in the unseen data. Hence, when this classifier was run on unseen sample, it couldn't find those patterns and returned prediction with higher error. In random forest, it happens when we use larger number of trees than necessary. Hence, to avoid these situation, we should tune number of trees using cross validation.
Why overfitting happens?
The possibility of overfitting exists as the criteria used for training the model is not the same as the criteria used to judge the efficacy of a model.
You are working on a time series data set. You manager has asked you to build a high accuracy model. You start with the decision tree algorithm, since you know it works fairly well on all kinds of data. Later, you tried a time series regression model and got higher accuracy than decision tree model. Can this happen? Why?
Time series data is known to posses linearity. On the other hand, a decision tree algorithm is known to work best to detect non - linear interactions. The reason why decision tree failed to provide robust predictions because it couldn't map the linear relationship as good as a regression model did. Therefore, we learned that, a linear regression model can provide robust prediction given the data set satisfies its linearity assumptions.
After analyzing the model, your manager has informed that your regression model is suffering from multicollinearity. How would you check if he's true? Without losing any information, can you still build a better model?
To check multicollinearity, we can create a correlation matrix to identify & remove variables having correlation above 75% (deciding a threshold is subjective). In addition, we can use calculate VIF (variance inflation factor) to check the presence of multicollinearity. VIF value <= 4 suggests no multicollinearity whereas a value of >= 10 implies serious multicollinearity. Also, we can use tolerance as an indicator of multicollinearity. But, removing correlated variables might lead to loss of information. In order to retain those variables, we can use penalized regression models like ridge or lasso regression. Also, we can add some random noise in correlated variable so that the variables become different from each other. But, adding noise might affect the prediction accuracy, hence this approach should be carefully used.
You have been asked to evaluate a regression model based on R², adjusted R² and tolerance. What will be your criteria?
Tolerance (1 / VIF) is used as an indicator of multicollinearity. It is an indicator of percent of variance in a predictor which cannot be accounted by other predictors. Large values of tolerance is desirable. We will consider adjusted R² as opposed to R² to evaluate model fit because R² increases irrespective of improvement in prediction accuracy as we add more variables. But, adjusted R² would only increase if an additional variable improves the accuracy of model, otherwise stays same. It is difficult to commit a general threshold value for adjusted R² because it varies between data sets. For example: a gene mutation data set might result in lower adjusted R² and still provide fairly good predictions, as compared to a stock market data where lower adjusted R² implies that model is not good.
How is True Positive Rate and Recall related? Write the equation.
True Positive Rate = Recall. Yes, they are equal having the formula (TP/TP + FN).
I know that a linear regression model is generally evaluated using Adjusted R² or F value. How would you evaluate a logistic regression model?
We can use the following methods: Since logistic regression is used to predict probabilities, we can use AUC-ROC curve along with confusion matrix to determine its performance. Also, the analogous metric of adjusted R² in logistic regression is AIC. AIC is the measure of fit which penalizes model for the number of model coefficients. Therefore, we always prefer model with minimum AIC value. Null Deviance indicates the response predicted by a model with nothing but an intercept. Lower the value, better the model. Residual deviance indicates the response predicted by a model on adding independent variables. Lower the value, better the model.
In k-means or kNN, we use euclidean distance to calculate the distance between nearest neighbors. Why not manhattan distance ?
We don't use manhattan distance because it calculates distance horizontally or vertically only. It has dimension restrictions. On the other hand, euclidean metric can be used in any space to calculate distance. Since, the data points can be present in any dimension, euclidean distance is a more viable option. Example: Think of a chess board, the movement made by a bishop or a rook is calculated by manhattan distance because of their respective vertical & horizontal movements.
Is rotation necessary in PCA? If yes, Why? What will happen if you don't rotate the components?
Yes, rotation (orthogonal) is necessary because it maximizes the difference between variance captured by the component. This makes the components easier to interpret. Not to forget, that's the motive of doing PCA where, we aim to select fewer components (than features) which can explain the maximum variance in the data set. By doing rotation, the relative location of the components doesn't change, it only changes the actual coordinates of the points. If we don't rotate the components, the effect of PCA will diminish and we'll have to select more number of components to explain variance in the data set.
When is Ridge regression favorable over Lasso regression?
You can quote ISLR's authors Hastie, Tibshirani who asserted that, in presence of few variables with medium / large sized effect, use lasso regression. In presence of many variables with small / medium sized effect, use ridge regression. Conceptually, we can say, lasso regression (L1) does both variable selection and parameter shrinkage, whereas Ridge regression only does parameter shrinkage and end up including all the coefficients in the model. In presence of correlated variables, ridge regression might be the preferred choice. Also, ridge regression works best in situations where the least square estimates have higher variance. Therefore, it depends on our model objective.
You are assigned a new project which involves helping a food delivery company save more money. The problem is, company's delivery team aren't able to deliver food on time. As a result, their customers get unhappy. And, to keep them happy, they end up delivering food for free. Which machine learning algorithm can save them?
You might have started hopping through the list of ML algorithms in your mind. But, wait! Such questions are asked to test your machine learning fundamentals. This is not a machine learning problem. This is a route optimization problem. A machine learning problem consist of three things: There exist a pattern. You cannot solve it mathematically (even by writing exponential equations). You have data on it. Always look for these three factors to decide if machine learning is a tool to solve a particular problem.
Considering the long list of machine learning algorithm, given a data set, how do you decide which one to use?
You should say, the choice of machine learning algorithm solely depends of the type of data. If you are given a data set which is exhibits linearity, then linear regression would be the best algorithm to use. If you given to work on images, audios, then neural network would help you to build a robust model. If the data comprises of non linear interactions, then a boosting or bagging algorithm should be the choice. If the business requirement is to build a model which can be deployed, then we'll use regression or a decision tree model (easy to interpret and explain) instead of black box algorithms like SVM, GBM etc. In short, there is no one master algorithm for all situations. We must be scrupulous enough to understand which algorithm to use.
What are the three stages to build the hypotheses or model in machine learning?
a) Model building b) Model testing c) Applying the model
Explain how a ROC curve works.
contrast between true positive rates and the false positiv rate, sensitivity, fall-out, false alarm
What is Bayes' Theorem? How is it useful in a machine learning context?
posterior probability,
