Management Test 2
What are the four key sets of leader behavior according to the transformational leadership theory (4 I's)
1.) Inspirational motivation involves establishing an attractive vision of the future, the use of emotional arguments, and exhibition of optimism and enthusiasm A vision is a realistic, credible, attractive future for your organization The right vision unleashes human potential because it serves as a beacon of hope and common purpose by attracting commitment, energizing workers, creating meaning in employees' lives, establishing a standard of excellence, promoting high ideals, and bridging the gap between an organization's present problems and its future goals and aspirations 2.) Idealized Influence includes behaviors such as sacrificing for the good of the group, being a role model, and displaying high ethical standards 3.) Individualized consideration entails behaviors associated with providing support, encouragement, empowerment, and coaching employees These behaviors necessitate that leaders pay special attention to the needs of their followers and search for ways to help people develop and grow 4.) Intellectual stimulation involves behaviors that encourage employees to question the status quo and to seek innovative and creative solutions to organizational problems This dimension of transformational leadership pertains to encouraging employee creativity, innovation, and problem solving
9 generic influence tactics
9 Generic influence tactics ranked in diminishing order of use in the workplace Rational persuasion - try to convince someone with reason, logic, or facts Inspirational appeals - trying to build enthusiasm by appealing to others' emotions, ideals, or values Consultation - getting others to participate in planning, making decisions, and changes Ingratiation - getting someone in a good mood prior to making a request; being friendly, helpful, and using praise or flattery Personal appeals - referring to friendship and loyalty when making a request Exchange - making express or implied promises and trading favors Coalition tactics - getting others to support your effort to persuade someone Pressure - demanding compliance or using intimidation or threats Legitimating tactics - basing a request on one's authority or right, organizational rules or policies, or express or implied support from superiors They characterize social influence in all directions and in a wide variety of settings Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, ingratiation, and personal appeals are considered soft tactics Exchange, coalition, pressure, and legitimating tactics are considered hard tactics
Clan Culture
A clan culture has an internal focus and values flexibility rather than stability and control Resembles a family-type organization in which effectiveness is achieved by encouraging collaboration between employees Very employee focused and strives to instill cohesion through consensus and job satisfaction and commitment through employee involvement Devotes considerable resources to hiring and developing their employees, and they view customers as partners
Market Culture
A market culture has a strong external focus and values stability and control Organizations with this culture are driven by competition and a strong desire to deliver results and accomplish goals Customers and profits take precedence over employee development and satisfaction The major goal of managers is to drive toward productivity, profits, and customer satisfaction Employees in market cultures are expected to react fast, work hard, and deliver quality work on time Organizations with this culture tent to reward people who deliver results
What is a vision
A vision represents a long-term goal that describes "what" an organization wants to become A strategic plan outlines an organization's long-term goals and the actions necessary to achieve those goals
Darwin Smith vs. Al Dunlap
Al Dunlap People openly expressed concerns about his emotional state after he stormed out of a board meeting He wanted the people to pay him to buy out a stockholders shares but he couldn't explain why He was an extremist in the industry, he had no values, no honor, no loyalty, and no ethics He fired 18,000 employees Dunlap engaged in "bill and hold" deals with retailers, in which Sunbeam products were purchased at great discounts and then held at third-party warehouses for delivery later; this shifted sales from future quarters to the current one, raising revenues Dunlap spoke in front of 200 major investors and Wall Street analysts and promised earnings of 5-10 cents per share in the second quarter and $1 a share for the full year in order to make up for the dismal first quarter losses He threatened Shore, an analyst that was trying to expose his deception Sunbeam was engaged in highly aggressive sales tactics and accounting practices that inflated revenues and profits Dunlap demands board support or says that he is out The board members were concerned that Dunlap lacked the resolve to continue in the job, was unaware of the deteriorating results, or was being less than candid The directors all agreed that Dunlap had to go because they had lost their trust in him and felt betrayed Dunlap believed that what mattered most in company management was increasing shareholder value Dunlap was a master of tantrums, abusive behavior, dissembling, and subterfuge Dunlap was a hated man among the employees of the company because he ran things like they were going out of business He resorted to a growing number of questionable accounting practices to make the numbers each quarter Inventory-snuffing - selling customers far more product than they need, but offering them considerable financial inducements to take the products; pumped up sales figures for a quarter or two but then the customers would refuse to buy anymore products Darwin E. Smith Mild-mannered Didn't feel like the board had made the right choice in making him CEO He turned the company into the leading consumer paper products company in the world He is a Level 5 Leader - an individual who builds extreme personal humility with intense professional will; executives like this are a catalyst for the statistically rare event of transforming a good company into a great one He was shy, unpretentious, and even awkward and he shunned attention He had a fierce, even stoic resolve toward life These types of executives didn't talk about themselves; they would go on and on about the company and what other executives did but they would instinctively deflect discussion about their own role Deep sense of connectedness to the organization he ran
Adhocracy Culture
An adhocracy culture has an external focus and values flexibility This type of culture fosters the creation of innovative products and services by being adaptable, creative, and fast to respond to changes in the marketplace Adhocracy cultures don't rely on the type of centralized power and authority relationships that are part of market and hierarchical cultures They empower and encourage employees to take risks, think outside the box, and experiment with new ways of getting things done This type of culture is well suited for start-up companies, those in industries undergoing constant change, and those in mature industries that are in need of innovation to enhance growth
3 phases of organizational socialization
Anticipatory socialization, encounter, and change and acquisition
What are examples of political tactics
Attacking or blaming others Using information as a political tool Creating a favorable image (impression management) Developing a base of support Praising others (ingratiation) Forming power coalitions with strong allies Associating with influential people Creating obligations
Authority
Authority Expose your expertise; don't assume it's self-evident Executives should take pains to ensure that they establish their own expertise before they attempt to exert influence People mistakenly assume that others recognize and appreciate their experience Inform people into compliance Make experience more visible Touch lightly on your relevant background and experience as a natural part of a sociable exchange; this gives you a chance to establish expertise early in the game
Why do people make themselves look bad
Avoidance - employee seeks to avoid additional work, stress, burnout, or an unwanted transfer or promotion Obtain concrete rewards - employee seeks to obtain a pay raise or a desired transfer, promotion, or demotion Exit - employee seeks to get laid off, fired, or suspended, and perhaps also to collect unemployment or workers' compensation Power - employee seeks to control, manipulate, or intimidate others, get revenge, or make someone else look bad
What are basic assumptions
Basic Assumptions Basic underlying assumptions are unobservable and represent the core of organizational culture; they constitute organizational values that have become so taken for granted over time that they become assumptions that guide organizational behavior They are highly resistant to change When basic assumptions are widely held among employees, people will find behavior based on an inconsistent value inconceivable Employees are more likely to behave ethically when management behaves in a way that set a good ethical example and kept its promises and commitments Companies experienced 10 times more misconduct when they had weak rather than strong ethical cultures
Barriers to delegation
Belief in the fallacy "if you want it done right, do it yourself" Lack of confidence and trust in lower-level employees Low self-confidence Fear of being called lazy Vague job definition Fear of competition from those below Reluctance to take the risks involved in depending on others Lack of controls that provide early warning of problems with delegated duties Poor examples set by bosses who do not delete
Challenge the process
Challenge the process Leaders venture out; those who lead others to greatness seek and accept challenge Leaders are pioneers; they are willing to step out into the unknown They search for opportunities to innovate, grow, and improve Leaders have to constantly be looking outside of themselves and their organizations for new and innovative products, processes, and services When it comes to innovate, the leader's major contributions are in the creation of a climate for experimentation, the recognition of good ideas, the support of those ideas, and the willingness to challenge the system to get new products, processes, services, and systems adopted Leaders know well that innovation and change involve experimenting and taking risks, and they are willing to proceed anyways Leadership is learning by doing, adapting to actual conditions; they are constantly learning from their errors and failures
Competing Values Framework (CVF) four types of organizational culture
Clan culture, adhocracy culture, market culture, hierarchy culture
3 possible outcomes from an influence attempt
Commitment - your friend enthusiastically agrees and will demonstrate initiative and persistence while completing the assignment Compliance - your friend grudgingly complies and will need prodding to satisfy minimum requirements Resistance - your friend will say no, make excuses, stall, or put up an argument
Consistency
Consistency Make their commitments active, public, and voluntary Most people, once they take a stand or go on record in favor of a position, prefer to stick with it Even a seemingly trivial commitment can have a powerful effect on future actions A choice made actively — one that's spoken out loud or written down or otherwise made explicit — is considerably more likely to direct someone's future conduct than the same choice left unspoken People live up to what they have written down Written statements become even more powerful when they're made public Reinforce the commitment by making sure it gets a public airing
What are contingency factors
Contingency factors are situational variables that cause one style of leadership to be more effective than another
Contingency Model - Fred Fiedler
Contingency theory is based on the premise that a leader's effectiveness is contingent on the extent to which a leader's style fits or matches characteristics of the situation at hand
What are unfavorable upward impression management tactics
Decreasing performance - restricting productivity, making more mistakes than usual, lowering quality, neglecting tasks Not working to potential - pretending ignorance, having unused capabilities Withdrawing - being tardy, taking excessive breaks, faking illness Displaying a bad attitude - complaining, getting upset and angry, acting strangely, not getting along with co-workers Broadcasting limitations - letting co-workers know about one's physical problems and mistakes, both verbally and nonverbally
What are the takeaways from the path-goal theory
Effective leaders possess and use more than one style of leadership; managers are encouraged to familiarize themselves with the different categories of leader behavior outlined in path-goal theory and to try new behaviors when the situation calls for them The theory offers specific suggestions for how leaders can help employees; leaders are encouraged to clarify the paths to goal accomplishment and to remove any obstacles that may impair an employee's ability to achieve his or her goals A small set of employee characteristics and environmental factors are relevant contingency factors; managers are advised to modify their leadership style to fit those various employee and task characteristics
Practical application of socialization research
Effective on boarding programs resulted in increased retention, productivity, and rates of task completion for new hires Formalized or institutionalized social tactics were found to positively help employees in both domestic and international operations Managers need to help new hires integrate within the organizational culture and overcome the stress associated with working in a new environment; a report revealed that they had more accurate expectations, felt less stress, reported better adjustment, and had higher retention rates when the orientation program focused on coping with new entry stress Managers are advised to use a contingency approach toward organizational socialization; different techniques are appropriate for different people at different times Managers should pay attention to the socialization of diverse employees; diverse employees, particularly those with disabilities, experienced different socialization activities than other newcomers which affected there long-term success and job satisfaction
What are the two contingency factors in the path-goal theory
Employee characteristics and environmental factors Employee characteristics: 1.) Locus of control -Internal locus of control people are more likely to prefer participative or achievement-oriented leadership because they believe they have control over the work environment; unlikely to be satisfied with directive leader behaviors that exert additional control over their activities -External locus of control people tend to view the environment as uncontrollable, thereby preferring the structure provided by supportive or directive leadership 2.) Task ability -An employee with high task ability and experience is less apt to need additional direction and thus would respond negatively to directive leadership; more likely to be motivated and satisfied by participative and achievement-oriented leadership -An inexperienced employee would find achievement-oriented leadership overwhelming as he or she confronts challenges associated with learning a new job; supportive and directive leadership would help in this situation 3.) Need for achievement -Experience -Need for clarity -Directive and supportive leadership should help employees experiencing role ambiguity -Directive leadership is likely to frustrate employees working on routine and simple tasks; supportive leadership would be more useful Environmental factors: 1.) Task structure (independent vs interdependent tasks) 2.) Work group dynamics
What are the criticisms of empowerment
Employee participation in the performance appraisal process was positively related to an employee's satisfaction with his or her performance review, perceived value of the appraisal, motivation to improve performance after the review, and perceived fairness of the appraisal process Participation has a small statistical significant positive impact on job performance, but only a moderate positive effect on job satisfaction Teams with empowering leadership tended to have more knowledge sharing, a greater sense of team efficacy, and better performance Positive correlation between high-involvement management practices and employee retention and company productivity High involvement work processes more effectively boosted job performance, job satisfaction, and organization commitment than did self-managed teams Productivity tended to drop after a layoff in high-involvement workplaces, except when the commitment to empowerment was continued during and after the layoff Employees who felt empowered had greater intrinsic motivation, attempted to be more creative, and were more supportive of organizational changes
What is empowerment
Empowerment is recognizing and releasing into the organization the power that people already have in their wealth of useful knowledge, experience, and internal motivation A core component of this process is pushing decision-making authority down to progressively lower levels
Enable others to act
Enable others to act Leaders have to enable others to act in order to get extraordinary things done in organizations Leaders foster collaboration and build trust; they engage all those who must make the project work and in some way, all who must live with the results People used we nearly three times more often than I in explaining their personal-best leadership experience Leaders make it possible for others to do good work Leaders enable others to act not by hoarding the power they have but by giving it away Exemplary leaders strengthen everyone's capacity to deliver on the promises they make Authentic leadership is founded on trust, and the more people trust their leader, and each other, the more they take risks, make changes, and keep organizations and movements alive
Encourage the heart
Encourage the heart Leaders encourage the heart of their constituents to carry on Genuine acts of caring uplift the spirits and draw people forward Recognizing contributions is important because it provides a climate in which people feel cared about and genuinely appreciate their leaders It's part of the leader's job to show appreciation for people's contributions and to create a culture of celebrating values and victories Celebrations and rituals, when done with authenticity and from the heart, build a strong sense of collective identity and community spirit that can carry a group through extraordinarily tough times Leadership is not about personality; it's about behavior Leadership is an identifiable set of skills and abilities that are available to all of us Leadership is a relationship between those who aspire to lead and those who choose to follow The quality of this relationship is what matters most when we're engaged in getting extraordinary things done Success in leading will be wholly dependent upon the capacity to build and sustain those human relationships that enable people to get extraordinary things done on a regular basis
What are espoused values
Espoused Values Values Are concepts or beliefs Pertain to desirable end-states or behaviors Transcend situations Guide selection or evaluation of behavior and events Are ordered by relative importance Espoused values represent aspirations that are explicitly communicated to employees; managers hope these values will directly influence employee behavior Espoused values represent the explicitly stated values and norms that are preferred by an organization; they are generally established by the founder of a new or small company and by the top management team in a larger organization Sustainability represents "a company's ability to make a profit without sacrificing the resources of its people, the community, and the planet" Enacted values Enacted values represent the values and norms that actually are exhibited or converted into employee behavior; they represent the values that employees ascribe to an organization based on their observations of what occurs on a daily basis
Personal - expert, referent
Expert power - valued knowledge or information gives an individual expert power over those who need such knowledge of information The power of supervisors is enhanced because they know about work schedules and assignments before their employees do Referent power (charisma) - comes into play when one's personality becomes the reason for compliance Role models have referent power over those who identify closely with them
Edgar Schein - Organizational culture involves a teaching process accomplished by using one or more of the following mechanisms:
Formal statements of organizational philosophy, mission, vision, values, and materials used for recruiting, selection, and socialization The design of physical space, work environments, and buildings Slogans, language, acronyms, and sayings Deliberate role modeling, training programs, teaching, and coaching by managers and supervisors Explicit rewards, status symbols, and promotion criteria Stories, legends, or myths about key people and events The organizational activities, processes, or outcomes that leaders pay attention to, measure, and control Leader reactions to critical incidents and organizational crises The workflow and organizational structure Organizational systems and procedures Organizational goals and the associated criteria used for recruitment, selection, development, promotion, layoffs, and retirement of people
According to Bernard Bass, what is the difference between leading versus managing?
He concluded that leaders manage and managers lead, but the two activities are not synonymous. Even though leadership and management overlap, each entails a unique set of activities or functions. Managers typically perform functions associated with planning, investigating, organizing, and control. Leaders deal with the interpersonal aspects of a managers job, such as inspiring others, providing emotional support, and trying to get employees to rally around a common goal. Leaders also play a key role in creating a vision and strategic plan for an organization. Managers are charged with implementing the vision and strategic plan. Characteristics of being a leader and a manager on pg 249
Sticky Six
Ideas that are sticky are memorable and effective in changing thoughts, decisions, and behaviors Simple Unexpected Concrete Credible Emotional Stories
What is impression management
Impression management is defined as the process by which people attempt to control or manipulate the reactions of others to image of themselves or their ideas Encompasses how one talks, behaves, and looks Most impression management attempts are directed at making a good impression on relevant others Anyone can be the intended target of impression manage Involves self-monitoring, attribution theory, and organizational politics High self-monitoring employees are likely to be more inclined to engage in impression management than would be low self-monitors Impression management also involves the systematic manipulation of attributions
Insights about power
In business, it is important to motivate through the power of shared goals, shared objectives, and shared standards Reward, coercive, and negative legitimate power tend to produce compliance Positive legitimate power, expert power, and referent power tend to foster commitment Commitment is superior to compliance because it is driven by internal or intrinsic motivation; committed employees tend to be self-starters who do not require close supervision
Ways to manage employees who try to make bad impressions
Include more challenging work Greater autonomy Better feedback Supportive leadership Clear and reasonable goals A less stressful work setting
What are the 3 levels of political action
Individual level - personal self-interests are pursued by the individual Coalition level - a coalition is an informal group bound together by the active pursuit of a single issue Coalitions may or may not coincide with formal group membership When the target issue is resolved, the coalition disbands Political coalitions are fluid in membership, flexible in structure, and temporary in duration Network level Networks are loose associations of individuals seeking social support for their general self-interests Politically, networks are people oriented, which coalitions are issue oriented Networks have broader and longer term agendas than do coalitions
Inspire a shared vision
Inspire a shared vision Leaders inspire a shared vision in which employees have visions and dreams of what could be Leaders envision exciting and ennobling possibilities; their clear vision of the future pulls them forward, giving them a desire to change the way things are, to make something happen, or to create something that no one else has ever created before Leaders cannot command commitment, only inspire it Leaders have to enlist others in a common vision They must know their constituents and speak their language Leadership is a dialogue, not a monologue Leaders must have intimate knowledge of people's dreams, hopes, aspirations, visions, and values Belief in and enthusiasm for the vision are the sparks that ignite the flame of inspiration
What are the 3 categories of favorable upward impression management tactics
Job-focused (manipulating information about one's job performance) Supervisor-focused (praising and doing favors for one's supervisor) Self-focused (presenting oneself as a polite and nice person)
Take aways from behavioral styles theory
Leaders are made, not born; this is the opposite of the trait theorists' traditional assumption There is no one best style of leadership; the effectiveness of a particular leadership style depends on the situation at hand
What are the optimal matches
Leaders must learn to manipulate or influence the leadership situation in order to create a match between their leadership style and the amount of control within the situation at hand Task motivated leaders are hypothesized to be most effective in situations of high control Relationship-motivated leaders are expected to be more effective under conditions of moderate control Results orientation of task motivated leaders is predicted to be more effective under the condition of very low control
Contingency Models - 2 Leadership styles
Leadership Styles: Fiedler believes that leaders have one dominant or natural leadership style that is resistant to change; a leader's style is described as either task-motivated or relationship-motivated Task-motivated leaders focus on accomplishing goals, whereas relationship-motivated leaders are more interested in developing positive relationships with followers To determine an individual's leadership style, Fiedler developed the least preferred co-coworker (LPC) scale, in which high LPC's indicate than an individual is relationship-motivated, and low LPC's suggest a task-motivated style
Warren Bennis
Leadership is the capacity to translate vision into reality. American organizations are under led and over managed; they don't pay enough attention to doing the right thing, while they pay too much attention to doing things right
Liking
Liking Two factors reliably increase liking Similarity - draws people together, can be used to create bonds Praise - both charms and disarms, positive remarks about another person's traits, attitude, or performance reliably generates liking in return, as well as willing compliance with the wishes of the person offering the praise
6 principles of influence
Liking, reciprocity, social proof, consistency, authority, scarcity
Kotter Article: What Leaders Really Do
Management is about coping with complexity Good management brings a degree of order and consistency to key dimensions like the quality and profitability of products Leadership is about coping with change Major changes are more and more necessary to survive and compete effectively in this new environment Companies manage complexity first by planning and budgeting — setting targets or goals for the future, establishing detailed steps for achieving those targets, and then allocating resources to accomplish those plans Leading an organization to constructive change begins by setting a direction — developing a vision of the future along with strategies for producing the changes needed to achieve that vision Management develops the capacity to achieve its plan by organizing and staffing — creating an organizational structure and set of jobs for accomplishing plan requirements, staffing the jobs with qualified individuals, communicating he plan to those people, delegating responsibility for carrying out the plan, and devising systems to monitor implementation Leaders align people, meaning that they communicate the new direction to those who can create coalitions that understand the vision and are committed to its achievement Management ensures plan accomplishment by controlling and problem solving — monitoring results versus the plan in some detail, both formally and informally, by means of reports, meetings, and other tools; identifying deviations; and then planning and organizing to solve the problems Leadership requires motivating and inspiring to achieve a vision — keeping people moving in the right direction despite major obstacles to change, by appealing to basic but often untapped human needs, values, and emotions
Model the Way
Model the way Exemplary leaders know that if they want to gain commitment and achieve the highest standards, they must be models of the behavior they expect of others Leaders must first clarify values Exemplary leaders go first by setting the example through daily actions that demonstrate they are deeply committed to their beliefs (deeds are more important than words) Inspire a shared vision
5 practices to exemplary leadership
Model the way, aspire a shared vision, challenge the process, enable others to act, encourage the heart
What are observable artifacts
Observable Artifacts Culture represents observable artifacts at the more visible level Artifacts consist of the physical manifestation of an organization's culture; includes acronyms, manner of dress, awards, myths and stories about the organization, etc. Artifacts are easier to change than the less visible aspects of an organizational culture
Competing Values Framework (CVF) four functions of organizational culture
Organizational identity Collective commitment Social system stability - Reflects the extent to which the work environment is perceived as positive and reinforcing, and the extent to which conflict and change are effectively managed Sense-making device - This function of culture helps employees understand why the organization does what it does and how it intends to accomplish its long-term goals
How to manage organizational politics
Organizational politics cannot be eliminated Political maneuvering can and should be managed to keep it constructive and within reasonable bounds Measurable objectives are management's first line of defense against counterproductive organizational politics
What is organizational politics
Organizational politics involves intentional acts of influence to enhance or protect the self-interest of individuals or groups An emphasis of self-interest distinguishes this form of social influence Political behavior becomes a negative force when self-interests erode or defeat organizational interests
What is PE fit, and why is it important for you to understand as both a job-seeker and a manager?
PE fit is defined "as the compatibility between an individual and a work environment that occurs when their characteristics are well matched People have higher job satisfaction and commitment to their organizations and lower intentions to quit when their personal characteristics and values match or fit the job requirements, organizational values, and the values of the workgroup PE fit is important for future job and career satisfaction
What is participative management
Participative management is the process whereby employees play a direct role in setting goals, making decisions, solving problems, and making changes in the organizations Participative management is predicted to increase motivation because it helps employees fulfill three basic needs: autonomy, meaningfulness of work, and interpersonal contract Satisfaction of these needs enhances feelings of acceptance and commitment, security, challenge, and satisfaction; in turn, they lead to increased innovation and performance The design of work, the level of trust between management and employees, and the employees' competence and readiness to participate represent three factors that influence the effectiveness of PM
What is personal initiative
Personal initiative is a behavior syndrome resulting in an individual's taking an active and self-starting approach to work and going beyond what is formally required in a given job Characterized by Consistent with the organization's mission Long term focus Goal-directed and action-oriented Persistent in the face of barriers and setbacks Self-starting and proactive
What is personalized power
Personalized power is power directed at helping oneself; occurs when expressions of power for the sake of personal aggrandizement become paramount; exhibited when: Managers focus more on satisfying their own needs Managers focus less on the needs of the underlings Managers act like the rules others are expected to follow don't apply to them
What are the 4 P's of political success
Power assessment - how can you improve your leverage position Performance - how can your work make the business more successful Perception - how can you enhance your reputation, especially with those who can achieve your goals Partnerships - how can you increase your network of allies and supporters
What are proactive tactics
Proactive tactics are when the intent is to promote the individual's self-interest
What is reactive politics
Reactive politics are when the intent is to defend one's self-interest
Reciprocity
Reciprocity Managers can elicit the desired behavior from coworkers and employees by displaying it first Give what you want to receive
Empowering leadership - Capt. Abrashoff
Retaining people sometimes requires redeeming them — changing their lives A leader should neither command nor control; he should provide vision and values and then guide, coach, and even follow his people He vowed to treat every encounter with every person on the trip as the most important thing in the world at that moment He took the time to meet individually with every sailor on the ship and asked them all the same set of questions Getting to know someone as an individual prevents you from zoning out when they're talking; it forces you to listen It also generated innovations and process improvements He set limits and made immutable rules; there were clear boundaries that the crew couldn't cross As a leader, he had to draw a distinction between freedom and lack of discipline Every member of the crew was free to criticize or question any other, as long as the aim was to improve our ability to fulfill our mission He trusted the crew with his ship and the career He punished people and then allowed them to redeem themselves, building them back up again Previous style of leadership: Command and control to the max; do exactly what I say, when I say it, no questions, no comments There is a lot of creativity and know-how among the sailors, so a leader should provide vision and values and then guide, coach, and follow his people Working under William J. Perry, he saw that listening to people encouraged them to do their best He got to know sailors on a personal level He listened to sailors and used their feedback to make the environment better Sailors wanted to be on the ship, retention dropped significantly, and the crew became more efficient Disadvantages are that it's hard to punish people A lot of trust is put into the sailors; he basically trusted the sailors with his job, putting his job on the line
Position - legitimate, reward, coercive
Reward power - when managers obtain compliance by promising or granting rewards Reward power is at the heart of shaping on-the-job behavior with verbal or written recognition and other forms of positive reinforcement Coercive power - threat of punishment and actual punishment give an individual coercive power Legitimate power - this base of power is anchored to one's formal position of authority; individuals who obtain compliance primarily because of their formal authority to make decisions have legitimate power - Positive legitimate power focuses constructively on job performance - Negative legitimate power tends to be threatening and demeaning to those being influenced; its main purpose is to build the power holder's ego
Scarcity
Scarcity Highlight unique benefits and exclusive information Items and opportunities are seen to be more valuable as they become less available Exclusive information is more persuasive than widely available data These 6 principles should be applied in combination to compound their impact The rules of ethics apply to the science of social influence just as they do to any other technology
Contingency Model - 3 Characteristics of situation
Situational control refers to the amount of control and influence the leader has in her or his immediate work environment. It ranges from high to low, with high control implying that the leader's decisions will produce predictable results because the leader has the ability to influence work outcomes. low control implies that the leader has very little influence 3 dimensions of situations control Leader-member relations - reflect the extent to which the leader has the support, loyalty, and trust of the work group; this is the most important component of situational control Task structure - concerned with the amount of structure contained within tasks performed by the work group Position power - refers to the degree to which the leader has formal power to reward, punish, or otherwise obtain compliance from employees
What are situational theories?
Situational theories propose that the effectiveness of a particular style of leader behavior depends on the situation; as the situations change, different styles become appropriate
Social Proof
Social Proof Persuasion can be extremely effective when it comes from peers Influence is often best exerted horizontally rather than vertically Use peer power whenever it's available
What is socialized power
Social power is defined as the ability to get things done with human, informational, and material resources; plans, self-doubts, mixed outcomes, and concerns for others Social power is unlimited Research implications Women have a significantly higher need for socialized power Experet and referent power had a generally positive impact (got the BEST combination of results and favorable reactions from lower-level employees) Reward and legitimate power had a slightly positive impact Coercive power had a slightly negative impact
Phase 1: Anticipatory Socialization
The anticipatory socialization phase occurs before an individual actually joins an organization; it's represented by the information people have learned about different careers, occupations, professions, and organizations Unrealistic expectations about the nature of the work, pay, and promotions are often formulated during phase 1 Employees with unrealistic expectations are more likely to quit their jobs in the future so organizations may want to use realistic job previews A realistic job preview (RJP) involves giving recruits a realistic idea of what lies ahead by presenting both positive and negative aspects of the job RJPs are related to higher performance and to lower attrition from the recruitment process RJPs lowered job applicants' initial expectations and led to lower turnover among those applicants who were hired
Practical research implications from outcomes of influence attempts
The best outcome is commitment because the target person's intrinsic motivation will energize good performance Commitment is more likely when people rely on consultation, strong rational persuasion, and inspirational appeals and do not rely on pressure and coalition tactics Commitment is more likely when the influence attempt involves something important and enjoyable and is based on a friendly relationship Ingratiation can slightly improve your performance appraisal results and make your boss like you significantly more When relationships between a team member and a manager are not good, inspirational appeals and exchange tactics actually reduced helping behavior, with lack of credibility being the likely culprit Exchange tactics increased helping behavior when the relationship was good Consultation increased helping behavior, regardless of the quality of the relationship Soft influence tactics are seen as fair, whereas hard influence tactics are seen as unfair, leading to greater resistance Women are perceived as being less competent and less influential in work groups than men The attempt to gain influence in task groups through dominance is an ineffective and poorly received strategy for both men and women Interpersonal influence is culture bound
Phase 3: Change and Acquisition
The change and acquisition phase requires employees to master important tasks and roles and to adjust to their work group's values and norms This only occurs when employees have a clear understanding about their roles, and they are effectively integrated within the work unit Being successful in phase 3 also necessitates that employees have a clear understanding regarding the use of social media Experts suggest setting ground rules on the first day of employment, coaching employees on norms, and discussing how guidelines have changed over time
Hierarchy culture
The hierarchy culture has an internal focus, which produces a more formalized and structured work environment, and values stability and control over flexibility This orientation leads to the development of reliable internal processes, extensive measurement, and the implementation of a variety of control mechanisms Effectiveness in a company with this type of culture is likely to be assessed with measures of efficiency, timeliness, quality, safety, and reliability of producing and delivering products and services Control is the driving force within a hierarchy culture
What is delegation
The highest degree of empowerment is delegation, the process of granting decision making authority to lower-level employees The amounts to power distribution It is a way to lighten the busy manager's load while at the same time developing employees' abilities It gives non managerial employees more than simply a voice in decisions; it empowers them to make their own decisions Employees need to delegate small tasks and decisions and scale up as competence, confidence, and trust grow Greater delegation was associated with the following: Employee was competent Employee shared manager's task objectives Manager had a long-standing and positive relationship with employee The lower-level person also was a supervisor
What is the process of culture change
The process of culture change essentially begins with targeting one of the three layers of organizational culture (observable artifacts, espoused values, and basic assumptions); culture will not change in a significant way unless managers are able to change basic underlying assumptions It is important to consider the extent to which the current culture is aligned with the organization's vision and strategic plan before attempting to change any aspect of organizational culture
Behavioral model - Consideration and Initiating Structure
The thrust of early behavioral leadership theory was to focus on leader behavior, instead of on personality traits. It was believed that leader behavior directly affected work group effectiveness. The Ohio State Studies concluded that there were 2 independent dimensions of leader behavior: consideration and initiating structure Consideration - Involves leader behavior associated with creating mutual respect or trust and focuses on a concern for group members' needs and desires Initiating Structure - Leader behavior that organize and defines what group members should be doing to maximize output Consideration and initiating structure had a moderately strong, significant relationship with leadership outcomes Followers performed more effectively for structuring leaders even though they performed considerate leaders The results don't support the idea that there is one best style of leadership, but follower satisfaction, motivation, and performance are significantly associated with these two leader behaviors At the University of Michigan Studies, researchers found two different styles of leadership: employee centered and job centered
Great Result Theory
This approach was based on the assumption that leaders are for with some inborn ability to lead
Results of the contingency model
This model emphasizes the point that leadership effectiveness goes beyond traits and behaviors; it's a function of the fit between a leader's style and the situational demands at hand so organizations should attempt to hire or promote people whose leadership styles fit or match situational demands This model explains why some people are successful in some situations and not in others; leaders need to modify their style to fit a situation
Phase 2: Encounter
This phase begins when the employment contract has been signed During the encounter phase, employees come to learn what the organization is really like Many companies use a combination of orientation and training programs to socialize employees during the encounter phase Onboarding programs help employees to integrate, assimilate, and transition to new jobs by making them familiar with corporate policies, procedures, culture, and politics and by clarifying work-role-expectations and responsibilities
Managerial Power: What are the 5 bases of power, or how does power arise
Through position and personal factors
Trait Model; successor to the Great Result Theory
Trait theorists believed that leadership traits were not innate but could be developed through experience and learning A leader trait is a physical or personality characteristic that can be used to differentiate leaders from followers 5 traits differentiate leaders from average followers: intelligence, dominance, self-confidence, level of energy and activity, and task-relevant knowledge Intelligence is the best predictor of leadership Traits associated with bad leaders: Incompetent, rigid, intemperate, callous, corrupt, insular, evil
Research results from trait theory
Traits play a central role in how we perceive leaders, and they ultimately impact leadership effectiveness Organizations may want to include personality and trait assessments into their selection and promotion processes Management development programs can be used to build a pipeline of leadership talent Results: Do people possess prototypes about preferred leadership traits? - Yes Implicit leadership theory is based on the idea that people have beliefs about how leaders should behave and what they should do for their followers Leadership prototype is a mental representation of the traits and behaviors that people believe are possessed by leaders Recent studies showed an emphasis on more feminine traits and styles that emphasize empowerment, fairness, and supportiveness Honesty, foward-looking, inspiring, and competent are the four traits that constitute a leader's credibility People want their leaders to be credible and to have a sense of direction Emotional intelligence is the ability to manage oneself and one's relationships in mature and constructive ways Emotional intelligence is predicted to be associated with leadership effectiveness, but there is not enough research to confirm this Extraversion was most consistently and positively related to both leadership emergence and effectiveness Conscientiousness and openness to experience also were positively correlated with leadership effectiveness Intelligence was modestly related to leadership effectiveness Conclusion: Personality is more important than intelligence when selecting leaders Traits associated with bad leaders: Incompetent, rigid, intemperate, callous, corrupt, insular, evil Men and women were seen as displaying more task and social leadership, respectively Women used a more democratic or participative style than men, and men used a more autocratic and directive style than women Men and women were equally assertive Women executives, when rated by their peers, managers, and direct reports, scored higher than their male counterparts on a variety of effectiveness criteria
What is transactional leadership
Transactional leadership focuses on clarifying employee's role and task requirements and providing followers with positive and negative rewards contingent on performance; encompasses the fundamental managerial activities of setting goals, monitoring progress toward goal achievement, and rewarding and punishing people for their level of goal accomplishment Based on using rewards and punishment to drive motivation and performance Transactional leadership is an essential prerequisite to effective leadership and the best leaders should learn to display both transactional and transformational leadership to various degrees
What is transformational leadership
Transformational leaders engender trust, seek to develop leadership in others, exhibit self-sacrifice and serve as moral agents, focusing themselves and followers on objectives that transcend the more immediate needs of the work group This form of leadership fosters higher levels of employee engagement, trust, commitment, and loyalty from followers than does transactional leadership Transformational leadership leads to superior performance when it augments or adds to transactional leadership Transformational leaders appeal to followers' self concepts in order to transform the followers by creating changes in their goals, values, needs, beliefs, and aspirations The relationship between personality traits and transformational leadership is relatively weak, suggesting that transformational leadership is less trait like and more susceptible to managerial influence
Research results and managerial implications for transformational leadership
Transformational leadership was positively associated with measures of leadership effectiveness and employees' job satisfaction At the organizational level, transformational leadership was positively correlated with organizational measures of effectiveness 6 managerial implications The establishment of a positive vision of the future — inspirational motivation — should be considered a first step at applying transformational leadership because it represents a long-term goal The best leaders are not just transformational; they are both transactional and transformational, and they avoid a laissez-faire or "wait-and-see" style Transformational leadership not only affects individual-level outcomes like job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and performance, but it also influences group dynamics and group-level outcomes Transformational leadership works virtually; if you lead geographically dispersed people, then it is important to focus on how you can display the four transformational leader behaviors in your emails, tweets, etc Employees at any level in an organization can be trained to be more transactional and transformational; reinforces the organizational value of developing and rolling out a combination of transactional and transformational leadership training for all employees Transformational leaders can be ethical or unethical
What 5 things can trigger political maneuvering
Unclear objectives Vague performance measures Ill-defined decision processes Strong individual or group competition Any type of change
What is WOMBAT
WOMBAT - waste of money, brains, and time is the acronym used to describe office politics Skillful and well-timed politics can help you get your point across, neutralize resistance to a key project, land a choice job assignment, or simply get the job done
House's Path-Goal Theory (original) - contingent on person and environment
What are the 4 leader styles and the 2 key groups of contingency variables that he originally proposed? What motivational theory is the basis for House's Path-Goal Theory? The Path-goal theory is based on the expectancy theory of motivation (the idea that motivation to exert effort increases one's effort to performance to outcome expectations improve) Leadership behavior is predicted to be motivational to the extent that it: Reduces roadblocks that interfere with goal accomplishment Provides the guidance and support needed by employees Ties meaningful rewards to goal accomplishment
Research evidence on organizational politics and impression management
White men had a greater understanding of organizational politics than did racial and ethnic minorities and white women Political behavior was perceived more favorably when it was performed against a target of the opposite gender Perceived higher levels of team politics were associated with lower organizational commitment, lower job satisfaction, poorer job performance, and lower unit effectiveness Political maneuvering was found to be commonplace and back-stabbing behavior reportedly triggered reciprocal back-stabbing Most managers viewed political behavior as ethical and necessary Impression management can cause problems across cultures
