MCAT BIOLOGY 18'
*Dump* the *HUNK*
*H*+ *U*rea *N*H3 *K*+
charge of sodium
+1
phases of menstral cycle
,1. follicular phase, 2. ovulation phase, 3. luteal phase 4. menstral phase
name four functions of the liver
- Control Infections - Remove bacteria and toxins from the blood - Process nutrients, hormones, and drugs - Make proteins that regulate blood
ripped jeans Q in or have a combination frequency of 2% jeans R & S have a recombination of 6% jeans S & T have a recombination frequency of 23% and jeans q & t every combination of 19% then what is the order of these four genes in the chromosome
- SQ RT
lower esophageal sphincter (cardiac sphincter)
- allow esophagus --> stomach - prevent stomach --> esophagus (why it's called heartburn)
endoderm (interior)
- develops into the lining of the digestive and respiratory systems
what are the two functional roles of extracellular digestion
- digestion -absorption
what triggers determination ?
- inducers - presence of specific mRNA -morphogens ,
dynien
- microtubule motor that moves from (+) to (-) - using 1 atp per step
foramen ovale (fetal shunt)
- one way valve - connects the right atrium to the left atrium -bypassing lungs
Penetrance and Expressivity
- penetrance is the percentage of individuals in the population carrying the allele - expressivity is the degree to which the phenotype associated with the genotype is expressed in individuals who carry the allele - both can be affected
kinetochore
- protein that attaches a chromosome to the spindle in cell division - located at centromere
puberty (g)
- the period of sexual maturation, -hypothalmus releases GNRh -triggering anterior pituitary -synthedizing fsh & LH - triggering production of other sex hormones maintsing reproductive system
the blastocyst consists of what two noteworthy cell groups
- trophoblast -inner cell mas
Why aren't viruses considered living?
- viruses cannot reproduce on their own without a host.
name three things that are true regarding adult stem cells?
-. they are less controversial than embryonic stem cells - they require treatment with various transcription factors -there is a reduced risk of rejection if patients own stem cells are used
how many directions can information flow in a neuron?
-1 -from dendrite to synaptic button
charge of potassium
-1 relative to sodium
how many ions of Na + are moved out of the cell for every 2K plus ions moved into the cell
-3 na + ions are moved out of the cell for every 2 k+ ions moved into the cell -Na+ equals 3 OUT=3 -K + equals 2 IN= 2
archea
-3rd domain of unicellular life -visually similar to prokarya -genes similar to eukarya
what is the depolarization threshold of a neuron?
-55 to -45 MV
epithelial tissue
-A body tissue that covers the surfaces of the body, inside and out -involved in absobtion, secretion & sensation -tightly connected to each other & basement membrane
Mitosis
-A process of asexual reproduction in eukaryotic cells - in which two identical daughter cells are produced by a single cell -occurs in somatic cells
endothelial cells
-Epithelia cells -line blood vessels
Dichorionic/diamniotic twins
-have their own chorion & amnion
sinoatrial (SA) node
-the pacemaker; -highly specialized, neurological tissue impeded in the wall of the right atrium; -responsible for initiating electrical conduction of the heartbeat, -causing the atria to contract and firing conduction of impulses to the AV node
puberty (male,)
-the period of sexual maturation, - testosterone produced by testis - fsh& LH are stimulated -secibdy secusl characteristics develop
Puberty (girls)
-the period of sexual maturation, -estrogen release -secondary effects (boobs /butt) -menarchy -progesterone secreated from follicle (corpus luteium)
Gastrulation
-the process in which a gastrula develops from a blastula by the inward migration of cells -post implantation
dizygotic twins
-the result of two separate eggs fertilized by two sperm; - also called fraternal twins -no more similar than siblings
how many nuclei are found in a cardiac muscle cell
1-2
what are the main functions of the liver
1. Carbohydrate metabolism 2. Lipid metabolism 3. Protein metabolism 4. Processing of drugs and hormones 5. Excretion of bilirubin 6. Synthesis of bile salts 7. Storage 8. Phagocytosis 9. Production of vitamin D 10. processing nutrients 11. detoxification
what are the 3 Humps in the EKG
1. P bump(0.0/0.8) 2. PQR an s peeks (0.1/0.9) 3. t bump (0.3-0.4)
path of deoxygenated blood through the heart lungs and back into the circulatory system
1. Superior and inferior vena cava to right atrium 2. right ventricle into pulmonary arteries 3. gas exchange in the lungs 4. pulmonary veins two left ventricle to left atrium 5. into the aorta 6. up to the brain and arms and down to the descending aorta
initiation does muscle contraction part 2
1. depolarization triggers and action potential 2. which spreads down the sarcolemma to the T tubules w 3. which travel to the muscle tissues to the sarcoplasmic reticulum 4. once reached CA 2 + is released 5. triggering a change in confirmation of tropomyosin exposing myocincebinding sites
pancreas serves what two functions
1. endocrine functions = release of insulin glucagon and somatostatin 2. exocrine functions= production of digestive juices
what are the three processes by which solutes are exchanged between filtrate and the blood?
1. filtration 2. secretion 3. reabsorption
what three ways does calcitonin decrease calcium plasma levels?
1. increase calcium secretion from the kidneys 2. decrease calcium absorption from the gut 3. increase calcium storage in the bone
viral life cycle
1. infection 2.translation + progeny assembly 3. progeny release 4. lytic + lysogenic cycles
what are the three possible responses for antibodies secreted into bodily fluids
1. opsonization 2.agglutination 3. neutralization
basic tenants of evolution
1. organisms produce Offspring few of which survive to reproduce maturity 2. transfer stations within individuals in a population may be heritable if they give a slight survival Advantage they are favorable 3. individuals with greater preponderance for these favorable variations are more likely to survive and have increased Fitness
while epithelial cells contribute to the organs _____ connective tissue contribute ____
1. parachyma 2. stroma
purposes of cortical reaction
1. prevents multiple fertilization 2. increasesCa+ concentration increasing zygote metabolic rate
renal structures in order
1. proximal convoluted tubule 2 . decending Loop of henle 3. loop of henle 4. ascending loop of henle 5. distal convoluted tubule 6. collecting duct
how many liters does the kidney filter per day
180
how does impulse propagation work?
1sodium rushes into one segment of the Axon 2 it will cause depolarization in the surrounding regions of the Axon 3 this depolarization will subsequently bring segments of the axon to threshold 4 opening the sodium channels in those segments 5 each of these segments then continues through the rest of the action potential in a wave-like function until the action potential reaches the nerve terminal
what signal does the AV node send
2 ND contraction the signal is delayed from the SA node to the AV node to allow the intervals to fill completely before they contract
how long is the small intestine
20 feet
How many checkpoints are there in the cell cycle?
3
How many pairs of spinal nerves make up the peripheral nervous system?
31 spinal nerves and 10 of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves
Wobble site
3rd nucleotide of codon, GGG=GGU
Meiosis II produces
4 haploid cells
the entire volume of a person's blood is filtered about every?____ by the kidneys
40 minutes
what fraction of the population has a heterozygous genotype
42%
what fraction of the population has a homozygous recessive genotype
49%
tidal volume formula
5-7mL/ Kg of body weight
what fraction of the population has a dominant phenotype
51%
what is the composition of blood
55% plasma, 45% cells
how many signals per minute does the SA node generate with out kneading neurological input
60 to 100
rhythm of SA node
60-100 bpm
what is the normal partial pressure of oxygen in the blood
70-100 mmhg
prokaryotic ribosomes
70S (30S and 50S)
Eukaryotic ribosomes
80S (40S and 60S)
structure of centrioles
9 tripplets of microtubles around a hollow center
range of normal blood pressure
90/60-120/80
low levels of camp
A bacterium growing on sucrose, a usable carbon source, will have:
glomerulus
A ball of capillaries surrounded by Bowman's capsule in the nephron and serving as the site of filtration in the vertebrate kidney.
missense mutation
A base-pair substitution that results in a codon that codes for a different amino acid.
deep vein thrombosis (DVT)
A blood clot in a deep vein, most often an extremity
exoskeleton
A body covering, typically made of chitin, that provides support and protection found in arthropods
cell membrane
A cell structure that controls which substances can enter or leave the cell.
mutation
A change in a gene or chromosome.
chromosomal mutation
A change in the chromosome structure, resulting in new gene combinations.
mutagens
A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.
urea
A chemical that comes from the breakdown of proteins
basophils
A circulating leukocyte that produces histamine.
recombination
A combining of genes or characters different from what they were in the parents
the cardiac cycle
A complete heartbeat consisting of contraction and relaxation of both atria and both ventricles
dna
A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.
codominance
A condition in which neither of two alleles of a gene is dominant or recessive. dots
crentinism
A condition in which the thyroid gland is unable to produce normal levels of growth hormone.
cartilage
A connective tissue that is more flexible than bone and that protects the ends of bones and keeps them from rubbing together.
dihybrid cross
A cross between individuals that have different alleles for the same Gene
monohybrid cross
A cross between individuals that involves one pair of contrasting traits
TSH and trh
A decrease in the level of thyroxine would increase the secretion of _______.
periosteum
A dense fibrous membrane covering the surface of bones (except at their extremities) and serving as an attachment for tendons and muscles.
ureter
A duct leading from the kidney to the urinary bladder.
epiglottis
A flap of tissue that seals off the windpipe and prevents food from entering.
Notochord
A flexible rod that supports a chordate's back just below the nerve cord.
active immunity is
A form of acquired immunity in which the body produces its own antibodies against disease-causing antigens.
Erythropoietin
A hormone produced and released by the kidney that stimulates the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow.
erythropoietin
A hormone produced and released by the kidney that stimulates the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow.
oxytocin
A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.
secretin
A hormone secreted by the small intestine (duodenum) in response to low pH (e.g., from stomach acid). It promotes the release of bicarbonate from the pancreas to act as a buffer.
Cytoplasm
A jellylike fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended
Epididymis
A long, coiled duct on the outside of the testis in which sperm mature.
Flagella
A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility.
ovum
A mature egg cell
heart rate
A measure of cardiac activity usually expressed as the number of beats per minute.
blood-brain barrier
A mechanism that prevents certain molecule from entering the brain but allows others to cross
motor unit
A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates
anus
A muscular opening at the end of the rectum through which waste material is eliminated from the body
nonsense mutation
A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of the three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.
hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. the hypothalamus regulates the pituitary gland through trophic hormones
homologous pairs
A pair of chromosomes of the same type, one from each parent.
Nucleus
A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction
prophage
A phage genome that has been inserted into a specific site on the bacterial chromosome.
F factor (fertility factor)
A plasmid found in the donor cell in bacterial conjugation (in e coli usually)
Boyle's Law
A principle that describes the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature
natural selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.
glucagon
A protein hormone secreted by pancreatic endocrine cells that raises blood glucose levels; an antagonistic hormone to insulin.
Tropomyosin
A protein of muscle that forms a complex with troponin regulating the interaction of actin and myosin in muscular contractions
Troponin
A protein of muscle that together with tropomyosin forms a regulatory protein complex controlling the interaction of actin and myosin and that when combined with calcium ions permits muscular contraction
Centrosome
A structure in animal cells containing centrioles from which the spindle fibers develop.
what are the four blood types
A, B, AB, O
what are the four fat soluble vitamins
A, D, E, K
Hardy Weinberg calculation
A=p a=q p+q=1 AA=p^2, Aa=2pq, aa=q^2
what blood type is the universal recipient
AB
A type blood can donate to
AB or A
Universal acceptor
AB+
B type blood can donate to
AB, or B
why isn't it a problem if the fetus in the mother have mismatching blood types
ABO antibodies cannot readily cross the placenta
what is the trigger for ADH production?
ADH is secreted in response to low blood volume a diuretic hormone increases the reuptake of water
what does the process of muscular contraction depend on for energy and movement
ATP &Ca+
muscles fatigue due to:
ATP depletion in tetanus
Mitochondria function
ATP production via electron transoprt chain in inner membrane of mitochondria
large intestine
Absorbs water and forms feces
what condition occurs if there is excess growth hormone during adulthood?
Acromegaly, most commonly affecting hands and feet results in adults going up to do for shoe sizes and five to six and sizes
adenylate cyclase
Activated by a G-protein. Converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to an extracellular signal.
primary active transport
Active transport that relies directly on the hydrolysis of ATP.
Telophase
After the chromosome seperates, the cell seals off, Final Phase of Mitosis.
Teratogens
Agents that damage the process of development, such as drugs and viruses alcohol
extensor muscles
Aid in the straightening of a joint
Viruses are not
Alive
action potentials are?
All or Nothing
muscle cells like neurons have a ____ response
All or Nothing
movable joints
Allow the body to make a wide range of movements.
what type of cells do islets contain
Alpha Beta And Delta cells
thyroxine
Also called thryoid hormone, thyroxine is produced and secreted by follicle cells in the thyroid gland. it targets all cells in the body and increases overall body metabolism.
how does antidiuretic hormone increased blood pressure?
Alters permeability of the collecting duct allowing more water to be reabsorbed by making the cell Junctions Less leaky causing decreased water output
residual volume
Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation
monocytes
An agranular leukocyte that is able to migrate into tissues and transform into a macrophage.
recessive allele
An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present
dominant allele
An allele whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present.
creatine phosphate
An energy storage molecule used by muscle tissue. The phosphate from creatine phosphate can be removed and attached to an ADP to generate ATP quickly.
pepsin
An enzyme present in gastric juice that begins the hydrolysis of proteins
adaptive radiation
An evolutionary pattern in which many species evolve from a single ancestral species
arrector pili muscle
An involuntary muscle fiber attached to the underside & base of the hair follicle that contracts too close hair follicle hole
hemoglobin
An iron-containing protein in red blood cells that reversibly binds oxygen. about 250 molecules of hemoglobin in each red blood cell
genetic map
An ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome.
Lysosomes
An organelle containing digestive enzymes
heterozygous
An organism that has two different alleles for a trait
homozygous
An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait
phenotype
An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.
Myoglobin
An oxygen-storing, pigmented protein in muscle cells.
Kinetochores
Anchor on the Sister Chromatid that attaches to the centrioles that pulls the sister chromatids apart.
endoskeletons
Animals that have skeletons on the inside. Examples are humans, tigers, birds, and reptiles.
Protostomes
Animals with mouths that develop from or near the blastopore -mouth first
what is a dendritic cell?
Antigen-presenting cells that process antigen material and present it to T-cells
interferons
Antiviral proteins secreted by T cells proteins that prevent viral replication and dispersion
Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
Any of the blood cells that are colorless, lack hemoglobin, contain a nucleus, and include the lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
Any of the hemoglobin-containing cells that carry oxygen to the tissues and are responsible for the red color of vertebrate blood.
centromere
Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached
how does prokaryotic Reproduction occur?
Asexually through binary fission.
intercalated discs
Attachment sites between the transverse lines between cardiac muscle cells -containing many Gap Junctions
intercalated discs
Attachment sites between the transverse lines between cardiac muscle cells which contain Gap Junctions directly connecting the cytoplasm of adjacent cells
adapt cells
B cell T cell
humoral immunity
B cell mediated and involves production of antibodies takes as long as a week antigens are produced by B cells
name the site of development site of maturation major functions specificity and meditation of the b-cell?
B cells are developed in the bone marrow and mature in the spleen and lymph nodes the major function is to produce antibodies B cells are non-specific B cells are humoral meditated.
Domains of Life
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
what is the body's response to high blood pressure
Baroreceptors are stretched in the carotid and aorta -> stimulates the brainstem to increase parasympathetic output and/or decrease sympathetic output -> lowers the heart rate and increases vasodilation
distal convoluted tubule
Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct; Selective reabsorption and secretion occur here, most notably to regulate reabsorption of water and sodium
distal convoluted tubule
Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct; concentrating the urine and decreasing its volume, (removing water)
Senescence
Biological aging
renal portal system
Blood leaving the glomerulus travels through an efferent arteriole before surrounding the nephron in a capillary network called the vasa recta
Mesoderm(middle ,)
Blood vessels + muscle skeletal
appendicular skeleton
Bones of the limbs and limb girdles that are attached to the axial skeleton
list the structures from where the filtrate enters the nephron to the excretion of urine from the body
Bowman space proximal convoluted tubule descending limb of the loop of henle ascending limb of the loop of henle distal convoluted tubule collecting duct renal pelvis ureter bladder urethra
what tissues do neuralcrest cells develope into ?
CNS
bicarbonate buffer system
CO2 (g)+ H2O(l)↔H2 CO3 (aq)↔H+ (aq)+HCO3- (aq) -Blowing off CO2 (hyperventilation) decreases levels of CO2 which causes reaction to shift left consuming H+ and reducing H+ in the blood making pH less acidic -mechanism that deals w/ acidemia (excess H+ in blood)
what is the chemical reaction between CO2 and bicarbonate that allows us to breathe out CO2 and diffuse bicarbonate in our blood
CO2+H2O↔️H2CO3↔️H+HCO3 -
name the hormonal pathway from corticotropin-releasing factor to cortisol and cortisone
CRF=hypothalamus adrenocorticotropic hormone=anterior pituitary adrenal cortex=Target Oregon cortisol and cortisone=hormones released by Target organ
Tumors
Cancer cells form masses of cells called
Microfillaments
Causes cellular movement (contract & expand)
Pluripotent
Cells that are capable of developing into most, but not all, of the body's cell types
Chondrocytes
Cells that secrete cartilage.
Multipotent
Cells with limited potential to develop into many types of differentiated cells within a cell group
Prophase
Chromosomes become visable, nuclear envelop dissolves, spindle forms
Metaphase II
Chromosomes line up at the equator.
Plasmids
Circular DNA molecules that can replicate independently of the main chromosomes of bacteria and usually inquire antibiotic resistance
What causes tetanus?
Clostridium tetani, a bacterium found in the soil and manure.
Bacteria shapes
Cocci, bacilli, and spirilli,
minor duodenal papilla
Collects from accessory pancreatic duct
micturition reflex
Communications between stretch receptors and the nervous system that the bladder requires empting followed by parasympathetic neuron fire the detursor muscle contractions
what is humoral immunity?
Community Driven by B cells and antibodies
difference between Compact and spongy bone
Compact - dense, strong, yellow marrow Spongy - Ends of bones red marrow, blood made (yellow in adults that can convert to red to make blood)
lymphatic system
Composed of a network of vessels, ducts, nodes, and organs. Provides defense against infection.
ligaments
Connect bone to bone
tendons
Connect muscle to bone
signaling Cascade
Connection between the hormone at the surface and the effect brought about by second messengers within the cell
pyloric glands
Contain G-cells that secrete gastrin, a peptide hormone.
Autosomal cells
Contain diploid (2n) number of chromosomes
reticular layer of dermis
Contains blood vessels, sweat and oil glands, and deep pressure receptors; lower dermal region.
inbreeding
Continued breeding of individuals with similar characteristics
sarcomere
Contractile unit of muscle
creatine phosphatete + ADP eqn
Crtn + ATP ↔️ Crtn phos + ADP CRTN= CREATINE
Recombination DNA
DNA produced by combining DNA from different sources
genes
DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission.
pulmonary veins
Deliver oxygen rich blood from the lungs to the left atrium
Parts of a neuron
Dendrite, Soma (Cell Body), Axon hillock axon Schwann cells nodes of ranvier myelin sheath axon ( Fork) nerve terminals
cell fate
Describes what a particular cell at a given stage of development will normally give rise to.
gastrin
Digestive hormone that stimulates sustained secretion of gastric juice from the stomach
Secretin
Digestive hormone that stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate to neutralize acid in duodenum.
Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm during cell division
abductor muscles
Draw a limb away from the midline
Urethra
Duct through which urine is discharged.
chondrin
Elastic cartilage matrix substance secreted by chondrocytes
megakaryocytes
Enormous cells in the bone marrow that release packets of cytoplasm (platelets) into the circulating blood.
salivary amylase
Enzyme in saliva that breaks down starch
chemical digestion is
Enzymes break down food into smaller molecules
brush border enzymes
Enzymes secreted by the mucosal cells lining the intestine. The brush border enzymes are disaccharides adn dipeptidases taht digest the smallest peptides and carbohydrates into their respective monomers.
Four tissue types
Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
Heterochromatin
Eukaryotic chromatin that remains highly compacted during interphase and is generally not transcribed.
Scrotum
External sac that contains the testes
pneumonic for products of the anterior pituitary?
FLAT PEG follicle-stimulating hormone luteinizing hormone adrenocorticotropic hormone thyroid stimulating hormone prolactin endorphins growth hormone the four hormones in FLAT are all trophic hormones while the three hormones PEG are all direct hormones
hormones of anterior pituitary
FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin,GH
symptoms of hyperthyroidism
Fatigue, wt loss, nervousness, rapid heart beat, increased sweating, feeling hot when others don't, changes in menstrual periods, more frequent bowel movements, and tremors.
F generation
Filial generation, offspring
how to calculate allele frequencies
First count # of times an allele occurs in an gene pool then divide by the total # of alleles in the gene pool
Cytosol
Fluid portion of cytoplasm
vocal cords
Folds of connective tissue that stretch across the opening of the larynx and produce a person's voice.
Schwann cells (PNS)
Form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system
secondary active transport
Form of active transport which does not use ATP as an energy source; rather, transport is coupled to ion diffusion down a concentration gradient established by primary active transport. . how glucose fructose and galactose and amino acids are absorbed in the small intestine
directional selection
Form of natural selection in which the entire curve moves; occurs when individuals at one end of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end of the curve
Nucleolus
Found inside the nucleus and produces ribosomes
mesenchymal tissue
Function: gives rise to all other connective tissue types Location: primarily in embryo
what type of receptors do neurotransmitters have?
G protein or - ligand gated ion channels
Interphase
G1, S, G2
linked genes
Genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together in genetic crosses.
advantageous mutations
Genetic changes that improve their carriers' chances of survival or reproduction.
Transposons
Genetic elements capable of inserting and removing themselves from the genome
Transduction
Genetic recombination, involves the transfer of genetic material by a virus. -virus uses cell to replicate & later kills host
Define gigantism
Gigantism is abnormal growth due to an excess of growth hormone during childhood
what are the three classes of corticosteroids?
Glucocorticoids Mineralocorticoids Cortical sex hormones
name the pathway starting at gonadotropin-releasing hormone and ending at testosterone and ovaries?
GnRH=hypothalamus FSH and LH=interior gonads=Target Oregon testosterone or estrogen and progesterone=Target organ hormones
difference between granulocytes and agranulocytes
Granulocytes are leukocytes that have granular cytoplasm; agranulocytes are leukocytes that lack cytoplasmic granules.
coagulation factors
Group of plasma protein substances (Factor I-XIII) contained in the plasma which act together to bring about blood coagulation
Growth Hormone (GH)
Growth hormone is a hormone produced in the anterior pituitary that stimulates growth throughout the body, targeting bones and muscles.
epiphyseal plate
Growth plate, made of cartilage, gradually ossifies
canaliculi
Hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal allow for exchange of nutrients and waste between osteocytes and the major canals
pronuclei
Haploid aspect of sperm. Joins ovum to make the zygote.
compact bone
Hard, dense bone tissue that is beneath the outer membrane of a bone
hydroxyapatite
Hardy crystals consisting of calcium and phosphate that form the bone matrix.
Organelles of eukaryotic cells
Have nucleus nucleolus centrioles endocytotic vesicles ribosomes cytoplasm lysosomes nuclear membrane cell membrane Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Mitochondria
what does low blood pressure indicate
Hemorrhage, heart attack ,sepsis, neurological damage
Blastula
Hollow ball of cells fluid filled center
During prophase I of meiosis,
Homologous chromosomes stick together in pairs during prophase I.
triiodothyronine
Hormone secreted by the thyroid gland (contains three atoms of iodine); stimulates body metabolism; T3.
amino acid derivative hormones
Hormones that are synthesized by modifying amino acids. Most amino acid-derivative hormones act via secondary messengers, while some act in a fashion similar to steroid hormones catecholamines = fast acting thyroxine = slow long acting
how does parathyroid hormone affect phosphorus homework homeostasis?
I reabsorbing phosphate from bone and reducing reabsorption of phosphate in the kidneys producing excretion in urine
what is immunologic function of mucus
I'm Traping incoming pathogens
what are the 2 genotypes for a blood type
IAIA or IAi
what are the 2 genotypes for type B blood
IBIB or Ibi
inspiratory Reserve volume formula
IRV = VC - (TV + ERV)
if all autonomic input to the heart were cut what would happen
If all autonomic innervation to heart were lost, the heart would continue beating at an intrinsic rate of the pacemaker (SA node). The individual would be unable to change his/er heart rate via the sympathetic or parasympathetic NS but heart would not stop beating.
Autoimmunity is due to
IgG and IgM antibodies in which antibodies do not recognize cells of their own body and attack their own system
passive immunity is
Immunity conferred by transferring antibodies from an individual who is immune to a pathogen to another individual.
innate immunity
Immunity that is present before exposure and effective from birth. Responds to a broad range of pathogens.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
In BOTH types of cells. Carries substances, like proteins, to various parts of the cell.
what is insulin?
Insulin is a hormone which converts glucose into glycogen (when blood sugar levels are too high)
smooth muscle
Involuntary muscle found inside many internal organs of the body
cardiac muscle
Involuntary muscle tissue found only in the heart.
peristalsis
Involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system.
peristalsis
Involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system.
fat soluble vitamins
K, D, E, A k9 DEA
Bacteriophage?
Kind of virus that infects bacteria
diaphragm
Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing
basement membrane
Layer between epithelium and underlying connective tissue
spongy bone
Layer of bone tissue having many small spaces and found just inside the layer of compact bone.
What are eosinophils?
Lead the bodys counterattack against parasitic worms, lessen the severity of allergies by phagocytizing immune complexes.
plasma
Liquid part of blood, mixture of nutrient salts respiratory gases and hormones and blood proteins
Locus
Location of a gene on a chromosome
vas deferens
Long, narrow tube carrying sperm from epididymis to ejaculatory duct
name the 8 parts of the microanatomy of the renal vascular system of the Nephron?
Loop of henle Vasa recta collecting duct proximal convoluted tubule glomerulus distal convoluted tubule afferent arteriole efferent arteriole
Calcitonin
Lowers blood calcium levels
what do interferons upregulate?
MHC class 1 and Class 2 molecules
exogenous pathway
MHC class two pathway binds to antigens that are *outside the cell
what activates melanocytes
MSH
Dump the HUNK
Major waste products excreted in urine are H+, Urea, NH3, and K+.
Androgens
Male sex hormones
Blastocyst
Mammalian blastula
Metatherians
Marsupials non egg laying mamals
what is the difference between mechanical and chemical digestion
Mechanical digestion is where food is chewed, mixed, and churned. Chemical digestion occurs when chemical reactions occur that break down food into smaller particles.
pleura
Membrane surrounding the lungs
Pathogens
Microbes that cause disease
capillaries
Microscopic vessel through which exchanges take place between the blood and cells of the body
Prions
Misfolded proteins that cause other protiens to misfold
pancreatic juices
Mixture of enzymes in a bicarbonate rich alkaline solution. This neutralizes the acidic chyme.
prostaglandins
Modified fatty acids that are produced by a wide range of cells.
neutrophils
Most abundant white blood cell., Phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few days.
neutrophils
Most abundant white blood cell., The most abundant type of white blood cell. Phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few days.
Reciprocal Development
Multiple inducers communicating over the course of development.
Dichorionic
Multiple pregnancy with two chorionic sacs
stratified epithelium
Multiples tiers of cells.
Adult stem cells are
Multipotent
inversion mutation
Mutation in which a chromosome piece reattaches to original chromosome but in reverse orientation
what is the key concept of the na + k + pump?
Na+ wants to go into the cell because the cell is more negative inside ( electrical gradient)and has a lower concentration of Na+ inside(chemical gradient)
What ions are neurons selectively permeable to maintain the negative internal environment?
Na+/K+ AtPase
sonic hedgehog
Name a protein secreted by the mesoderm that signals ectoderm cells to become nervous tissue.
seminiferous tubules
Narrow, coiled tubules that produce sperm in the testes.
stabilizing selection
Natural selection that favors intermediate variants by acting against extreme phenotypes
what does the small intestine absorb
Nutrients, amino acids watermelon and simple sugars derived from proteins and carbohydrates directly into the blood.
universal donor
O-
insertion mutations
Occur when a segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another.
hybrid offspring
Of a genetic cross, offspring having a pair of nonidentical alleles for a trait.
phrase to remember which cells produce myelin in CNS and pns
Old Cans (have) Sour Pickles Oligodendrocytes produce myelin in CNS Schwann cells produce myelin in PN S
memory T-cells
Once activated, T cells multiply and give rise to clone cells, some of which become memory T-cells. Memory T-cells recognize pathogen they have encountered before, allowing for a quicker immune response in a second exposure.
Chromatid
One half of a duplicated chromosome
vena cava
One of two large vessels (superior and inferior) that return deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the heart.
glottis (vocal cords)
Opening between vocal cords
Capsid
Outer protein coat of a virus
Metaphase I
Pairs of homologous chromosomes move to the equator of the cell.
P generation
Parental generation, the first two individuals that mate in a genetic cross
punctuated equilibrium
Pattern of evolution in which long stable periods are interrupted by brief periods of more rapid change
Interkinesis
Period of time between meiosis I and meiosis II during which no DNA replication takes place.
Anaphase
Phase of mitosis in which the chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell
differential reproduction
Phenomenon in which individuals with adaptive genetic traits produce more living offspring than do individuals without such traits.
mechanical digestion is
Physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces
what is mechanical digestion
Physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces
metaphase plate
Plane midway between the two poles of the cell where chromosomes line up during metaphase.
axial skeleton
Portion of the skeletal system that consists of the basic framework of the body: -skull, -rib cage, & -vertebral column
Mitochondria
Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production
convergent evolution
Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments
Differentiation
Process in which cells become specialized in structure and function
endochondral ossification
Process of transforming cartilage into bone.
memory B cells
Produced during a B cell response, but are not involved in antibody producing during the initial infection; are held in reserve for the rest of your life in case you encounter that pathogen again.
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death via release of destructive enzymes- either mitochondria or lysosomes
Stages of Meiosis
Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II
Stages of Mitosis
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
adductor muscles
Pull the fingers or toes together
ABO antigens
RBC surface glycolipids
the cellular portion of blood consists of
RBCs, WBCs, and platelets
function of collecting duct
Reabsorption of water (ADH required)
reading frame
Reading mRNA nucleotides in the correct groupings.
Rh factor
Refers to the presence or absence of the Rh antigen on red blood cells. is indicated with plus or minus subscript on ABO blood type
germ cells
Reproductive cells that give rise to sperm and ovum (haploid(n))
HIV is what type of virus?
Retrovirus
medial rotation
Rotation toward the midline
electrical heart pathway
SA > AV > HIS > PF
where does the electrical impulse of the heart begin
SA node
what triggers saliva
Scent of food
arterial natriuretic peptide
Secreted from the atrium of the heart in response to stretch caused by increased blood volume. ANP stimulates excretion of Na+ and therefore water. Decreased blood volume, BPH, NFP, and GFR lowers blood pressure
Exocytosis
Secretion of material out of the plasma membrane via product vesicle merging with the cell membrane - releasing the contents outside if the cell
Mendel's first law
Segregation pairs of homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis so that only one chromosome from each pair is present in each gamete ie0 2 alleles for each gene, then gametes carry only 1 allele for a trait
what do dorsal root ganglion contain?
Sensory neurons
describe Sensory neurons?
Sensory neurons are afferent and enter the spinal cord on the dorsal side
Gametes
Sex cells
paracrine signaling
Signal released from a cell has an effect on cells in area.
morphogens
Signaling molecules that stimulate cell differentiation and development.
columnar epithelium
Single layer column shaped cells - lining stomach, small intestine - secrete and absorbs
simple epithelium
Single layer of cells.
Anaphase II
Sister chromatids separate
Ribosomes
Site of protein synthesis
incomplete dominance
Situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele pink
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
Small loop of DNA found in the mitochondria. It is clonally and maternally inherited. & is autonomous of other replication
Viroids
Small pathogens consisting of a very short circular single-stranded RNA that infect plants
Morula
Solid ball of cells
in which neural structure are ribosomes primarily located?
Soma
location of endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes in neurons?
Soma / cell body
intrapleural space
Space between the two membranes, visceral pleura and parietal pleura, that cover the lungs.
motor proteins
Specialized proteins that use energy to move cells or structures within cells along the cytoskeleton via microtubule tracts
cocci
Spherical bacteria. -eg e. coli
Gram negative bacteria
Stains pink it red; cell wall thinner so it cannot hold onto stain
totipotent
Stem cells with the potential to differentiate into any type of cell.
how does the sympathetic nervous system increase the heart rate
Stimulates the SA and AV node via cardiac accelerator nerves -epinephrine from the Adrenal medulla binds to the adrenergic receptors in the heart causing increased heart rate
what is the function of the posterior pituitary?
Stores oxytocin and antidiuretic hormones the posterior pituitary contains nerve terminals of neurons with cell bodies in the hypothalamus
osteons
Structures in bones that carry the blood supply
Chromatin
Substance found in eukaryotic chromosomes that consists of DNA tightly coiled around histones
Stroma
Supportive, connective tissue of an organ
visceral pleura
Surface adjacent to the lung
transverse tubules
System of tubules that provides channels for ion flow throughout the muscle fibers to facilitate the propagation of an action potential.
amino acid derived hormones
T3 and T4 epinephrine and norepinephrine
which hormone in the anterior pituitary does not require a factor from the hypothalamus to be released?
TGIF which is actually dopamine
total lung capacity formula
TLC = VC + RV
vital capacity formula
TV + IRV + ERV
where is lysozyme found?
Tears, saliva, nasal and sinus fluids
Rough ER
That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes allowing translation of protiens to be secreated into the luemen
Smooth ER
That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes and is responsible for lipid synthesis & detoxification & protiens transport to the Golgi
stroke volume
The amount of blood ejected from the heart in one contraction.
juxtaglomerular cells
The cells of the afferent artery at the juxtaglomerular apparatus. They are baroreceptors that secrete renin upon sensing a decrease in blood pressure.
secondary spermatocytes
The cells that are formed during spermatogenesis by the first meiosis are called
Autolysis
The digestion of damaged or extra cells by the enzymes of their own lysosomes
spermatogonia
The diploid cells in a testis that can give rise to primary spermatocytes.
Prophase II
The duplicated chromosomes and spindle fibers reappear in each new cell.
amplification cascade
The effect of second messengers (such as alpha) to activate a single channel, which in turn activates many more messengers to amplify a received signal.
Z lines
The ends of a saromere.
saliva
The fluid released when the mouth waters that plays an important role in both mechanical and chemical digestion
corona radiata
The layer of granulosa cells taht surround an oocyte after is has been ovulated.
inner mitochondrial membrane
The membrane of the mitochondria that is the site of electron transport and chemiosmosis.
the enteric nervous system
The nervous system of the gastrointestinal tract. It controls secretion and motility within teh Gi tract, and is linked to the central nervous system.
wild-type allele
The non-mutant form of a gene, encoding the normal genetic function. Generally, but not always a dominant allele.
bronchi
The passages that direct air into the lungs
penetrance
The percentage of individuals with a particular genotype that actually displays the phenotype associated with the genotype.
Blastulation
The process by which a morula develops into a blastula with a fluid-filled cavity.
Implantation
The process by which the zygote attaches to the uterine wall
cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases
The proteins that participate in the functioning of the checkpoints thatcontroll the cell cycle .
nucleoid region
The region in a prokaryotic cell consisting of a concentrated mass of DNA
aortic valve
The semilunar valve separating the aorta from the left ventricle that prevents blood from flowing back into the left ventricle.
efferent arterioles
The small blood vessels exiting the glomerulus. At this point blood has completed its filtration in the glomerulus.
Bohr effect
The tendency of certain factors to stablize the hemoglobin in the tense conformation, thus reducing its affinity for oxygen and enhancing the relase of oxygen to the tissues. The factors include increased PCO2, increase temperature, increased bisphosphoglycerate (BPG), and decreased pH. Note that the Bohr effect shifts the oxy-hemolobin saturation curve to the right.
sliding filament model
The theory explaining how muscle contracts, based on change within a sarcomere, the basic unit of muscle organization, stating that thin (actin) filaments slide across thick (myosin) filaments, shortening the sarcomere; the shortening of all sarcomeres in a myofibril shortens the entire myofibril
what happens to old red blood cells
They are broken down in the spleen & liver
Axon Hillocks
They form part of the trigger zone and are cone shaped (join the cell body) -plays role in action potential.
Microtubules
Thick hollow tubes that make up the cilia, flagella, and spindle fibers. (moving structures of cell)
papillary layer of dermis
Thin layer, areolar connective tissue, with fine interlaced mat of loosely woven collagen and elastic fibers
how does the skin thermoregulate
Through sweat glands, blood flow, fat of hypodermics, hairs
where does calcitonin come from?
Thyroid C cells
What is TRH and what does it do?
Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone: increases TSH
what is the purpose of melanin
To protect the DNA in skin cells from sun exposure producing pigment to Shield skin cells DNA
classical complement pathway
Triggered by antibodies (activated by the presence of antibody bound to microorganism)
What are microtubules made of?
Tubulin
parallel evolution
Two related species that have made similar evolutionary adaptations after their divergence from a common ancestor
oligodendrocytes
Type of glial cell in the CNS that wrap axons -producing the myelin sheath.
Oligodendrocytes (CNS)
Type of glial cell in the CNS that wrap axons in a myelin sheath.
ileocecal valve
Valve at the junction of the small and large intestines
semi-lunar valves
Valves in either side of the heart that controls exit from the ventricles.
provirus
Viral DNA that inserts into a host genome.
what are neutrophils?
WBC's that ingest and destroy microbes in a process called phagocytosis.
Which sex chromosomes carry the most genetic information?
X
SRY gene
Y linked gene that triggers the male sexual development pathway in animals.
which zone or band in the sarcomere does not change its length during muscle contraction
a band because it is the entire length of the myosin filament myosin filaments do not change in length
what is the hypophyseal portal
a blood vessel system that directly connects the hypothalamus with the anterior pituitary
negative pressure breathing
a breathing system in which air is pulled into the lungs because of the difference in pressure between the two systems
bundle of His
a bundle of modified heart muscle that transmits the cardiac impulse from the atrioventricular node to the ventricles causing them to contract
primary oocyte
a cell that divides to form the polar body and the secondary oocyte
primary spermatocyte
a cell that divides to form two secondary spermatocytes
Punnett squares
a chart that shows the possible combination of alleles due to fertilization
what would occur during inflammation of the thyroid?
a decrease in metabolism due to a reduction in thyroid hormones
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
a disorder related to a defective recessive gene on chromosome 12 that prevents metabolism of phenylalanine
direct remotes
a hormone that stimulates and action directly such as prolactin
the hypodermis is
a layer of connective tissue that connects the skin to the rest of the body
gaba
a major inhibitory neurotransmitter
Inclusive fitness
a measure of an organisms success in a population, based on number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of offspring to then support others
allantois
a membrane sac that stores wastes and is the site for gas exchange
pentose phosphate pathway
a metabolic process that produces NADPH and ribose - 5- phosphate for nucleotide synthesis
tissue Factor
a mixture of lipoproteins and phospholipids released from the surfaces of damaged cells that initiates the extrinsic pathway of blood clotting
difference between mono and poly synoptic reflex arcs?
a monosynaptic reflex arc is simpler only one motion is involved. for example knee-jerk a polysynaptic reflex is more complex having several emotions at once for example withdrawal reflex in which you balance with one foot and withdraw with the other
insertion mutation
a mutation in which one or more nucleotides are added to a gene
deletion mutation
a mutation in which one or more pairs of nucleotides are removed from a gene
duplication mutation
a mutation that involves duplication of a region of DNA on the same strand
what brings the oxygen to the alveoli's?
a network of capillaries surrounding each of Euless to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
Tetanus
a sustained muscular contraction resulting from a rapid series of nerve impulses
counter-current multiplier system
a system in which energy is used to create a concentration gradient
Induction
ability of one group of cells to influence the fate of other nearby cells
potency
ability to change into other types of cells
pattern recognition receptors
able to recognize categories of Invaders allows for appropriate production of cytokines to the right type of emmue cells
what triggers the release of prolactin?
absence of pif (dopamine)
modern synthesis model
accounts for mutation and recombination as mechanisms of variation and considers differential reproduction to be the mechanism of reproductive success
what neurotransmitter is used in the ganglia of both sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
acetylcholine
what is the body's reaction to a blood pH below 7. 35?
acid sensing chemoreceptors just outside the blood-brain barrier send signals to the brain to increase respiratory rate increasing O2 intake
most common mineralocorticoids
aldosterone
hormones that control blood pressure
aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone
a b type blood can receive
all blood
expressivity is constant
all individuals with a given genotype express the same phenotype
Darwin's Theory of Evolution
all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.
what activates basophils and mast cells
allergens
tail fibers
allow the bacteriophage to attach to the host cell
what type of hormone is T3 and T4?
amino acid derived
what type of hormones are epinephrine and norepinephrine?
amino acid derived
chemical precursor of a peptide hormone?
amino acids
what are proteins broken down into
amino acids
extraembryonic membranes
amnion, chorion, yolk sac, and allantois
Plasma cells produce
antibodies
dendritic cells
antigen-presenting cells in the skin
what do helper cells respond to?
antigens present in MHC II
germinal center
area found within the lymph node that produces the lymphocytes
which are thicker arteries or veins
arteries
hook
attaches to the filament & rod
what neural structure innitiates the action potentials ?
axon hillok
white matter
axons encased in myelin sheaths
what are the five types of infectious pathogens?
bacteria viruses fungi parasites and prions
what is the stimulus that activates neutrophils
bacteria especially those that are tagged by an antibody
why is genetic drift more common in small populations
because genetic drift is due to chance if there's a smaller population chance increases
what is the left side of the heart generate more pressure
because it must pump blood to the rest of the body
why is the left side of the heart more muscular
because it must pump blood to the rest of the body
why is high blood pressure more dangerous than low blood pressure
because the body has many different ways of raising blood pressure but very few to lower it
why does the blood pressure drop the arterioles
because the capillaries would rupture with higher blood pressure
why is it a problem if the mother and the fetus have different RH factors
because the mothers anti-rh bodies can attack the fetus blood cells
what stage has the greatest ratio between nuclear and cytoplasm
blastula
When does implantation occur?
blastula stage
platelets
blood clotting
what would occur if a diabetic did not inject insulin after eating sugar?
blood glucose would spike damaging the eyes and other vital organs
renal vein
blood vessel that carries blood away from the kidney and toward the heart
what are the functions of osteoclasts
breaking bone
pancreatic lipase
breaks down fats
vasa recta capillaries
capillaries entering and exiting the glomerulus
where are amino acids absorbed
capillaries of small intestine
where are carbohydrates absorbed
capillaries of the small intestine
negative selection
causing apoptosis to cells that are self reactive
archenteron (gastrulation )
cavity created by deep invagination later develops into gut
thoracic cavity
cavity housing lungs and heart
three sections of the large intestine
cecum, colon, rectum
envelope
cell wall + cell membrane
glial cells (glia)
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
point mutations
chemical changes in just one base pair of a gene
radial spokes(9+2)
connect each doublet to the center
interstitium
connective tissue around the Nephron that reabsorbs solutes
neuroglia
connective tissue holding nervous tissue together aka glial cells
hook
connects the basal body to the extracellular component of the flagellum, the filament
umbilical cord
consists of two arteries and a vein that are twisted together -opposite to normal veins & arteries - vein carries oxygen blood to fetus - arteries carry deoxegensted blood & waste to the placenta fir gas exchange
portal system
consists of two capillary beds in series through which blood must travel before returning to the heart
eukaryotic flagella
contain microtubules composed of tubulin, 9+2 arrangement
enteropeptidase
converts trypsinogen to trypsin
greater curvature
convex lateral surface of the stomach
macrophages also release?
cytokines
flexor muscles
decrease the angle between two bones at a joint
pulmonary arteries carry
deoxygenated blood
steroid hormones
derived from cholesterol and produced primarily by the gonads and adrenal cortex because steroid hormones are derived from nonpolar molecules they can cross the cell membrane steroid hormones bind directly to DNA resulting in increased or decreased transcription of particular genes
where are most sensory receptors located
dermis
synergistic
describes organisms that are cooperative in action, such as hormones or other growth factors that reinforce each other's activity
natural killer cells
destroy the body's own cells that have become infected with pathogens it also goes after cancer cells
alimentary canal
digestive tube that extends from the mouth to the anus
isomaltase
digests isomaltose
stratum corneum contains?
dozens of layers a flattened keratinocytes and hair projections above the skin are openings for the sweat glands and sabbaticals glands
endocytotic vesicles
enclose bacteria and raw materials from the extracellular environment
acinar cells
enzyme-secreting cells of the pancreas
what allows for gas exchange in the alveoli?
exceptionally large surface area for gas exchange 100 m²
what are calluses
excessive keratin deposition in areas of repeated strain due to friction providing protection to avoid damage in the future
polyuria is
excessive urination
MHC 2
exogenous antigens
MHC2 responds to?
exogenous antigens (outside)
eosinophils
fight parasites and allergies
Esinophils
fight parasites and allergies release large amounts of Histamine
parts of flagella
filament, hook, basal body
main function of the kidney
filter blood and regulation of blood volume and osmolarity
renal corpuscle
filters blood plasma
function of Bowman's capsule
filtration of blood through which most everything passes
what does flat peg stand for?
follicle-stimulating hormone luteinizing hormone adrenocorticotropic hormone thyroid stimulating hormone prolactin endorphins growth hormone antidiuretic hormone oxytocin calcitonin parathyroid hormone glucagon insulin somatostatin melatonin erythropoietin atrial natriuretic peptide thymosin
parenchyma
functional tissue of an organ
gnrh
gonadotropin releasing hormone
what hormones are released by the hypothalamus and what secondary hormones do they stimulate in the pituitary?
gonadotropin releasing hormone = follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone growth hormone releasing hormone= growth hormone thyroid releasing hormone= thyroid stimulating hormone corticotropin-releasing=adrenocorticotropic hormone
name the hormones of the hypothalamus
gonadotropin releasing hormone corticotropin-releasing Factor thyroid releasing hormone dopamine growth hormone releasing hormone
white fat
good insulation
exposure to which sub endothelial compound starts the coagulation Cascade
graduation tissue Factor
what are the two types of leukocytes
granulocytes and agranulocytes
shift to the left of the partial pressure curve indicates
greater affinity for O2 in hemoglobin
fetal hemoglobin
greater affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin
what does a shift to the right in the partial pressure curve indicate
greater unloading of oxygen into the tissues occurs during exercise
Galt
gut associated lymphoid tissue
oxygen is carried by
hemoglobin
glomeruli
highly convoluted capillary Tufts to ride from afferent arterioles
fillament
hollow helicak structure that is the movie of the flagella
on a cold day what structure helps the body set and maintain a normal temperature
hypothalamus
you ingested an inhibitor of acetylcholine esterase what are your symptoms
increased urination and increased sweating because there is nothing to stop acetylcholine effect
what is the biological function of parathyroid hormone?
increases blood calcium concentrations
parathyroid hormone
increases blood calcium levels
pth
increases blood calcium levels
parathyroid hormone
increases blood calcium levels by removing calcium from the bones
inhibitory input
information entering a neuron that signals it not to fire
excitatory input
information entering a neuron that signals it to fire
menil Second Law of Independent Assortment
inheritance of one gene does not affect inheritance of another Gene
Mendel's second law of independent assortment
inheritance of one gene doesn't affect inheritance of another gene (prophase I)
somatostatin
inhibitor of both insulin and glucagon secretion
trypsin
initiates activation Cascade
two anal sphincters
internal and external
stomach
large muscular sac that continues the mechanical and chemical digestion of food capacity to hold up to two leaders
what is the biological definition of a species
largest group of organisms capable of breeding to form a fertile offspring
stomach body
largest region; functions as a mixing tank; contains gastric glands
inferior vena cava
largest vein in the body that returns blood from all the portions of the body below the heart
what are the three sections of the hypothalamus?
lateral ventromedial and anterior hypothalamus
Mendel second law
law of independent assortment genes passed on don't affect the way other genes are passed on
single crossover
leads to half recombinant, half non recombinant
which side of the heart generates more pressure
left
assuming bacteria enters through the bloodstream from the small intestines what would be the first major organ that it would encounter
liver
where are bile salts synthesized
liver
Chlamydia trachomatis
lives inside cells if reproductive tract
host cell
living cell in which a virus replicates
liver structures
lobes: right, left, quadrate, caudate; falciform ligament; common hepatic duct
what is the duration of the auction with steroid
long-lived
long bones
longer than they are wide characterized by cylindrical shafts called diaphyses
Euchromatin
loosely packed chromatin gross
what would occur if a root ganglion where snipped during spinal surgery?
loss of sensation at that level
equational division
meiosis II
pineal gland secretes
melatonin
where is the neurotransmitter stored?
membrane-bound vesicle in the nerve terminal
what occurs if the thyroid is not able to produce enough hormones during childhood?
mental retardation and developmental delay
what are the two functions of the thyroid?
metabolism and Calcium regulation
what is intracellular digestion
metabolism of certain molecules for energy via oxidation of glucose and fatty acid synthesis can only occur once extracellular digestion has occurred
what are the three types of tissue specific microphone ages?
microglia /CNS Langerhans /skin osteoclasts/ bone
chorionic villi
microscopic fingerlike projections that penetrate the endometrium - supporting maternal fetal gas exchange
diamniotic
multiple pregnancy with two amniotic sacs
homozygous individuals are either
non carriers or affected
sebaceous glands
oil glands
where is the thyroid?
on the front surface of the trachea
main function of loop of henle?
on the way down excrete water into tissues on the way up excrete salt into tissues
prodgeny release assembly stage 3 of viral life cycle
one of three things can occur - cell death -cell lyses(explosion) -extrusion
what are the endocrine organs in the female
ovaries pancreas adrenal glands thyroid gland pituitary gland hypothalamus pineal gland parathyroid glands
intracellular digestion
oxidation of glucose and fatty acids for energy can only occur once extracellular digestion is completed
what does hemoglobin measure
oxygen carrying capacity via quantity of hemoglobin in the blood given in grams per deciliter
myoglobin
oxygen-carrying molecule found in muscle cells
arteries carry
oxygenated blood
fetal veins carry
oxygenated blood
pulmonary veins carry
oxygenated blood
what does aldosterone do to potassium and hydrogen?
p increasing potassium and hydrogen ion excretion
relaxation phase
period after twitch contraction when tension decreases sarcolemma repolarizes occurs when ATP binds to myosin heads bring them of actin once the myosin and actin disconnect the sarcomere will return to its original with without calcium myosin binding sites will be covered by tropomyosin and contraction will be prevented
stationary phase
period of equilibrium; microbial deaths balance production of new cells
what controls the bottom part of the esophagus to the rectum
peristalsis
what is the step following micturition reflex
personal choice to relax the external sphincter to urinate or maintain the tone of the external sphincter to prevent urination
draw hormonal cycle of mentration
pg 68 biology
what are the three functions of macrophages?
phagocytiz invaders digest The Invader presents little pieces of the Invader to the cell using the protein called major histocompatibility complex some binding to a pathogenic peptide(antigen)
Bilirubin
pigment released by the liver in bile by product of hemoglobin breakdown conjugated in the liver and secreted in the Bile
where is melatonin produced?
pineal gland
B cells exposed to an antigen
plasma cells
prothrombin
plasma protein; converted to thrombin in the clotting process the endpoint of the Cascade of coagulation
episomes
plasmids that can integrate into the genome
nucleotide level mutations
point, frameshift, silentm missense, nonsense, insetion and deletion
obligate anaerobes
poisoned by oxygen
calcitonin
produced by parafollicular cells acts to decrease plasma calcium levels in three ways
red marrow
produces blood cells
lactic acid
product of fermentation in many types of cells, including human muscle cells due to anaerobic metabolism
apoptosis
programmed cell death
Microvilli
projections that increase the cell's surface area
what cell types do not contain nuclei
red blood cells
where are all blood cells formed
red bone marrow
what are the main functions of the hypothalamus?
regulate sleep-wake Cycles blood osmolarity appetite and satiety
Hypothalamus
regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior -restricts production of GnRH until puberty
functions of excretory system
regulation of blood pressure, blood osmolarity, acid-base balance, and removal of nitrogenous wastes
cortical reaction
release of CA+ that prevents any other sperm from binding to the egg via depolarizing the membrane
how does the thyroid regulate calcium levels?
release of calcitonin
list the vessels in the regional vesicular pathway starting at the renal artery and ending at the renal vein
renal artery afferent arteriole glomerulus efferent arteriole Vasa recta renal vein
bacilli
rod shaped bacteria -eg strep throught
myofibrils are surrounded by a covering known as
sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
Metaphase
second phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell
parietal cells
secrete HCl
organizing cells
secrete inducers
mucous cells
secrete mucus
interstitial cells
secrete testosterone in testes
cck
secreted by the enteroendocrine cells of the duodenum and jejunum as an appetite-supressing effect on the brain. and stimulates the release of both bile and pancreatic juice
what is the function of a parietal cell
secretes HCL and intrinsic factor
what is the function of a G cell
secretes the hormone gastrin increases HCL production
Loop of henle
section of the nephron tubule that conserves water and minimizes the volume of urine
Loop of Henle
section of the nephron tubule that conserves water and minimizes the volume of urine & takes care of water pressure
transposons
segments of DNA that can move from one region of DNA to another
what is cell mediated immunity?
self to sell combat provided by T cells
presynaptic neuron
sending neuron
functions of nervous system
sensation & perception motor function cognition executive function language comprehension memory emotion & emotional expression balance and coordination regulation of endocrine organs regulation of heart rate & autonomic system
afferent neurons
sensory neurons
Cristae
series of inner membranes in mitochondria where cell respiration occurs
sex linked crosses
sex chromosomes are usually used to indicate sex as well as genotype
what determines male bacteria from female bacteria ?
sex factors (genetic information to be donated )
gonads
sex glands
diaphysis
shaft of a long bone
what are some mechanisms the body uses to retain heat
shivering piloerection
what is the duration of the action of a peptide hormone?
short lived
types of point mutations
silent, missense, nonsense
what are the three types of point mutations
silent, misssense, nonsense
what do Delta pancreatic cells secrete?
somatostatin
yolk sac
source of blood cells and future sex cells for the fetus
what determines the sex of a child
sperm
biometric techniques
statistical analysis of biological data used heavily in genetics ex. Punnett square, mapping of chromosomes with RF, Hardy Weinberg equilibrium
what does the stratum basale contain?
stem cells and keratinocytes
what type of hormone is estrogen?
steroid
what type of hormone is progesterone?
steroid
why do we feel alert during stressful situations
sympathetic nervous system blood is reciprocated from the digestive tract back into the brains and muscles
what liquid provides lubrication for movable joints
synovial fluid
functions of anterior pituitary
synthesizes and secretes different products for of these are Tropic hormones while three of them are direct hormones
what does absorption entail
take up of the molecules that have been broken down into the blood to be absorbed and metabolized by cells
nares (nostrils)
takes in air from outside
fluid balance
taking in and eliminating equal amounts of fluid
what protein is activated in cancer cells that accounts for Unstoppable growth?
telomerase
what are the vital signs
temperature, pulse, respiration, blood pressure
Spermatogenesis
the production of haploid sperm cells via meiosis
Oogenesis
the production, growth, and maturation of an egg, or ovum
where does food leave the stomach through
the pyloric sphincter
why is a B positive blood a universal recipient
the recognize All Surface antigens as their own
what occurs if carbon dioxide rises above normal levels?
the respiratory rate will increase so that more carbon dioxide is exhaled and carbon dioxide levels in the blood will fall
how does the respiratory system regulate Heat?
the respiratory thermal regulates via vasodilation and vasoconstriction when the blood vessels are dilated more blood can pass through these vessels and a larger amount of thermal energy can be dissipated
simple twitch
the response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus at or above the threshold stimulus and consists of a latent period, a contraction period, and a relaxation period
niches
the role of an organism in its habitat, or how it makes its living
disjunction
the separation of homologous pairs of chromosomes following meiotic synapsis
fillament
the stem part of the flagella
sensory /afferent neurons
transmit nerve impulses toward the CNS.
tricuspid valve
valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle
pulmonary valve
valve positioned between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery
expressivity vs. penetrance
variable expressivity: variations in phenotype with the same genotype --same dog species with different pattern spots --same height pattern allele but different heights incomplete penetrance: have allele but not always showing any phenotype complete penetrance: everyone with the allele will show the phenotype penetrance is the likelihood the gene shows anything at all; expressivity is variations in what that gene shows
antidiuretic hormone
vasopressin
Brown fat
very high in baby skin less efficient electron transport chain which means more heat energy released as fuel
how are the hypothalamus and pituitary glands connected?
via a portal system connecting the two organs directly
what are CD8+ cells most effective against?
viral and intracellular bacterial or fungal infections due to their endogenous nature
virons
viral prodgeny - baby viruses
Infection stage 1 of viral life cycle
virus injects its genome into the host cell
extrusion
virus leaves cell by fusing with plasma membrane
what is the mathematical relationship between vital capacity inspiratory Reserve volume expiratory Reserve volume and tidal volume?
vital capacity is the sum of inspiration Reserve volume expiration Reserve volume and tidal volume VC=IVR+ERV+TV
intrathoracic volume
volume of the chest cavity
what formula is used to calculate pressure differential across the circulation
∆P = CO x TPR ∆P=pressure differential across the circulation CO=cardiac output TPR= total peripheral resistance
lag phase
"flat" period of adjustment, enlargement; little growth
AV node
(atrioventricular node) region of the heart between the right atrium and right ventricle from which electrical impulses spread to the ventricles during a heartbeat
Transformation
(genetics) modification of a cell or bacterium by the uptake and incorporation of exogenous DNA
transformation principle
-Ability of some (e.g. nonvirulent) bacteria to take traits from other (e.g. virulent) bacteria, even when they are dead -Made possible by directly taking DNA
Centrioles
-Cell organelle that aids in cell division in animal cells only -found in centrosome -organizing centers of microtubles during mitosis -hollow 9triplets of microtubles that migrate to opposite ends of the cell during mitosis
Mendel's first law of segregation
-Genes exist in alternative forms (alleles) -An organism has two alleles for each gene (1 from each parent) -Alleles segregate during meiosis, resulting in gametes with only one allele for any trait -If two alleles are different, only one will be expressed (exceptions are codominance and incomplete dominance) -Correlates closely with anaphase I of meisos (segregation of homologous chromosomes)
Red fibers (slow-twitch fibers)
-High myoglobin content -primary really derived their energy aerobically -contain many mitochondria
Anaphase I
-Homologous chrmosomes move to the oppisite poles of the cell. - disjunction
asters
-Microtubules and fibers that radiate out from the centrioles. -that anchor the centrioles to the membrane of the cell
Mitosis vs. Meiosis
-Mitosis is normal cell division everywhereMeiosis happens only in sex cells (gametes) -during anaphase of meiosis synapsis occurs
Telophase II
-Nuclear membrane reforms, cytoplasm divides, -4 haploid daughter cells formed
How do CDKs promote cell division?
-They phosphorylate transcription factors -when they are activated by the right cyclins
how many peptides can be absorbed into the small intestine wall at once
-Tri peptides 3
9 + 2 structure
-Used in flagella and cilia. -Nine pairs of microtubules, with two in the center. -only in eukaryotes
Bundle of His
-a bundle of modified heart muscle - that transmits the cardiac impulse from the atrioventricular node -to the ventricles causing them to contract
ventilation Center
-a collection of neurons in the medulla oblongata that regulate ventilation - fire rhythmically to cause regular contraction of respiratory muscles - contain chemoreceptors that are sensitive to carbon dioxide concentration -as the partial pressure of CO2 in the blood rises (hypercarbia), the respiratory rate increases so that more CO2 is exhaled causing CO2 levels in the blood to fall -also respond to changes in oxygen concentration --> only significant during period of hypoxemia (low [O] in blood)
Sarcomere
-a structural unit of a myofibril in striated muscle, -consisting of a dark band and the nearer half of each adjacent pale band.
similarities between the three muscle types
-all capable of contraction -all contraction relies on calcium ions -all muscle is innervated
what happens to oocyte during monthly cycle
-all oocytes are waiting in ovaries arrested before m 1 - during the month one oocyte per month will reach m1 and produce a secondary oocyte + a polar body -secondary oocyte remains arrested at m2 untill fertilized
resting membrane potential
-an electrical potential difference (voltage) between the inside of the neuron and the extracellular space -usually about -70 MV -inside the neuron negative relative to the outside
cortical sex hormones
-androgens and estrogens - made by adrenal glands -Males secrete a lot of androgens in testes so adrenal testosterone plays a small role - excess androgen production in females leads to masculinized genitalia
the circulatory system is under ___ control?
-autonomic
enveloped virus vs bacteriophage
-bacteriophage interts nucleic acid & remains outside cell - enveloped virus enters the class whole
tracts of nerves
-bundles of axo form tracts -carry only one type of information
Gametocytes
-cells that divide to form gametes -germ cells
Inducers (differentiation)
-chemical substance that
Chondroblasts
-connective tissue -produces cartilage matrix
Osteoblasts
-connective tissue -produces osteoid forms bones
Fibroblasts
-connective tissue, -cells produce collegen
ductus arteriosus (fetal shunt )
-connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta, -bypassing the lungs
ductus venosus( fetal shunt)
-connects the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava, -bypassing the liver
white fibers (fast-twitch)
-contain less myoglobin -contract rapidly -Tire quickly
menstrual phase
-days of the menstrual cycle on which menstrual bleeding occurs -pro & est falling -LH & FSH constant
what occurs during an excitatory impulse?
-depolarization -raising the membrane potential -increasing the likelihood of the neuron to fire an action potential
initiation of muscle contraction
-depolarization of a neuron leads to action potential in the following steps 1. communicated through neuromuscular Junction 2. via motor (efferent) neurons 3. Reching the nerve terminal 4. acetylcholine is released into the synapse 5. acetylcholine binds to The receptors in the sarcolemma causing depolarization
what results from extreme physical trauma to the muscles
-destruction of skeletal muscle tissue -the products of muscle destruction are toxic and circulate through the blood until they are filtered out
Neurulation
-development of the nervous system -begins after the 3 germ layers are formed
what are the two roles of the extracellular digestive system
-digestion -absorption
apoptotic blebs
-during apoptosis the cell undergoes changes in morphology and divides into many self contained pieces - for nearby cells to digest
selective transcription
-during differentiation -only genes needed for particular cell type are transcribed
Monochorionic/ diamniotic twins
-each have their own amnion but share same chorion
Nerve terminal or synaptic bouton
-end of axon -releases neurotransmitters
ectoderm gives rise to (attractive)
-epidermis , -hair -nails -epithelia of nose, mouth & lower anal canal -eye lense -nervous system -adrenal medulla -inner ear (attracto= cosmetic +smarts)
what are the parts of the interior structure of the Bone
-epiphyseal plate -spongy bone -periosteum -compact bone -marrow cavity
3 parts of the bone
-epiphysis -metaphysis -diaphysis
alpha cells
-epithelial cells -produce glucagon
extracellular digestive system that focuses on digestion
-from mouth until intestines -focuses on breakdown of food into organic molecules
the liver is also the site of
-glycogen storage -gluconeogenesis -bile production
S stage (synthesis)
-governed by a restriction point -DNA is replicated
third trimester
-growth -brain development -antibodies transferred -less activity -48 cm
second trimester
-growth -movement -face -fingers elongate -36cm
microtubules
-hollow polymers of tubulin proteins - pathway for motor protiens (kinesins & dynein - which carry vesicles)
inhibitory and put causes what?
-hyperpolarization - lowering the membrane potential -making the neuron less likely to fire
post -fix of amino acid derived hormones
-in
what is the cause of lactose intolerance
-lack of lactase -which causes an inability to break down lactose -the bacteria in the intestines hydrolyze the disaccharide producing methane gas aka farts +and has an osmotic effect pulling water into the stool causing diarrhea
lytic & lysogenic cycles stage 4 of viral life cycle
-lytic cycle = baceria uses cell untill cell is destroyed (virulent) -lysogenic cycle= replicates but cell lives
components of microfilaments
-made up of solid polymerized rods of actin which are organized into bundles & networks - can use atp to generate force motion by interacting with myocin (muscle contract)
what are the two fundamental types of digestion occurring in the extracellular system
-mechanical digestion -chemical digestion
what are the two processes of the digestive part of the extracellular digestive system
-mechanical digestion -chemical digestion
follicular phase
-menstral Flo -preovulatory phase - pituitary secretes FSH - follicle secretes estrogen -all hormones stagnant
Kinesins
-microtubular motors that 'walk' intracellular organelles along microtubules towards positive end - use 1 atp per step
mesoderm gives rise to (means)
-musclulo- skeletal -circulatory -excretory system -gonads -connective tissues -digestive system -respiratory -anal cortex (means = of getting around )
how is the negative potential maintained?
-na + cannot readily enter at rest -negative potential is maintained
atrioventricular (AV) node
-neurological tissue in the center of the heart that -receives and amplifies the conduction of impulses from the SA node - to the bundle of His
what are the five main characteristics of smooth muscle
-non-striated -involuntary -autonomic innervation - one nucleus per cell - calcium required for contraction
Telophase I
-nuclear membrane forms around each new nucleus -consisting each of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere -both cells haploid
steroid post- fix?
-one -ol -oid
endoderm gives rise to (endernal)
-pancreas, -parts of liver, -thyroid, -lung, -bladder, -urinary tract -epithelial lining of lungs (lines internal organs)
parenchyma cells
-play a role in storage, secrection, and photosynthesis in cells - made of epithelial cells - functional unit of cells -often polarized (one side facing in the other out having different functions on each side )
what are the five criteria for Hardy Weinberg eq
-population is very large (no genetic drift) -there are no mutations that affect the gene pool -mating between individuals in a population is random (no prefference or selection) -there is no migration of individuals into or out of the population -the genes in a population are equally successful at reproducing
luteal phase
-postovulatory phase - corpus luteum begins to secrete large amounts of progesterone -estrogen spike -LH & FSH fall
G2 stage (postsynthetic gap)
-quality control checkpoint 2 - checks for proper formation - organelles
parts of 9 + 2 structure
-radial spokes -central microtubules -inner sheath -nexin -b tubule -a tubule dynein arms
function of loop of henle
-reabsorbs 25% of the water and 20-25% of the NaCl of the original filtrate -creates the concentration gradient in the medulla
function of proximal convoluted tubule
-reabsorbs about 60-70% of all water, 99% of all organic substrates, and 60-70 of all NaCl -secretes hydrogen, ammonium, creatinine, drugs, and toxins
function of proximal convoluted tubule
-reabsorbtion about 60-70% of all water, 99% of all organic substrates
smooth muscle
-responsible for involuntary action -controlled by the ANS -found in the respiratory tract digestive tract bladder uterus blood vessel walls -have one single nucleus in each cell -contain actin and myosin
cooperative binding
-results in sigmoidal curve -In lungs, O diffuses into alveolar capillaries -as first O binds to a heme group, it induces a conformational shift in shape of hemoglobin from tense to relaxed which increases hemoglobin's affinity for O making it easier for subsequent O molecules to bind to remaining 3 unoccupied heme groups -as other heme groups acquire O, affinity increases (+ feedback mechanism) -Once all of the hemoglobin subunits are bound to O, the removal of 1 O induces conformational shift decreasing affinity for O making it easier for other O molecules to leave the heme groups -as O molecules leave, it becomes progressively easier for more O to be removed
a patient has creatine kinase circulating through their blood what is the disease that is affecting them and what is the end result of the disease
-rhabdomyolysis -causes kidney failure
what are the four organs that secrete enzymes and lubrication necessary to Aid in the digestion of food
-salivary glands -pancreas -liver -gallbladder
menopause
-sensitivety to LH & FSH are lost - no more ability to be pregnant
monochorionic/monoamniotic twins
-share the same amnion and chorion
Prokaryotes
-single celled organisms that do not contain nuclei -do not contain cell bound organelles -circular dna
bacteria
-single-celled organisms -lack a nucleus; prokaryotes -contain cell membrane & cytoplasm
monozygotic twins
-single-celled zygote splits in two -twins who are genetically identical -if division is incomplete conjoined twins results
dendrites?
-small appendages emanating directly from Soma -which receive incoming message from other cells
in a resting membrane potential Which is higher outside the cell potassium or sodium?
-sodium is much higher than potassium in the outside of a resting membrane potential -net positive charge
what are the main 5 characteristics of skeletal muscle
-straited -voluntary -somatic innervation -many nuclei -calcium required for contraction
what are the main five characteristics of cardiac muscle
-striated -involuntary -autonomic innervation - 1 to 2 nuclei per cell - calcium required for contraction
ABO antigens
-the A and B alleles are codominant, while the O allele is recessive
first trimester
-the embryo develop brainwaves -beating heart -major organs begin to develope -9cm long -called fetus at weak 9 instead of embryo
amnionic sac
-the fluid-filled sac surrounding the embryo. -One of the fetal membranes
ovulation phase
-the second stage of the cycle, -when the ovum is released. -spike FSH -spike estrogen -spike LH -rising progesterone
amnion
-thin tough membrane filled with amniotic fluid - shock absorber for bby
Extra cellular matrix
-this is the environment that surrounds animal cells -mafe of collegen elastin etc . - protects cells
what are the functions of intercalated discs in the heart
-to connect the cytoplasm of heart cells with many Gap Junctions thereby allowing for coordinated ventricular contraction
ways of introducing new genetic material in prokaryotes
-transformation -conjugation -transduction
translation & progeny assembly stage 2 of viral life cycle
-translation of viral genome into host DNA - create protiens that form viral prodgeny
cardiac muscle
-uni nucleated (but cells may contain 2 nuclei) -controlled by automatic nervous system -appear striated -connected by intercalated discs
list male reproductive system parts Superior to inferior (seven up )
-ureter -urinary bladder -vas defense -seminal vesicle -ejaculatory duct -prostate gland -bulbouetheral gland -urethera -epididymus -testis
assume a population is in hardy-weinberg equilibrium if not percent of the population is homozygous dominant then what is the frequency of the dominant allele
0. 3
what is the frequency of the recessive allele
0. 7
how many molecules of oxygen can one red blood cell Carry
1 billion 250M x 4
what are the two major antigen families
1. abo 2. Rh factor
tenants of cell theory
1. all living things are composed of cells 2. the cell if the basic functional unit of life 3. cells arisenonly from pre- existing cells .
list at least one pancreatic enzyme that digest each of the major class of biomolecules
1. amylase 2. lipase 3. trypsin
renal portal system (glomerulus/Nephron)
1. blood leaving the Glomerulus capillary bed 2. travel through an efferent arteriole surrounding the Nephron in a capillary Network called the Vasa recta 3. before entering the renal papillary system
hypophyseal portal system (hypothalamus/anterior pituitary)
1. blood leaving the capillary beds in the hypothalamus 2. Pass through a second layer of capillaries 3. then travel to a capillary bed in the anterior pituitary to allow for paracrine secretion of releasing hormones
what are the 6 parts of a movable joint
1. bone A 2. bone B 3. synovium 4. synovial capsule 5. joint cavity containing synovial fluid 6. articular cartilage
how are neurotransmitters removed from the synaptic cleft?
1. broken down 2. reuptake 3. diffusion out of synaptic cleft
what are two circulatory vessels in A villus
1. capillary 2. lacteals
what are the 25 major groups of Bones
1. cranium 2. mandible 3. cervical vertebra (7) 4. thoracic vertebra (12) 5. clavicle 6. scapula 7. sternum 8. ribs 9. lumbar vertebra (5) 10. humorous 11. ulna 12. radius 13. pelvis 14. sacrum 15. coccyx 16. purples 17. metacarpals 18. phalanges 19. femur 20. patella 21. tibia 22. fibula 23. tarsals 24. metatarsals 25. phalanges
what Tendencies does the heart exhibit on a cardiac cycle over time in one cycle
1. left arterial pressure stays relatively constant and right above zero with small bumps around the QRS 10 mmhg phase, S3 phase and S4 phase 7 mmhg 2. aortic pressure stays between 79 and 100 mmhg, with one significant hump in the T phase 100 mm HG around S2 followed by a smaller pump in S3 phase around 85 mmhg 1. volume of the heart is around 1: 50 until S1 phase in which it drops significantly 250 Ml and then quickly goes back to a hundred and 50s S3-s4
what are the parts of the cardiac cycle diagram
1. minimal valve closing 2. aortic valve opening 3. aortic valve closing 4. minoval valve opening 5. left arterial pressure 6. ventricular volume 7. left ventricular pressure 8. aortic pressure
shortening of the sarcomere (part 2 of muscle contraction)
1. myosin binds to the myosin binding sites on the actin filaments 2. actin-myosin cross bridges allows myosin to pull on actin draws the thin filaments to be pulled toward the M line 3. resulting in shortening of the sarcomere 4. powered by binding of ATP releasing myosin responsible for Powerstroke
how are neurotransmitters released?
1. neurotransmitter molecules are stored in vesicles in the nerve terminal 2. when the action potential reaches the nerve terminal voltage-gatedcausing calcium channels open up 3. calcium enters the cell 4. increase in calcium causes exocytosis of neurotransmitter 5. neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across cleft bind to receptors in postsynaptic membrane
how does oxygen diffuse into the blood
1. oxygen diffuses into the a violar capillaries 2. the first oxygen binds to a heme group 3. this binding induces a conformational shipped in the shape of the hemoglobin from T (tense) to R (relaxed ) 4. as more oxygen binds the affinity for oxygen of hemoglobin increases 5. once al four molecules of oxygen have bonded to the heme group a conformational change occurs decreasing the overall affinity for oxygen making it easier for other molecules of oxygen to leave the human group
what are the events that initiate muscle contraction in order
1. release of acetylcholine from motor neuron 2. activation of acetylcholine receptors in sarcolemma 3. depolarization of sarcolemma 4. spreading of signal using T tubules 5. release of calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum 6. binding of calcium to troponin 7. conformational shift of tropomyocin 8. exposure of myosin binding sites 9. myosin binds to actin
the four steps of actin myosin cross Bridge cycle are -
1. resting stage, ATP is hydrolyzed 2. Ca²⁺ binds to troponin, myosin binds to actin 3. powerstroke occurs, the sarcomere contracts, ADP and Pi dissociate from myosin 4. new ATP binds to myosin, causing detachment of myosin from actin; hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and Pi causes recocking of the myosin head -key point: it is the dissociation of ADP and Pi from myosin that is responsible for the powerstroke, NOT the hydrolysis of ATP
hepatic portal system (gut/liver)
1. the blood leaving the capillary beds in the walls of the gut 2. passing through a second layer of capillaries 3. before entering the hepatic vein and reaching the capillary beds in the liver
what are the two sites of gas exchange in the body
1. the lungs which except CO2 re oxygenate hemoglobin 2. the capillaries that dissipate oxygen into the tissues and pick up CO2
phases of birth
1. water breaks 2. contractions & birth 3. placental expulsion I
from zygote to gastrula what are the various stages of development
1.zygote 2. 2-4-8-16 cell embryo 3. morula 4. blastula 5. gastrula
full penetrance
100% of the individuals with the allele show phenotype
how long do red blood cells last
120 days
if two genes were 25 map units apart what would we expect to be the percent of total gametes examined to show recombination somewhere between these two genes
25%
what percentage of oxygen saturation is healthy
97%
draw a picture of a pair of sister chromosomes attached by a centromere
>•< > =sister chromatids • = centrimere
cell walls
A rigid layer of organic material surrounding delicate cell membranes of bacteria
collecting duct
A segment of the nephron that returns water form the filtrate to the bloodstream. responsive to both aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone as permeability increases so does water absorption
collecting duct
A segment of the nephron that returns water form the filtrate to the bloodstream. urea returns to the loop of henle
rectum
A short tube at the end of the large intestine where waste material is compressed into a solid form before being eliminated
appendix
A small, fingerlike extension of the vertebrate cecum; contains a mass of white blood cells that contribute to immunity.
second messenger
A small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecule or ion, such as calcium ion or cyclic AMP, that relays a signal to a cell's interior in response to a signal received by a signal receptor protein. signaling Cascade
bolus
A soft mass of chewed food.
bone marrow
A soft tissue inside the bone that produces blood cells
bile
A substance produced by the liver that breaks up fat particles.
intrinsic factor
A substance produced by the mucosa of the stomach and intestines that is essential for the absorption of vitamin B12.
Golgi apparatus
A system of membranes that modifies (adds groups) and packages proteins for export by the cell
Golgi apparatus
A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell
compliment
A system that consists of a number of proteins in the blood that act as a nonspecific defense against
Conjugation
A temporary union of two prokaryotic organisms for the purpose of DNA transfer.
zona pellucida
A thick, transpartent coating rich in glycoproteins that surrounds an oocyte. I
Axon
A threadlike extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.
endocrine signaling
A type of long-distance signaling in animals that utilizes hormones.
lymphocytes
A type of white blood cell that make antibodies to fight off infections
hepatic portal vein
A vein connecting the capillary bed of the intestines with the capillary bed of the liver. This allows amino acids and gluocse absorbed from the intestines to be delivered first to the liver for processing before being transported throughout the circulatory system.
umbilical vein
A vein in the umbilical cord; returns nutrient blood from the placenta to the fetus.
acrosome
A vesicle at the tip of a sperm cell that helps the sperm penetrate the egg
Bacteriophage
A virus that infects bacteria
skeletal muscle
A voluntary muscle that is attached to the bones of the skeleton and provides the force that moves the bones.
Fitness
Ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment
water soluble vitamins
B and C
B blood can receive
B and O
facultative anaerobes
Can make enough ATP to survive using using fermentation or respiration.
Vasa recta
Capillary branches that supply loops of Henle in the medulla region of the kidney
Parts of virus
Capsid, Nucleic acid, sometimes Envelope ,tail sheth, tail fibers
chemotaxis
Cell movement that occurs in response to chemical stimulus
Centrioles
Cell organelle that aids in cell division in animal cells only
peptidoglycan
Cell wall of prokaryotes, but NOT ARCHAEA. Made of a sugar polymer and polypeptide.
Organelles only in plant cells
Cell wall, chloroplast, central vacuole
G1 stage (presynthetic gap)
Cells create organelles for energy and protein production, while also increasing their size
female reproductive system
Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, fallopian tubes , uterus, endometrium , cervix, uterus, and vagina
Inducers
Compounds that stimulate the transcription of specific genes
what do the four s's in the cardiac cycle electrocardiogram represent
S4= the sound of the material valve closing and the aortic valve closing due to stiffness of the heart muscle or high blood pressure s1= the sound that is produced when two AV valves closed at the start of systole to prevent backflow into the art are S2= produced when two semilunar valves close at the end of a systole to prevent backflow into the ventricles S3= result of stiffness of the heart muscle or blood pressure during atrial valve opening and a Aortic pressure S4= results of stiffness of the heart muscle or high blood pressure during the left ventricular increase in pressure at the end of one cycle
Plasmid DNA
Separate from circular DNA and can replicate independently & can be passesd between prokaryotes of a same group
Function of ANP and BNP
Serves to maintain volume equilibrium in hypervolemic states HF, excess IV fluid
name the cell type site of development site of maturation major functions specificity and mediation of T cells?
T cells are developed in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus the major function of T cells is to coordinate immune system and directly kill infected cells T cells are specific and cell-mediated
name the hormonal pathway between T3 and T4 to bone and muscle increase
T3 and T4=hypothalamus growth hormone=anterior pituitary bone and muscle=Target Oregon
how do we breathe?
We take in air through our nasal cavity. it then passes through the phyarnx and through the larynx into the trachea. the trachea branches into left and right bronchus which enter the left and right lung respectively t the 2 bronchi branch into smaller bronchioles much like the branches of a tree get smaller and smaller ending in 300-500 alveoli (the hollow site of gas exchange) the alveoli are wrapped in capillaries that carry oxygen away from the alveoli to body tissue and bring carbon dioxide to the alveoli
how to remember the parts of the sarcomere
Z= end of sarcomere M=middle of sarcomere H= thick filaments only I=thin filaments only A=all the filaments
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
a lipid and carbohydrate complex found in (gram - ) bacterial cell walls- triggers immune response in humans -worse than lipo acid in gram +
how many nuclei does the hypothalamus have?
a number of them
adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete corticosteroid hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
reverse transcriptase
a polymerase that catalyzes the formation of DNA using RNA as a template
distal convoluted tubule
a portion of kidney nephron between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct system. where most of the salt is reabsorbed into the body (NaCl)
cecum
a pouch connected to the junction of the small and large intestines. exact fluid exiting the small intestine via the ileocecal valve
Starling forces
a pressure differential that causes the net movement of fluid from the glomerulus to Bowman's space
titin
a protein that positions the myosin filament to maintain equal spacing between actin filaments
what is Type 2 diabetes?
a receptor level resistance to the effect of insulin partially inherited and partially due to environmental factors
monosynaptic reflex arc
a reflex pathway having only one synapse in the CNS
complete dominance
a relationship in which one allele is completely dominant over another red
ip3 inositol triphosphate
a second messenger that functions as an intermediate between certain nonsteroid hormones and a third messenger, a rise in cytoplasmic calcium ion concentration
camp cyclic adenosine monophosphate
a second-messenger system present in the cytoplasm of a variety of cells, including neurons. when activated, cAMP production can ultimately induce gene transcription in the cell nucleus and thus affect the density of membrane receptors at the synapse. the cAMP pathway has been implicated in a variety of functions, including associative learning
polar body
a small cell containing little cytoplasm that is produced along with the oocyte and later discarded
what may be the cause of lactation in males?
a tumor in the pituitary gland causing the compression of the portal system that connects the pituitary and hypothalamus blocking the ability of pif to reach the pituitary and exert its effect increasing the amount of prolactin
vasovagal response
a type of effect that occurs from high anxiety rather than from the actual exam or drug injection
O type blood can donate
a, b ,ab, o
AB type blood can donate to
ab
rarest blood type
ab-
Chemotaxis
ability of a cell to detect chemical stimuli and move toward or away from them
regenerative capacity
ability of an organism to regrow certain parts of the body
Competency
ability of one cell to understand the sign of another & respond to it appropriately
what occurs when the pH is below 7. 35?
acidemia
CO2 is_____ and 02 is
acidic basic
what does AIDS stand for?
acquired immune deficiency syndrome
thin filaments
actin
what are microfillaments made of ?
actin
what does muscle contraction depend on
actin and myosin
impulse propagation
action potential travels down the axon and initiates neurotransmitter release
high levels of camp
activate cAMP dependent protein kinase which phosphorylate and inactivate glycogen synthase
what stimulus activates natural killer cells
activated by cells that do not present MHC such as virally infected cells and cancer cells
what occurs when cell surface antibodies bind to a B cell
activation resulting in proliferation and formation of plasma and memory cells
change in membrane potential occurs by what transport?
active and requires energy
what is the difference between active and passive immunity
active immunity= the simulation of immune system to produce antibodies against a pathogen passive immunity= the transfer of antibodies to prevent infection
spatial summation
addition of multiple signals near each other in space
frequency summation
addition of multiple simple twitches before the muscle has an opportunity to fully relax
summation
additive effect of multiple signals reaching a threshold when combined
prostate gland
adds a chemical fluid to the semen
what organ secretes corticosteroids?
adrenal cortex
where do mineralocorticoids come from?
adrenal cortex
where do epinephrine and norepinephrine come from?
adrenal medulla
shortening telomeres is associated with?
aging
what are basophils?
agranulocyte that promotes inflammaTory response
what role does the by name ATP to myosin head play in the cross Bridge cycle
allows the filament to disconnect from actin
Where are villi found?
along the walls/lining of the small intestines
where does glucagon come from?
alpha cells of pancreas
suppressor T cells(CD4)
also expresses a protein called FoxP3 these cells help tone down the immune response to an affection that has been adequately contained
what two main enzymes are found in saliva
amylase lipase
neural tube
an embryonic structure that gives rise to the central nervous system
RNA replicase
an enzyme that can produce RNA from an RNA template
what is a macrophage
an immune Defender cell that engulfs and consumes pathogens (innate)
superinfection
an infection on top of another infection
histamine
an inflammatory mediator resulting in vasodilation
what is the immunological function of stomach acid
an interim microbial mechanism in the digestive system
Endoplasmic Reticulum
an internal membrane system in which components of cell membrane and some proteins are constructed
chiasma
an intersection or crossing of two tracts in the form of the letter X
basal body
anchors the cilium or flagellum
what are the differences between innate and adaptive immunity?
and Nate is always acting and adapted is a response to specific types of pathogens due to previous exposure
nexin
another protein in cilia and flagella, does something with doublets
what produces thyroid stimulating hormone?
anterior pituitary
where is thyroid stimulating hormone produced?
anterior pituitary
what is immunologic function of defensins?
antibacterial enzymes on the skin
what is humoral immunity
antibody-mediated immunity
agglutination
antigens causing pathogens to Clump together forming large insoluble complexes that can be phagocytized
CD 8 plus sells respond to?
antigens presented on MHC 1 molecules endogenous antigens
clotting factors
any of the various plasma components involved in the clotting process
sex pili
appendages that pull two cells together prior to DNA transfer from one cell to the other
Killer T cells (CD8+ )
are capable of directly killing virally infected cells by injecting Toxic chemicals that promote apoptosis into the infected cell
direct hormones
are secreted and act directly on a target tissue
which have more smooth muscle arteries or veins
arteries
which is more numerous in the umbilical cord arteries or veins?
arteries
death phase
as limiting factors intensify, cells die exponentially
exhalation
as the diaphragm and internal intercostals relax the chest cavity decreases in volume that's the pressure of the intrapleural space will go higher than in the lungs which is still at atmospheric pressure the arrow pushed out of the lungs
atrial systole
atrial contraction increases atrial pressure that forces more blood into ventricles
patellar tendon
attaches muscles to the bottom of the patella (kneecap)
rod of flagella
attaches outside Of flagella to inside if cell
junction
attaches tail of flagella to hook
P ring of the flagella
attaches to the peptidoglycan n the cell wal
insertion
attachment to movable bone
type 1 diabetes is characterized by?
autoimmune destruction of beta cells in the pancreas insufficient insulin production
efferent
away
components of the skeletal system
axial and appendicular
Anarobes
bacteria that does not need oxygen to survive (fermentation)
what are CD4 +T cells most effective against?
bacterial fungal and parasitic infections due to their exogenius nature
what regulates blood pressure in the body
baroreceptors in the walls of the vasculature
why don't we have to take into account a blood donors plasma or antibody type when donating and receiving blood transfusions
because blood is typically transfused with only red blood cells and no plasma
why does the cell require active transport to change its resting potential?
because both potassium and sodium are going against their gradients
why does fetal hemoglobin have a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin
because fetal red blood cells must a literally pull off oxygen from maternal hemoglobin into fetal hemoglobin
how to remember which part of the kidney is the outer versus which part of the kidney is the inner?
because the cortex is on the outside of the kidney and the medulla is on the inside of the kidney remember the letter c comes before the letter M in the alphabet
why are people with type O blood Universal donors
because their blood will not cause hemolysis with any other blood type because it has no surface antigen
how do type 1 diabetics deal with their diabetes?
because they produce no insulin they must inject it
why is it important to match blood types in blood transfusions
because your blood will recognize Itself by the antigen and if the antigens are different it will attack the other blood type causing severe hemolysis
where is insulin from?
beta cells of pancreas
what is the body's optimal pH?
between 7. 35 and 7. 45
how does co2 exist in the blood
bicarbonate when we don't breathe this can cause alkalemia or or blood alkalosis in which the PH of blood rises above 7. 4
when the PH of blood is high (basic) which substance is likely to be excreted in larger quantities in the urine
bicarbonate ions
what two structures in the liver communicate with the digestive system
bile ducts hepatic portal vein
what are the major components of bile
bile salts pigments cholesterol
bile is composed of
bile salts, phospholipids, cholesterol, bilirubin, water, and ions, pigments
2 3 bisphosphoglycerate
binds in the center of the hemoglobin tetramer
neutralize
blocking ability of a pathogen to invade tissues
renal artery
blood vessel that carries blood to the kidney
intramembranous ossification
bone develops from a fibrous membrane
osteoblasts
bone forming cells
are healthy periosteum is necessary for
bone growth and repair
immovable joints
bone joints that are fused together hello little to no movement
what are the organs of the immune system?
bone marrow, thymus gland, lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic vessel, appendix, tonsils, spleen, peyer's patches
what are the critically important functions of calcium?
bone structure and strength release of neurotransmitters from neurons regulation of muscle contraction clotting of blood calcium also plays a role in cell movement and exocytosis of cellular materials
connective tissue
bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, fat , blood and other soft padding tissue
heterozygous alleles
both alleles are different, one is expressed and the other doesn't affect the organism and the allele that is expressed is dominant Xx
mutualistic symbiotes
both humans and the bacteria benefit from the relationship
strong bones are made of
both organic and inorganic materials
immunizations provide what type of immunity?
both passive and active immunity
which nervous system controls salivation
both sympathetic and parasympathetic
cuboidal epithelial cells
boxlike, approximately as tall as they are wide epithelial cells
osteoclasts
break down bone
Rhabomyolysis
breakdown of muscle fibers; may be caused by heatstroke or heavy exercise
what does digestion entail
breakdown of the foods we eat into smaller particles that can be digested
salivary lipase
breaks down fats
lactase
breaks down lactose
what does lipase do
breaks down lipids
Maltase
breaks down maltose
Peptidase
breaks down peptides into amino acids
what does amylase do
breaks down starch
sucrase
breaks down sucrose enzyme
plasmin
breaks down the blood clot
how does our respiratory system adjust if we move to higher altitude where oxygen is less available?
breathing more rapidly and finding dynamics of hemoglobin to oxygen would be altered to facilitate uploading of oxygen at the tissues
disaccharidases
brush-border enzymes that break down maltose, isomaltose, lactose, and sucrose into monosaccharides
what are the functions of osteoblasts
building bones
how does the lungs play an immediate rule in the adjustment of hydrogen ion levels?
by adjusting carbon dioxide levels
how do steroid hormones travel in the bloodstream?
by binding to a carrier protein
how do anesthetics work?
by blocking voltage-gated na channels in the sensory neurons
how are neurotransmitters broken down?
by enzymatic reactions - EG acetylcholine
how does the thyroid control metabolism?
by releasing T3 and T4
how are neurotransmitters reuptake in?
by the presynaptic neuron using reuptake carriers -dopeamine
mnemonic to remember T cells?
c d x M H C = 8 CD4 + cells respond to MHC II ( 4x2 = 8) cd8 + cells respond to MHC 1 (8x1 = 8)
how does caffeine alter water output?
caffeine is a diuretic which interferes with antidiuretic hormone ADH would usually cause increased reabsorption of water however, when ADH is suppressed more water leaves the Nephron and is excreted
what hormone works counter to parathyroid hormone?
calcitonin which decreases the amount of blood calcium after a calcium rich meal
what does the contraction of the cardiac muscle rely on
calcium
parts of nephron from capillaries to renal pelvis
capillary bed proximal convoluted tubule Loop of henle distal convoluted tubule collecting duct
what type of nutrients are digested by pancreatic juices
carbohydrates fats and proteins
myocytes
cardiac muscle cells
heterozygous individuals are
carriers
efferent arteriole
carries blood away from the glomerulus
afferent arteriole
carries blood to the glomerulus
efferent arterioles
carry blood away from the glomerulus
arteries
carry blood away from the heart
afferent arterioles
carry blood to the glomerulus
veins
carry blood to the heart
umbilical arteries
carry deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta
pulmonary arteries
carry deoxygenated blood out of the right ventricle and into the lungs
what are the two major components of the skeleton
cartilage and bone
what are the three sections of the large intestine
cecum, colon, rectum
what events adults from growing further?
ceiling of the long bones closing of the epiphyseal plates
islets of langerhans
cell clusters in the pancreas that form the endocrine part of that organ
juxtacrine signaling
cell communication by direct contact between cells
necrosis
cell death due to external factors, -lack of oxygen or physical damage
Platelets (thrombocytes)
cell fragments or shards released from cells in the bone marrow form blood clots
G2/M checkpoint
cell monitors DNA synthesis and damage
G1/S checkpoint
cell monitors size and DNA integrity
lysosomes
cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell
G0 stage
cell performs its function without any preparation for division
what is a mast cell?
cell releasing histamine and other chemicals that promote inflammation (innate)
fourth tenant of molecular biology
cells carry genetic info in the form of DNA & is passesfrom parent to daughter cell
endothelial cells
cells lining the blood vessels
autocrine signaling
cells respond to signaling substances that they themselves secrete
interstitium
cells surrounding the blood vessels
what are T cells
cells that kill infected cells
oogonia
cells that produce primary oocytes by mitotic division specific number in women
negative T-cell selection
cells that respond die
positive T Cell selection
cells that respond survive
microtubule organizing center
centrosome
what are the tenants of natural selection
certain traits arise from chance are more favorable for Reproductive success in a given environment a given environment
four parts of spinal cord
cervical thoracic Lumbar and sacral
genetic drift
changes in the composition of the gene pool due to chance
volkmann's canals
channels lying at right angles to the central canal, transverse channels connecting blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the Haversian canal
what are hormones?
chemical messages
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons
what are cytokines?
chemical substances that stimulate inflammation and recruit additional immune cells to the area
most synapses are what in nature?
chemical they use small molecules referred to as neurotransmitters
failure of the epiglottis can lead to
choking or aspiration of food
chemical precursor of steroid hormones
cholesterol
sister chromatids
chromatids from the same chromosome
mucociliary escalator
cilia that transport mucus and foreign material out of the respiratory tract to be sneezed or swallowed
what catches material that has made it past the mucous membranes of the nose and mouth?
ciliated epithelial cells in the bronchial and trachea
portal systems
circulatory routes in which the blood travels through two sets of capillary beds before returning to the heart there are three portal systems in the body hepatic, hypophyseal and renal portal systems
what does high blood pressure indicate
clinical hypertension, anxiety, tumors, stimulant use
Piloerection (goosebumps)
close follicle when cold to contain heat and minimize heat loss
extracellular pathogenic bacteria
clostridium tetani= causes tetunus by producing tocibs & secreating them into the blood stream
Ganglia (ganglion)
cluster of neurons in PNS
nuclei
clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
dorsal root ganglia
clusters of sensory neurons outside the spinal cord
vasopressin regulates the insertion of aquaporins into what apical membrane of the epithelial cells of which renal cell structure
collecting duct because vasopressin regulates the fusion of aquaporins within be a pickle membranes of the collecting ducts of epithelial cells
nephrons empty into?
collecting ducts and eventually into the renal pelvis which Narrows from the ureter
determination
commits a cell to specific liniage
renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
compensatory process that leads to increased blood pressure and blood volume to ensure perfusion of the kidneys; important in the continual regulation of blood pressure
what is the difference between complete dominance codominance and incomplete dominance
complete = 4x Rr = all red incomplete = 2 Rr 2 rr = pink co dominance = 4x RS= pink & White
esophagus
composed of both skeletal and smooth muscle muscular tube that pushes the food to the stomach
thick filaments
composed of myosin
bile salts
compounds in bile that aid in emulsification
lesser curvature
concave medial surface of the stomach
what concept allows gas exchange
concentration gradients a higher concentration gradient on one side of the capillary wall then the other allows for movement of gases and solutes by diffusion
llamellae
concentric rings of hard, extracellular calcified bone matrix
inborn errors of metabolism
congenital disabilities preventing normal metabolism
I bands
contain only thin filaments
head (sperm)
contains genetic material covered w/ acrosome
systole and diastole
contraction and relaxation (contraction should be significantly higher than relaxation)
Mineralocorticoids
control salt water homeostasis
nuclear membrane
controls what goes in and out of the nucleus
what is the purpose of shivering
converting ATP into thermal energy producing heat
Angiotensin converting enzyme
converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II
helper T cells (CD4+)
coordinate the immune response by secreting chemicals known as lymphokines
layers of epidermis from superficial to Deep
corneum, lucidum, granulosum, spinosum, basale
which region of the kidney has the lowest solute concentration under normal physiological circumstances
cortex
what are the parts of the kidney?
cortex and medulla
what are the parts of the kidney
cortex, medulla renal pelvis renal artery renal vein ureter Nephron
process by which glucose corticoids are released
corticotropin-releasing factor from the hypothalamus promotes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone from the anterior pituitary which promotes release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex
most common glucocorticoids
cortisol and corticosterone
articular cartilage
covers the surfaces of bones where they come together to form joints
what is the combined function of the Vasa recta and Nephron?
creating a countercurrent multiplier system making the flow of filtrate through the loop of henle in the opposite direction from the flow of blood through the Vasa recta this causes the filtrate to be exposed to hypertonic blood which allows maximal reabsorption of water
double crossover
cross over then cross back (two events)
what explains Mendel's second law of independent assortment ?
crossing over
types of epithelial cells shape
cuboidal , columnar, squamos,
Bowman's capsule
cup-shaped strucutre of the nephron of a kidney which encloses the glomerulus and which filtration takes place.
lytic cycle
cycle of viral infection; results in replication of virus and cell destruction
what causes a bruise
damage to capillaries allowing blood to leave the capillaries and enter a closed interstitial space
what is pus
dead neutrophils
opening capillary beds will do what to the vascular resistance
decrease increasing cardiac output
what can cause a right shift of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve (increase release of oxygen)
decrease in pH
if blood levels of CO2 become too low what does the brain altering the respiratory system to maintain homeostasis?
decrease respiratory rate in order to raise CO2 levels
deleterious mutations
decrease the fitness of the organism
function of renin
decreased blood pressure stimulates the release of renin renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
what is the biological function of calcitonin?
decreases blood calcium concentrations
Enterogastrone
decreases stomach emptying allowing enzymes to act further breaking down fats
renal hilum
deep slit in the center of the medulla of the kidney where the renal artery, vein and ureter enter and exit
hypoxemia
deficient amount of oxygen in the blood
what occurs when an antigen binds to antibodies on the cell surface of a mast cell
degranulation causing an allergic reaction
molecular clock model
degree of difference in the genome b/w 2 species is related to the amount of time since the 2 species broke off from a common ancestor
the majority of mutations are
deleterious or neutral
types of chromosomal mutations
deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation
where is somatostatin produced?
delta cells of pancreas
fetal arteries carry
deoxygenated blood
veins carry
deoxygenated blood
Na+ influx causes _____K + eflux causes______
depolarization & action potential fire hyperpolarization return to membrane potential
what is a biological function of estrogen?
develops and maintains female reproductive system and female secondary sex characteristics
what is the biological function of testosterone?
develops and maintains male reproductive system and male secondary sex characteristics
what is the name of the condition characterized by insufficient secretion or intensity to insulin?
diabetes mellitus
which muscles are involved in inhalation?
diaphragm and external intercostal muscles neck and back may also be involved
what are the three structural parts of the bone
diaphysis metaphysis epiphysis
sex linked disorders
dieseases that are determined by genes found on the sex chromosomes. particularly the X chromosome (more ecperessed in males bc only one copy)
responsive cells
differentiate according to the inducers secreted by organizing cells
what does the autonomic nervous system generally regulate?
digestion and glandular secretions as well as heartbeat and respiration and other involuntary needs
extracellular digestion
digestion that breaks down food into molecules these molecules are absorbed in the intestine and transported through the bloodstream and are taken up by cells who perform intracellular digestion
gastric juice
digestive secretions of the stomach glands consisting chiefly of hydrochloric acid and mucin and the enzymes pepsin and rennin and lipase
what is the difference between a direct and trophic hormone?
direct hormones can penetrate the lipid bilayer and affect the DNA directly trophic hormones must act vs secondary messenger which expands the message inside the cell because they cannot enter the cell
modes of natural selection
directional, disruptive, stabilizing
how does the fetus breathe during pregnancy?
directly from the fetal bloodstream it does not use its lungs until birth
what account for Mendel's first law ?
disjunction
what role does the dissociation of ADP and inorganic phosphate from myosin head play in the cross Bridge cycle
dissociation of ADP and inorganic phosphate from myosin cause the Powerstroke
how do peptide hormones travel in the bloodstream
dissolves and travels freely
Antrum
distal portion of the stomach
pylorus
distal region of the stomach, opening to the duodenum attaches intestine to stomach
intermediate filaments
diverse class of structural proteins that make up the permanent framework of the entire cell
aerotolerant anaerobes
do not utilize oxygen but can survive and grow in its presence
alternative complement pathway
does not require antibodies complement proteins punch holes in the walls of cell bacteria
prolactin inhibiting Factor is?
dopamine
Catecholamines
dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine
catecholamines are
dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine
the three parts of the small intestine
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
what are the three sections of the small intestine
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
what are the three segments of the small intestine
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
what are the three types of comatose cell mutations that do not share the name with the type of frameshift mutation
duplication inversion translocation
positive feedback loop childbirth
during childbirth the release of oxytocin promotes your uterine contraction which promotes more oxytocin release which promote stronger uterine contraction and so on until birth
relaxation period
during this time, calcium ions are actively transported back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, myosin-binding sites are covered by tropomyosin, myosin heads detach from actin, and tension in the muscle fiber decreases
contraction period
during this time, calcium ions bind to troponin, myosin-binding sites on actin are exposed, crossbridges form
what is the result of a deficit of growth hormone during childhood?
dwarfism
primary germ layers
ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
if a neuron signals to a gland or muscle the postsynaptic cell is termed?
effector
what fibers do motor impulses travel along?
efferent fibers
Prototherians
egg laying mammals
ejaculation
ejection of sperm and fluid from the male urethra
what does an electrocardiogram measure
electrical activity of the heart
action potentials
electrical signals sent by neurons to communicate
vetebral column
encloses and protects spinal cord, -supports head and serves as point of attachment for ribs n muscle -has both white and gray matter
the placenta is a ____organ bc it secreats hormones
endocrine
accessory organs of digestion grow out of
endoderm
the accessory organs of digestion originated from which primary germ layer
endoderm
MHC 1 =
endogenous (inside )
what do macrophages do?
engulf and digest pathogens and signal to the rest of the system that there is an invader
acromegaly
enlargement of the extremities
enteropeptidase
enzyme bound to plasma membrane of duodenal epithelial cells, activates pancreatic protease trypsinogen to trypsin
thrombin
enzyme that converts fibrinogen to fibrin during coagulation
what is chemical digestion
enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use
what prevents food from entering the larynx
epiglottis
common amino acid derived hormones
epinephrine norepinephrine triiodothyronine and thyroxine
biggest difference between eukaryotic & prokaryotic cells ?
eukaryotes have a nucleus
pancreas functions
exocrine= secretes hormones into small intestine; endocrine= secretes hormones into bloodstream; Insulin stimulates muscles to remove glucose from the blood when glucose levels are high (like after a meal); Islets of Langerhans secrete glucagon that respond to low levels of blood glucose
two types of skeletons
exoskeleton and endoskeleton
what are the tenants of the modern synthesis model
explains that selection is for specific alleles which are past to Future Generations through formation of gametes and that these favorable traits arise from mutations
what are the tenants of Inclusive fitness
explanation that reproductive success of an organism is not only due to a number of offspring created but also due to the success of the organism and taking care of its offspring
log phase
exponential growth
where is the location of the receptor of a peptide hormone?
exterior
what type of infection is a bacterial infection?
extracellular
founder effect
extreme case of genetic drift small population of species finds itself in reproductive isolation increases frequency of those individuals in population future
microglial cells
extremely small glial cells that remove cellular debris from injured or dead cells
vasovagal syncope
fainting, dizziness before, during or after venipuncture
what are fats broken down into
fatty acids and glycerol
what usually causes pancreatitis
fatty meals/garbage gall stones
job of capillary bed
feed blood to be filtered through Nephron
which sex is more susceptible to cortical sex hormones?
females
zygote
fertilized egg
pregnancy
fertilized ova attaches to uterine lining - secreating HCG
low penetrance
fewer sequence repeats
what protein help stabilize the blood clot
fibrin
sympathetic nervous system
fight or flight
what are the three different processes of the kidney?
filtration, secretion, reabsorption
what role do microfilaments play in cytokinesis ?
firming cleavage furrow separating the two daughter cells
duodenum
first part of the small intestine primarily involved in digestion
proximal convoluted tubule
first section of the renal tubule that the blood flows through; reabsorption of water, ions, and all organic nutrients
if an autoimmune disease attacks the voltage-gated calcium channels in a nerve terminal what is the likely symptom of this condition?
flaccid paralysis the lack of neurotransmitters means that the neuron cannot send signals that's the symptoms resulting from this disease would be due to inability of a neuron to communicate if neurons cannot communicate flaccid paralysis may be the result
tip
flagellum whip tip
list all the hormones in the human body
follicle-stimulating hormone luteinizing hormone adrenocorticotropic hormone thyroid stimulating hormone prolactin endorphins growth hormone antidiuretic hormone oxytocin T3 and T4 calcitonin parathyroid hormone glucocorticoids: cortisol and cortisone mineralocorticoids: aldosterone epinephrine and norepinephrine glucagon insulin somatostatin testosterone estrogen progesterone melatonin erythropoietin arterial nitriuretic peptide thymosin
what trophic hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary?
follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone growth hormone thyroid stimulating hormone adrenocorticotropic hormone
prosthetic heme group
for prosthetic in groups on one hemoglobin molecule The Binding of oxygen in one he group allows the other human groups to be more susceptible to oxygen-binding
fetal shunts
foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus are ___ ___
disruptive selection
form of natural selection in which a single curve splits into two; occurs when individuals at the upper and lower ends of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle
vasa recta function
formation of concentrated urine
what are the functions of chondrocytes
forming cartilage
MHC Class 2 molecules
found on antigen presenting cells like macrophages
spermatids
four haploid cells that are formed when a diploid reproductive cell divides meiotically
what is the pathway of urine from the Nephron in to the dick
from the Nephron into the collecting duct into the renal pelvis into the ureter out through the dick hole
jejunum and ileum
function mainly in absorption of nutrients and water
what are the four main anatomical divisions of the stomach
fundus body Antrum pylorus
what effect does the sympathetic nervous system have on the digestive system
funnels blood back into the brain and skeletal muscle making you feel alert
what effect does the parasympathetic nervous system have on the digestive system
funnels blood into the digestive tract making you feel tired
where are bile salts stored
gallbladder
Bile duct connects
gallbladder, small intestine, to the liver
Outcrossing
gametes from different individuals combine to form offspring
Nodes of rainvier
gaps in the myelin sheath that serve to speed up neural impulses
midpiece (sperm)
generates ATP from fructose and contains many mitochondria
Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP)
generates NADPH (reducing power) and ribose 5-phosphate (for nucleotides)
sex factors
genes in plasmids
Transformation
genes transferred from one bacterium to another as "naked" DNA
genotype
genetic makeup of an organism
what occurs if there is an excess in growth hormone release in childhood?
gigantism
in a disease where finding protein in the urine of a patient is common where is the likely deficit in the Nephron
glomerulus
what do alpha pancreatic cells secrete?
glucagon
steroid hormones
glucocorticoids (cortisol and cortisone) mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) testosterone estrogen progesterone
what type of hormone is glucocorticoids?
glucocorticoids such as cortisol and cortisone are steroids derived from cholesterol
what is the energy source of red blood cells
glycolysis generation of aTp
what fetus does to protect liver &lung from blood pressure
has three shunts to redirect blood away from these organs
silent mutations
have no effect on the amino acid produced by a codon because of redundancy in the genetic code
Vagus Nerve (X)
he's responsible for much of the parasympathetic intervention in the thoracic and abdominal cavity
Parts of sperm
head= Acrosome, plasma membrane , nucleus , mid = centrioles, mitochondria tail= axial filament ( flagellum), end piece
how are shunts affected after birth ?
heart pressure differential reverses shutting the ovals
cardiovascular system
heart, blood vessels, blood
spindle fibers
help pull apart the cell during replication and are made up of micrtubules
what are the three types of T cells
helper T cells suppressor T cells and killer T-cells
what are the functions of helper suppressor memory and killer T-cells?
helper T cells increase the response to an infection killer T-cells destroy the infected cells memory T-cells keep in memory of the microbe and when activated results in a more rapid response suppressor T cells suppressor teeth cells towing down the immune response Wednesday infection has been contained
precursor to granulocytes and agranulocytes
hematopoietic stem cells
what type of cell gives rise to red blood cells and platelets
hematopoietic stem cells
the production of blood cells and platelets is called
hemopoiesis
Carriers
heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but are phenotypically normal
hfr
high frequency of recombination cells that are now male via conjugation
what triggers increase in calcitonin production by C cells?
high levels of calcium in the blood
nuclear pores
holes in the nuclear envelope that allow materials to pass in and out of the nucleus
reductional division
homolog number reduced by half meiosis 1
cck
hormone secreted by small intestine that reduces hunger
renin
hormone secreted by the kidney; it raises blood pressure by influencing vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels) Ann cleeves an inactive plasma protein
somatostatin
hormone that inhibits release of growth hormone and insulin
Thrombopoietin
hormone that regulates platelet formation
peptide hormones definition?
hormones made up of amino acid ranging in size from quite small two relatively large. because peptide hormones are charged they must bind to an extracellular receptor the peptide hormone is considered the first messenger the first messenger binds to the receptor and triggers the transmission of a secondary signal known as a secondary messenger
glucocorticoids
hormones that regulate blood glucose levels
trophic hormones
hormones that require an intermediate to act
trophic hormones?
hormones that work by causing the release of other hormones at the organ level
stomach acid
hydrochloric acid
what type of pressure pushes fluids out of vessels
hydrostatic pressure
what chemical forms most of the inorganic component of bone
hydroxyapatite crystals
how is diabetes mellitus clinically characterized?
hyperglycemia in the kidneys excessive Luke o the filtrate will overwhelm the nephrons ability to reabsorb glu cose
what results from an excess of thyroid stimulation due to an excess of thyroid hormone?
hyperthyroidism
levels of skin from deepest working out word
hypodermis dermis epidermis
what can excess insulin cause?
hypoglycemia
what organ releases dopamine?,(PIF)
hypothalamus and causes a decrease in prolactin secretion
what occurs during an iodine deficiency?
hypothyroidism slow metabolism due to insufficient secretion of thyroid hormones
structure of flagella
identical axoneme to secondary cilia (9 boublets+2 microtubles inside)
how does the bicarbonate buffer system link the respiratory and renal systems
if an individual hyperventilates excess CO2 is blown off Shifting the bicarbonate buffer system to the left decrease in the concentration of protons causing alkalemia what the kidney is unable to affectively excrete acid - acidois occurs & hyperventilation increases bicarbonate in the blood
what is the genotype of type O blood
ii
opsonization
immediate phocytosis of antigens
cell mediated immunity
immunity against abnormal cells and pathogens inside living cells Tcells
adaptive immunity
immunity or resistance to a specific pathogen due to experience with that pathogen
what is the charge of the inside and outside of a resting membrane potential?
in equals negative out equals positive
Where are fats absorbed?
in the lymph by the lacteals & packaged into
interstitial cells
in the testes, these cells lie between the seminiferous tubules and produce the hormone testosterone
zymogen
inactive form of an enzyme
pepsinogen
inactive form of pepsin
plasminogen
inactive form of plasmin
what causes varicose veins
incompetent venous valves
what is the biological function of epinephrine and norepinephrine?
increase blood glucose concentrations and heart rate dilate bronchial after blood flow patterns
what is the biological function of glucocorticoids?
increase blood glucose concentrations decrease protein synthesis and anti-inflammation
in bacterial sepsis a number of capillary beds throughout the body open simultaneously what effect would this have on blood pressure
increase in blood pressure causing a heart attack
functions of sympathetic nervous system
increase in heart rate redistributes blood to muscles of locomotion increases blood glucose concentration relaxes the bronchi decreases digestion and peristalsis dial EB eyes to maximize light intake releases epinephrine into bloodstream
what causes a shift to the left of oxygen delivery (decreased oxygen delivery)
increase in pH
negative feedback pathway caused by increase in plasma calcium level
increase in plasma calcium level inhibits pth which increases vitamin D3 to 2500 D3 metabolism and decreases renal phosphate reabsorption
what causes varicose veins during pregnancy
increase in total blood volume due to fetal blood
what do diuretics do?
increase in urine output
a drug is used that prevents the conversion of Angiotensin 1 to Angiotensin 2 what is the likely effect of this drug
increase potassium reabsorption
what is another effect of aldosterone on the excretory system
increase sodium reabsorption decrease potassium reabsorption
function of villi
increase surface area to aid nutrient absorption
what is the biological function of mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone?
increase water reabsorption in the kidneys by increasing sodium reabsorption promote potassium and hydrogen ion excretion
excitatory input causes an _____ action potential while inhibitory input causes a ____ action potential
increased decreased
what are the function of MHC class 1 and Class 2 molecules?
increased antigen presentation and better detection of infected cells
what would be the metabolic result of increased T3 and T4?
increased cellular respiration and a great amount of protein and fatty acid turn over by speeding up both synthesis and degradation of these compounds
function of antidiuretic hormone AK vasopressin?
increases reabsorption of water in the collecting ducts of the kidneys
anp
increases urinary output and reduces TPR in response to atrial stretch loss of salt within the nephron acting as a natural diuretic with loss of fluid
expressivity is variable
individuals with the same genotype may have different phenotypes
pax6
induces development of optic lense
why would genetic leakage animals be rare prior to the last century
infertility of hybrids
tail sheath
injects the viral genetic material into a bacterium
which mito membrane is larger - inner or outer ?
inner - it is compounded by folds
renal pelvis (of kidney)
inner collecting tube
stator
inner membrane part of flagella
what is the renal medulla
inner portion of the kidney
L ring of flagella
innermost, attaches to the lipid bilayer of the membrane
what are the two types of frameshift mutations
insertion and deletion
sphygmomanometer
instrument to measure blood pressure
spirometer
instrument used to measure breathing
example of direct hormone?
insulin
glucagon antagonist
insulin
what do beta pancreatic cells secrete?
insulin
what inhibits glucagon release?
insulin hyperglycemia somatostatin
how can we speed up the process of exhalation during active tasks?
intercostal internal muscles which opposed the external intercostal muscles and pull the rib cage down this decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity
what type of infection is a viral infection?
interior
rugae of stomach
interior folds
what is the location of the receptor of a steroid hormone?
interior of the cell
what are the two renal sphincters?
internal and external urethral sphincters
longest phase of cell cycle
interphase
small fatty acids can diffuse directly into
intestinal capillaries
what are the two types of digestion
intracellular and extracellular
neural groove
invagination of neural plate
what activates esinophils
invasive parasites and allergens
internal urethral sphincter
involuntary smooth muscle
basophils
involved in allergic responses
what is biological function of melatonin?
involved in circadian rhythms
Psudostratified Epithelia
is one heterogeneous layer that looks like multiple layers
2,3-BPG
is present in human red blood cells (RBC; erythrocyte) at approximately 5 mmol/L. It binds with greater affinity to deoxygenated hemoglobin (e.g. when the red cell is near respiring tissue) than it does to oxygenated hemoglobin (e.g. in the lungs). thus enhancing the ability of RBCs to release oxygen near tissues that need it most. shift rxn to the right
proximal convoluted tubule
is the first section of renal tubule where filtrate enters the majority of salts are reabsorbed along with water the filtrate remains isotonic solutes that enter the interstitium- are picked up by the Vasa recta and our return to the tissue surrounding the Nephron the PCT is also the site of secretion for waste products
if you increase salt and put what happens to osmolarity?
it increases the body of takes more water to dilute the salt in the tissues
what does HIV do to plasma cells, T-cells and macrophages
it kills them
what are the tenants of punctuated equilibrium
it states that for some species little Evolution occurs over a long period of time which is interrupted by rapid verse of evolutionary change
what occurs if the nuron has a g protein-coupled receptor?
it will cause either changes in the levels of camp or an influx of calcium
where does most of the absorption in the small intestine take place
jejunum & ileum
synovial fluid
joint-lubricating fluid secreted by the synovial membrane
what is the purpose of surfactant?
keep alveoli from collapsing by reducing the tension at the air liquid interface of the alveoli
keratinocytes produce
keratin
what are fingernails and hair made of
keratin
what are intermediate filaments made of?
keratin, desmin, vimentin
examples of intermediate filaments
keratin, desmin, vimentin, lamins
types of cells in the epidermis
keratinocytes, melanocytes, langerhans cells, merkel cells
where is erythropoietin from?
kidney
what organs are involved in maintaining PH homeostasis?
kidneys and lungs
excretory system organs
kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra
how do chromosomes attach to centrioles?
kinetochores
example of monosynaptic reflex arc
knee jerk reflex
arterial ventricular valves
lab rat left artrium = bicuspid right atrium = tricuspid
a child is born without an anus what occurred?
lack of apoptosis in fetal anal cells
non penetrance
lack of clinical expression of the mutant gene
phases of growth
lag, log, stationary, death
which side of the heart is more muscular
left
blowing off CO2 will shift the bicarbonate buffer system to the?
left according to Le chatelier's principle
difference between mhc1 and mhc2
let me see one is found in all nucleated cells and presents proteins created within the cell intracellular pathogens MHC II it's only found an antigen presenting cells and prisons proteins that result from digestion of extracellular pathogens
what cell types and blood contain nuclei
leukocyte s
how do bile salts work General?
like soap
Ependymal cells (CNS)
line the ventricles and secrete cerebrospinal fluid
what are the factors that affect resistivity
links and cross-sectional area
how does bile and pancreatic lipase work together to digest fats
lipase breaks down triglycerides into free fatty acids these fatty acids Clump into Micells bile salts emulsify the missiles with their hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends allowing them to be digested easier
complete regeneration
lost or damaged tissues are replaced with identical tissues
how is aldosterone synthesized from the adrenal cortex?
low blood pressure stimulates the release of renin renin converts angiotensinogen forming Angiotensin 1 a peptide is then metabolized by Angiotensin converting enzyme to form and you're testing to which promotes the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex
what is the biological function of insulin?
lowering blood glucose concentration and increasing anabolic processes
internal intercostal muscles
lowers the rib cage during forced expiration
where is Angiotensin 1 converted to Angiotensin 2?
lungs
example of trophic hormone?
luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone
what are the four most important organs of the immune system?
lymph nodes= filter length and are a site where immune response can be mounted bone marrow= where immune cells are produced the thymus=the site of T Cell maturation the spleen= a storage area for blood filters blood and lymph
agranulocytes
lymphocytes and monocytes
what are the two types of agranulocytes?
lymphocytes and monocytes
what are the two types of granulocytes?
lymphocytes and monocytes
agranulocytes
lymphocytes and monocytes important in the specific immune response the body's targeted fight against particular pathogens primary responders against infection
self tolerance
lymphocytes unresponsive to own antigens preventing autoimmune disease
enzyme in nasal cavity that is able to attack peptidoglycan in walls of gram-positive bacteria?
lysozyme
what is the immunological function of lysozyme
lysozyme is an antimicrobial in tears and saliva
Codons
mRNA base triplets.
innate cells
macrophage mast cell granulocyte dendritic cell natural killer cellular cell
which are professional antigen presenting cells
macrophages dendritic cells B cells shorten epithelial cells
what is the immune response to a bacterial infection (extracellular pathogen)?
macrophages and other antigen presenting cells engulf the bacteria and subsequently release inflammatory mediators these cells also digest the bacterium and present antigens from pathogens on their surfaces in conjunction with MHC II cytokines attract inflammatory cells including neutrophils and additional macrophages mast cells are activated by inflammation and degranulate resulting in histamine release and increased leakness of the capillaries B cells produce correct antibody proliferate through the clonal selection to create plasma cells and memory cells antibodies then travel to the bloodstream and affected tissue where they tag the bacteria for Destruction by T cells
prokaryotic flagella
made of flagellin & consider of fillaments & hook
sarcomere structure
made thick and thin filaments contraction => Hzone, I band, and distance between Z line become smaller, A band remains constant (defined as total length fibers)
renal system mnemonic
major waste product excreted in the urine =d u m p the h u n k.
nucleic acid in virus
makes up all genetic information in virus - arranged non specifically
what is the biological function of gastrointestinal Flora
making it hard for bad bacteria to live in the intestines
penis
male external organ of reproduction :D
testes
male reproductive organ that produces sperm and hormones
testis
male reproductive organ that produces sperm and hormones
opsonized bacteria
marked with an antibody from a B cell
what is the correct order of early development milestones during embryogenesis?
marula -blastula -gastrula
what are the functions of mast cells
mast cells bind to substances and release inflammatory chemicals into the surrounding area to promote immune response
most connective tissue produce ?
material such as collegen and elastin to form the ecm
osteocytes
mature bone cells
positive selection
maturing only cells that respond to the presentation of an antigen MHC cells that cannot respond to MHC undergo apoptosis
viral genomes
may have single or double stranded DNA or RNA, size varies, linear or circular
ascending limb of the loop of henle
medullary concentration gradient
where do platelets come from
megakaryocytes in bone marrow
Parasites
microscopic organisms that take advantage (nourishment) from hosts & are harmful
mv
millivolt
haversian canals
minute spaces filled with blood vessels; found in compact bone longitudinal channels
M stage
mitosis and cytokinesis
lymphokines
molecules capable of of recruiting other immune cells and increasing their activity
Endorphins are
molecules that decrease the perception of pain
what are starches and other carbohydrates broken down to
monosaccharides
High penetrance
most but not all with the allele show symptoms of the disease/ corresponding phenotype
cillia and flagella
motile structures composed of microtubules
efferent neuron
motor neuron
Types of nerves (3)
motor, sensory, mixed
where does chemical digestion begin
mouth saliva digest food with enzymes
parts of digestive tract
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine rectum
what are the two major varieties of joints
movable joints movable joints
transcellular transport
movement of molecules through the cytoplasm of the epithelial cells
cell migration
movement of newly formed cells away from their point of origin
secretion
movement of solutes from blood to filtrate anywhere besides Bowman's capsule
filtration
movement of solutes from blood to filtrate at Bowman's capsule
reabsorption
movement of solutes from filtrate to blood
paracellular transport
movement of substances between epithelial cells
disruptive selection
movement towards both extremes with loss of the norm speciation may occur
directional selection
movement towards one extreme or the other due to selection
spindle apparatus
moves and organizes the chromosomes before cell division
what do mucous cells secrete
mucous
what protects the wall of the stomach from hydrochloric acid
mucus that is bicarbonate rich
nerve
multiple neurons serving a single function bundled together
monoamniotic
multiple pregnancy with one amniotic sac
monochorionic
multiple pregnancy with one chorionic sac
temporal summation
multiple signals are integrated during a relatively short period of time
intercostal muscles
muscles between the ribs
tp53
mutation in gene that produces p53 = cancer
translocation mutation
mutation in which one part of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another
frameshift mutation
mutation that shifts the "reading" frame of the genetic message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide
how do nephrons contribute to the bicarbonate buffer system
my increasing or decreasing the amount of hydrogen ions reabsorbed
sarcomeres are attached end-to-end to form
myofibrils
list the structures in the respiratory pathway from the air entrance to the nares of the a alveoli
nares nasal cavity pharynx lyrics trachea bronchi bronchioles alveoli
parts of the respiratory system
nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, left bronchus, right bronchus, upper love right lung, upper left lung, middle libe right lung, oblique fissure right lung, oblique fissure left lung, lower love left lung, lower libe right lung , aveoli
three parts of pharynx
nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
polymorphisms
naturally occurring differences in forms between members of the same population
what is the functional unit of the kidney
nephron
renal secretion
nephrons are also able to secrete salts acids bases and urea directly into the tubule the quantity and identity of the substance secreted into the Nephron is directly related to the needs of the body at that time
collecting duct
nephrotic duct collecting urine into the renal pelvis
what are the parts of the hypophyseal portal system?
nerve cells that regulate the posterior pituitary neurosecretory cells hypothalamus pituitary stalk artery oxytocin ADH FSH LH ACTH and TSH prolactin endorphins and GH capillary bed anterior pituitary portal vein artery 2
mixed nerves
nerves carrying both sensory and motor fibers
what is the difference between nerves and tracts?
nerves make carry more than one type of information tracts can only carry one type of information
ectoderm (outside)
nervous system and skin
reflex arcs
neural circuits that control reflexive behavior
postganglionic neuron
neurons of the autonomic nervous system that form synapses directly with their target organ
sensory neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
motor /efferent neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
what are the five types of white blood cells
neutrophils , lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils
what are the three types of granulocytes
neutrophils eosinophils and basophils
granulocytes
neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
what are the three types of granulocytes?
neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
what are granulocytes
neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils 3 cell types with tiny granules in their Interiors
granulocytes
neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils contain cytoplasmic granules that are toxic to invading microbes
incomplete regeneration
newly formed tissue is not identical in structure or function as tissue it replaces
do arteries contain valves
no
do capillaries contain smooth muscle
no
do capillaries contain valves
no
is Hardy Weinberg realistic
no
does gas exchange require energy?
no because the gradient between the blood and Air in the lungs is already present as the blood enters the lungs no energy is required for gas transfer
does an increase in stimulus results in an increase potential difference in action potential?
no, only an increase in frequency of firing
bone matrix
nonliving, structural part of bone where the strength comes from
natural killer cells
nonspecific lymphocytes able to detect the down-regulation of MHC and induce apoptosis
nonspecific immunity
nonspecific prevention of enterance of invaders into the body
NASAIDS
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs ( prevent side effects of inflammation caused by mast cells and basophils do to a reaction to an exterior Force)
tonus
normal, partially steady state of muscle contraction observed and smooth muscle
naive B cells
not exposed to antigen yet
sertoli cells
nourish developing sperm
astrocytes
nourish neurons and form the blood-brain barrier
what are the cell bodies of neurons in the same tract grouped into?
nuclei
what defense mechanism exist in the alveoli?
numerous immune cells and macrophages
O type blood can receive
o
bone remodeling
ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue
hemizygous
only one allele is present for a given Gene X in males
Hemizygous alleles
only one version X
major duodenal papilla
opening of the pancreatic duct into the duodenum
are projections above the skin are?
openings for sweat and sabaceous glands
functions of parasympathetic nervous system
opposite of sympathetic nervous system
trace the path of food through the body starting with the ingestion and ending with excretion of feces
oral cavity pharynx esophagus stomach small intestine and large intestine rectum
digestive tract parts
oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine
Peroxisomes
organelles containing oxidase - enzymes that detoxify alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and other harmful chemicals - whoes primary function is to break down very long chain fatty acids via ß oxidation & synthesis of phospholipids via PPP
kidneys are able to balance
osmolarity and pH
what type of pressure pulls fluid back into the vessels
osmotic
osmotic pressure
osmotic pressure of sucking by solutes to draw in water
bone forming cells
osteoblasts
cells that break down bone
osteoclasts
parietal pleura
outer layer of pleura lying closer to the ribs and chest wall
what is the renal cortex
outer portion of the kidney
chorion
outermost layer of the fetal membrane - develops into placenta
female gonads are
ovaries
where does estrogen come from?
ovaries
how to calculate allele frequencies
p+q=1 p= relative allele frequency for dominant allele q=relative allele frequency for recessive allele
SA node (sinoatrial node)
pacemaker of the heart
homozygous alleles
pair of alleles for a single gene which contain the same genetic information XX
bulbourethral glands
pair of exocrine glands near the male urethra
dimerization
pairing of two receptor-hormone complexes this causes the effects of hormones to the slower but longer lived
agnostic pairs
pairs of muscles in which one relaxes while the other contracts
a laceration cuts down into a layer of loose connective tissue of the skin which layer of the skin is this
papillary layer
what are the layers of dermis from superficial to Deep
papillary layer and reticular layer
capillary beds are ___ to each other
parallel
how are myofibrils arranged in a myocyte
parallel
what signals decrease heart rate
parasympathetic
why do we become lethargic after we eat
parasympathetic activity sense of blood from our brains into our digestive system
what part of the nervous system is responsible for the contraction of the detrusor muscle?
parasympathetic nervous system
what hormone activates vitamin D?
parathyroid hormone
what is the hormone produced by the parathyroid glands?
parathyroid hormone
where is parathyroid hormone produced?
parathyroids
Mitosis
part of eukaryotic cell division during which the cell nucleus divides into two identical daughter cells
langerhans cells
part of the immune system
Trachea (windpipe)
passageway for air to the bronchi
which muscles are involved in exhalation?
passive exhalation uses the recoil of the same muscles active exhalation uses the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles
milk production in males is always?
pathologic
polysynaptic reflex arc
pathway in which signals travel over many synapses on their way back to the muscle
what type of hormone is Prolactin?
peptide
what type of hormone is adrenocorticotropic hormone?
peptide
what type of hormone is antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)?
peptide
what type of hormone is arterial nature attic peptide?
peptide
what type of hormone is calcitonin?
peptide
what type of hormone is erythropoietin?
peptide
what type of hormone is follicle stimulating hormone?
peptide
what type of hormone is glucagon?
peptide
what type of hormone is growth hormone?
peptide
what type of hormone is luteinizing hormone?
peptide
what type of hormone is melatonin
peptide
what type of hormone is oxytocin?
peptide
what type of hormone is parathyroid hormone?
peptide
what type of hormone is somatostatin?
peptide
what type of hormone is thymosin?
peptide
what type of hormone is insulin?
peptide hormone
what are the main categories of hormones?
peptides steroids or peptide hormones definition? amino acid derivatives
growth factors
peptides that promote differentiation and mitosis in certain tissues
what does hematocrit measure
percentage of red blood cells in the blood
what does hematocrit measure
percentage of red blood cells in the blood normal is 13. 5 to 17. 5 for males for 12 to 16 for females 41-53%
what are the units of hematocrit
percentage points
amino peptidase
polypeptide digestion via removal of n terminal of amino acid from peptide
types of reflex arcs
polysynaptic and monosynaptic
hemizygous
possessing a gene on the X chromosome of a male where there is no equivalent on the Y chromosome
what produces oxytocin?
posterior pituitary
in a resting membrane potential Which is higher inside the cell?
potassium is much higher than sodium inside of a cell membrane at resting potential -net negative charge
what does the cardiac cycle diagram measure
pressure and volume over time
oncotic pressure
pressure attributed to plasma proteins which can draw in water
what governs the movement of solutes and fluid at the capillary level
pressure differentials
what tribes cardiac output through a given vascular resistance
pressure gradient across the circulatory system
prezygotic mechanisms
prevent formation of zygote physically
what is the function of IGA antibodies
prevent microbial attachment to mucous membranes
postzygotic mechanisms
prevent the zygote from developing into a fertile adult
what purpose does myelin provide
prevents signal loss or crossing of signals -maintains electrical signal within one neuron -increases speed of conduction
birth
process of being born -rythmic contractions -coordinated by prostaglandins & oxytocin -amniotic sac ruptures
what are B cells?
produce antibodies
melanocytes
produce melanin
oligodendrocytes
produce myelin in CNS
Schwann cells
produce myelin in PNS
neutral mutations
produce neither adverse or helpful changes
Leydig cells
produce testosterone
cilia
projections from cell surfaces that aid in locomotion and feeding
cell wall is found in
prokaryotes
transcription factors
promote transcription of genes required for the next stage of the cell cycle
what is the biological function of progesterone?
promotes and maintains the endometrium
vitamin D
promotes reabsorption of calcium from the bones into the blood
what is the biological function of atrial natriuretic peptide
promotes salt and water excretion
what is the immunological function of cilia
propelling the mucus upward so that it can be swallowed or expelled
Crossing over occurs during
prophase I of meiosis I.
recombination frequency
proportional to the distance between the genes on the chromosome
albumin
protein in blood; maintains the proper amount of water in the blood
flagellin
protein that makes up flagella
endogenous pathway
proteins bind to and tag invaded cells for T cells to kill
what is the immunological function of complement
proteins in the blood that create holes in bacteria
defensins and cathelicidins
proteins that destroy bacteria, viruses and fungi secreted by keratinocytes, neutrophils and macrophages
synaptonemal complex
proteins that hold together homologous chromosomes
The cytoskeleton
provides -a series of tracks along which vesicles move -structural support for the cell made up of microtubules , microfilaments & intermidiate fillaments
what does the vagus nerve do to the cardiac muscle
provides parasympathetic outflow to the heart and slows the heart rate
edema
puffy swelling of tissue from the accumulation of fluid
after exercise what is lactic acid converted back to
pyruvate which enters the citric acid cycle
functions of cortisol and corticosterone
raise blood glucose by increasing gluconeogenesis decreasing inflammation cortisol is also a stress hormone released during times of emotional stress
purpose of nodes of ranvier
rapid signal conduction
ascending loop of henle
reabsorbs Na+ and Cl- from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid impermeable to water
in the nephron amino acids enter the Vasa recta via the process of
reabsorption
descending limb of the loop of henle
reabsorption of water continues through channels formed by aquaporin proteins
descending loop of henle
reabsorption of water into body from kidney
recipient female -
received plasmid from donor male +via sex pills
anterior pituitary
receives ,& stores two hormones ADH & oxytocin
thoracic duct
receives lymph from the left side of the head, neck, chest, abdomen, left arm, and lower extremities
thoracic duct
receives lymph from the rest of the body me
dormant allele
recessive non Express version of a gene
how do larger fast enter the bloodstream
remove separately into the intestinal cells but then reform into triglycerides and then package into chylomicrons entering a lymphatic system enter through the thoracic duct to fuel the heart muscle
what is the sequence that shows the passage of blood through the vessels of the kidney
renal artery afferent arterioles glomerulus efferent arterioles Vasa recta renal vein
what controls aldosterone
renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
lysogenic cycle
replicates the phage genome without destroying the host
supraspinal circuits
require input from brain/brainstem
obligate aerobes
require oxygen
Pacinian corpuscles
respond to deep pressure and vibration
ruffini endings
respond to stretch
calcitonin
response to high blood calcium levels encourages bone reabsorption of calcium
parasympathetic nervous
rest and digest
all neurons exhibit?
resting membrane potential
determinate cleavage
results in cells that are committed to differentiating into a specific cell type
indeterminate cleavage
results in cells that can still develop into complete organisms
superior vena cava
returns blood from the portions of the body above the heart
hypoxia will shift the bicarbonate buffer system to the?
right according to the Le chatelier's principle
make a sentence consisting of the pathway of blood through the heart from the deoxygenated vena cava to the oxygenated capillaries
right atrium, ( tricuspid valve ) right ventricle (pulmonary valve) pulmonary artery lungs GAS EXCHANGE pulmonary veins left atrium (material valve) left ventricle (aortic valve) aorta arteries arterioles capillaries GAS EXCHANGE venules veins vena cava right atrium
intermidiate filaments
rods that anchor the nucleus and some other organelles to their places in the cell
lateral rotation
rotation away from the midline
fundus
rounded upper portion of the stomach
M lines
runs down center of sarcomere
which four organs provide enzymes and lubrication necessary to Aid digestion of food
salivary glands pancreas liver gallbladder
accessory organs of digestion
salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
function of the distal convoluted tubules
salt reabsorption
the cell membrane of a myocyte is known as the
sarcolemma
Adrenal medulla secretes which hormones?
secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine
hypophysis (pituitary gland)
secretes growth and reproduction hormones. Also secretes neurotransmitters.
what is the function of the pineal gland
secretes melatonin and is involved in circadian rhythms
what is the function of a mucous cell
secretes mucus
what is the function of a chief cell
secretes pepsinogen
what does the somatic nervous system consist of?
sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin joints and muscles -Sensory neurons transmit information through aferret fiber
mast cells
similar to basophils mediating allergic response smaller than basophils release large amounts of histamine
kidney filtration
simple diffusion depending on starling forces; filtration coefficient (kf) depends on area of capillary available for diffusion and permeability of capillary membrane; filtration based on size molecules are cells that are larger than glomerular pours will remain in the blood
types of epithelial tissue (layers)
simple, stratified, psudostratified
what type of biological function do T3 and T4 serve?
simulate metabolic activity
Chiasma
site of crossing over
what kind of muscle is always Polly nucleated
skeletal
what kind of muscle is voluntary
skeletal
what kind of muscle is striated
skeletal and cardiac
what kind of muscle exhibits myogenic activity
skeletal and smooth
external anal sphincter
skeletal muscle, voluntary
external urethral sphincter
skeletal muscle, voluntary
what are the three types of muscle
skeletal, cardiac, smooth
what is the largest organ in the body
skin
what is the immunological function of skin?
skin provides a physical barrier and secretes antimicrobial enzymes
atrial kick
slight pause of impulse between SA and AV so the blood has time to push into the ventricles
are pancreatic juices basic or acidic
slightly basic
increase length of the axon causes __ . greater cross-sectional area allows____ propagation
slower movement faster
Joint cavity (synovial cavity)
small amount of synovial fluid which lubricates and bears weight
lacunae
small cavities in bone that contain osteocytes
where are vitamins absorbed
small intestine
where do bile salts carry out their function
small intestine
lacteals
small lymphatic vessels center villus in small intestine transport for chylomicrons (packaged fats)
glomerulus
small network of capillaries encased in the upper end of a nephron; where the filtration of blood takes place
parathyroid glands
small pea-like organs that regulate calcium and phosphate balance in blood, bones, and other tissues
venules
small veins
blood clots
small, insoluble particles of clotted blood and clotting factors composed of proteins and platelets and minimize blood loss
arterioles
smallest arteries
Bronchioles
smallest branches of the bronchi
what kind of muscle is always uni nucleated
smooth
what type of muscle is innervated by the autonomic nervous system
smooth and cardiac
internal anal sphincter
smooth muscle involuntary
myogenic activity
smooth muscle contraction without nervous system input directly in response to other stimuli
why are hormones Amplified?
so less hormone is needed to cause and effect
why don't red blood cells have a mitochondria
so they don't metabolize the oxygen they carry before delivering it to peripheral tissues
yellow marrow
soft, fatty material found in the medullary cavity of long bones
synaptic cleft/gap
space between neuron and effector membranes
evolutionary time
spans many generations and captures adaptation through natural selection
lipoteichoic acid
spans the peptidoglycan layer and is linked to the plasma membrane (prokaryotes)
Purkinje fibers
specialized conductive fibers located within the walls of the ventricles
lacteals
specialized lymph vessels in the small intestine that absorb fat into the bloodstream
isolation
species becomes different because of physical separation from other groups they could mate with
divergent evolution
species with common ancestor become less similar overtime
parallel evolution
species with common ancestor remained similar overtime because of similar evolutionary pressure
blood antigens
specific Target Proteins found on the erythrocyte cell surface. Three antigens (A, B, and Rh) are used to differentiate blood groups.
spermatozoa
sperm cells
kinetochore fibers
spindle fibers that extend from centrosome to centromere
spirilli
spiral shaped bacteria -eg syphilis
Dipeptidase
splits dipeptides into amino acids
Dipeptidase
splits dipeptides into amino acids enzyme
metastasis
spread of cancer cells beyond their original site in the body
neural crest cells
spread out throughout the body, differentiating into many different tissues
positive sense RNA
ssRNA genomes ready for immediate translation (by virus)
negative sense RNA
ssRNA genomes that must be converted into proper form (viral genome) -need rna replicase
gram positive
stains purple, more peptidoglycan
what type of hormone is testosterone?
steroid
what type of hormone are mineralocorticoids?
steroids
phrenic nerves
stimulate the diaphragm and cause it to contract
what is the biological function of thymosin?
stimulates T Cell development
what is the biological function of erythropoietin
stimulates bone marrow to produce erythrocytes
p what action does follicle-stimulating hormone cause?
stimulates follicle maturation in females spermatogenesis in males
thymosin
stimulates the maturation of lymphocytes into T cells of the immune system
what is the biological function of growth hormone?
stimulating bone and muscle growth raising blood glucose levels
what is the biological function of glucagon?
stimulating glycogen breakdown increasing blood glucose
what action does prolactin cause?
stimulating milk production and secretion
what action does luteinizing hormone cos?
stimulating ovulation in females testosterone synthesis in males
what is the biological function of adrenocorticotropic hormone?
stimulating the thyroid to produce thyroid hormones
what is the biological function of oxytocin?
stimulating uterine contractions during labor and milk secretion during lactation May promote bonding Behavior
what biological function does antidiuretic hormone serve?
stimulating water reabsorption in the kidneys by increasing permeability of collecting duct
gallbladder
stores and concentrates bile
gallbladder as
stores and concentrates bile
urinary bladder
stores urine
what are the three strata of the epidermis
stratum basale(base) stratum spinosum stratum granulosum stratum lucidum stratum corneum (conquers top layer)
cardiac output
stroke volume x heart rate
what is a Nephron
structural and functional units that form urine
Tetrad
structure containing 4 chromatids that forms during meiosis
chorionic sac
structure that is normally found within the uterus and contains the developing embryo
where does air flow regarding pressure?
sucked from areas of higher pressure into areas of lower pressure
osmotic pressure
sucking pressure that draws water into the vasculature caused by dissolved particles
Griffith experiment
suggests that bacteria is capable of transferring genetic information in which heat killed by rheumat bacteria mixed with live nonvirulent bacteria was still capable of killing an organism because the bedroom at strains transfer their informations to the nonvirulent strains
what is tetanus
summation of multiple simple Twitches that occurred too quickly for the muscle to relax this leads to a stronger and more prolonged contraction of the muscle
where is the thymus located?
superior mediastinum
trabeculae
supporting bundles of bony fibers in cancellous (spongy) bone
glucorticoid therapy
suppresses T cells that respond to self antigens call the negative selection naturally B cells that respond to self antigens are eliminated before they leave the bone marrow however some are allowed to survive causing autoimmune diseases and hypersensitivity to inert substances
what is the biological function of somatostatin?
suppresses secretion of glucagon and insulin
what allows for self-tolerance
suppressor T cells
what covers a alveoli
surfactant a detergent that allows surface tension and prevents a violi's from collapsing
trophoblast cells
surround the blastocoel and give rise to the chorion and later the placenta
what are some mechanisms the body uses to cool itself
sweating and vasodilation
what produces vitamin K in the body ?
symbiotic bacteria
what signal speed up the heart rate
sympathetic
what are the two types of summation
temporal and spatial
genetic linkage
tendency for genes located close together on the same chromosome to be inherited together
stabilizing selection
tendency towards middle loss of extremes
The male gonads are the _____.
testes
where is testosterone produced?
testes
what are the male endocrine organs?
testes pancreas adrenal glands thyroid gland pineal gland hypothalamus pituitary and parathyroid glands
all five of the criteria of Hardy Weinberg principle are required to imply what characteristic of the study population
that it is not undergoing evolution does allele frequencies remain stable over time
what effect allows oxygen to be dissipated more readily into the tissues while we exercise
the Bohr effect aka the stabilization effects that allow 02 to be released by hemoglobin More readily due to the decrease in pH an increase in temperature
how to remember the epidermis is on the outside and the hypodermis is on the inside?
the EPI pen stabs into the epidermis=top layer the DEEP layer comes next=dermis Hypo means below=hypodermis bottom layer
SRY gene is located on
the Y chromosome
inhalation
the act of taking in air as the diaphragm contracts and pulls downward
oxygen debt
the amount of oxygen required after physical exercise to convert accumulated lactic acid to glucose
what is the change in permeability as the descending limb transitions into the assembling limb of the loop of henle?
the ascending limb is only permeable to salt the descending limb is only permeable to water (on the way down water is removed on the way up salt is removed)
Duterostomes
the blastopore forms the anus and the mouth is formed secondarily -******** since day 1
what occurs if the blood pH rises above 7. 45 alkalemia?
the body will seek to increase acidity the respiratory rate will be slowed to increase carbon dioxide Shifting the buffer equation to the right lowering the pH
what does the central nervous system consist of?
the brain spinal cord and optic nerves
what is extracellular digestion
the breakdown of the foods we eat into the molecules our cells can metabolize for energy
gas exchange in the alveoli
the capillaries bring deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary arteries which originated at the right ventricle of the heart carbon dioxide diffuses down its partial pressure gradient from the capillaries into the alveoli for expiration O2 in the alveoli flows down the partial pressure gradient from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries where it binds to hemoglobin for transport
what portion of the nervous system would not be affected by the death of Schwann cells?
the central nervous system because Schwann cells only create myelination in the peripheral nervous system
marrow cavity
the central, internal cavity of the bones
what is dialysis
the clinical purification of blood by dialysis, as a substitute for the normal function of the kidney. precursor to kidney transplant
what is the danger in deep vein thrombosis
the clot May dislodge and travel through the right heart to the lungs where it can cause a pulmonary embolism
micturition reflex
the communication between stretch receptors and the nervous system leading to parasympathetic neuron fire detrusor muscle contraction this muscle contraction causes internal sphincter to relax
Define osmolarity
the concentration of a solution expressed as the total number of solute particles per liter.
test cross
the crossing of an individual of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual to determine the unknown genotype
expressivity
the degree to which a trait is expressed
Synovium (synovial membrane)
the dense connective-tissue membrane that secretes synovial fluid and that lines the ligamentous surfaces of articular capsules, tendon sheaths where free movement is necessary, and bursae
vital capacity
the difference between the minimum and the maximum volume of the air in the lungs
what part of the Nephron removes excess water during periods of over-hydration
the diluting segment of the loop of henle
how does negative pressure breathing work?
the driving force of negative pressure breathing is the lower (negative pressure) in the intra pleural space compared with outdide the lungs sucks in the air from outside
degranulation
the emptying of granules from the interior of a mast cell into the extracellular environment.
origin
the end of the muscle with the larger attachment to the Bone
Epiphysis
the end part of a long bone, initially growing separately from the shaft.
decidua
the endometrium of the uterus during pregnancy
which contributes most to linear growth
the epiphysis contributes most to linear growth of the bone
menarche
the first menstrual period
preganglionic neuron
the first neuron in a series that transmits impulses from the CNS
intermembrane space
the fluid filled space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes
cerebrospinal fluid
the fluid in and around the brain and spinal cord
mitochondrial matrix
the fluid that is inside the inner membrane of a mitochondrion
blastocoel
the fluid-filled cavity inside a blastula
which fetal shunt connects the two chambers of the heart?
the foramen ovale
speciation
the formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.
where is arterial naturepedic peptide produced?
the heart
what prevents the lungs from collapsing completely on recoil?
the indirect connection of the lungs and the chest wall surfactant
what occurs as you breathe in?
the intercostal muscles expand the thoracic cavity and the diaphragm flattens of the chest wall expands outwards the volume of the cavity dust increases because the intrapleural space closely above the chest wall its volume increases first
saltatory conduction
the jumping of action potentials from node to node
what does the speed of the action potential depend on?
the links and cross-sectional area of the Axon
bile salts are a product of
the liver
total lung capacity
the maximum volume of air in the lungs when one inhales completely usually around 7 to 6
fertilization membrane
the membrane that forms around a fertilized ovum and prevents penetration by additional spermatozoon
pharynx
the membrane-lined cavity behind the nose and mouth, connecting them to the esophagus.
residual volume
the minimum volume of air in the lungs when one exhales completely
what occurs in secretion
the movement of solutes from blood into filtrate anywhere besides Bowman's capsule
what occurs infiltration
the movement of solutes from blood to filtrate at Bowman's capsule
what occurs in reabsorption
the movement of solutes from filtrate back into the blood
upper esophageal sphincter
the muscular ring located at the top of the esophagus
enteric nervous system
the nervous system of the digestive tract these neurons are present in the walls of the digestive tract they trigger peristalsis
postsynaptic neuron
the neuron on the receiving end of the synapse
what do the numbers 3 & 4 mean in thyroid hormone ?
the numbers 3 & 4 refer to the number of Iodine atoms attached to the tyrosine
blastopore
the open end of the archenteron
synovial capsule
the outermost layer of strong fibrous tissue that resembles a sleeve as it surrounds the joint
what is the link between pH and enzyme activity in the body
the pH of that region of digestive system is correlated to the pH at which enzymes in that system function best
tetrads
the paired chromosomes consisting of four chromatids
synapsis
the pairing & crossing /mixing of homologous chromosomes during meiosis
the percent saturation of oxygen in the blood allows us to know what?
the percentage of oxygen that has been released into the tissues
afterbirth
the plancenta expelled after delivery of the newborn
what is the second neuron in the automatic nervous system called?
the postganglionic neuron
what occurs if the neuron has aligand gated ION channel?
the postsynaptic cell will either be depolarized or hyperpolarized
what is the first neuron in the automatic nervous system called?
the preganglionic neuron
hydrostatic pressure
the pressure that the blood exerts against the vessel walls
Gene mapping
the process of determining the locus for a particular biological trait.
outbreeding
the process of mating less closely related individuals when compared to the average of the population
chyme
the pulpy acidic fluid that passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food.
what is the difference in the total volume passing through either side of the heart per cardiac output
the same give me a
X chromosome
the sex chromosome found in both men and women
Y chromosome
the sex chromosome found only in males
how does the skin help maintain osmolarity
the skin is relatively impermeable to water and prevent entrance of water and loss of water
what does cholera affect
the small intestine which absorbs a much larger volume of water causing volumes of watery diarrhea
detrusor muscle
the smooth muscle layers of the bladder
mitochondrial matrix
the space inside the inner membrane of a mitochondrion
what tissue produces synovial fluid
the synovium
vagus nerve
the tenth cranial nerve that innervates digestive organs, heart and other areas
MHC class 1 molecules
the text *intracellular pathogens and tags them
what is the source of T3 and T4?
the thyroid /follicular cells
what does absorption involve
the transport of products of digestion from the digestive tract into the circulatory system for distribution to the body's tissues and cells
Mendels law of segregation
the two copies of a gene segregate from each other during transmission from parent to offspring randomly
how is fluid balance maintained within the bloodstream
the two pressure gradients are essential for maintaining the proper balance of fluid volume and solute concentrations between the blood and the interstitium and hydrostatic and oncotic pressure
what is the effect of injecting insulin for a diabetic?
the uptake of sugar into storage forming fat and muscle converting glucose and storing it as glycogen for later use
what controls parasympathetic reactions
the vagus nerve
what do the gastric glands of the stomach respond to
the vagus nerve
Dicuspid valve
the valve that separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary circulation
what controls the amount of oxygen and CO2 in the blood?
the ventilation Center The akima receptors that are sensitive to carbon dioxide concentration
what mechanism does the respiratory system use to prevent infection?
the vibrissae in the nares lysozyme in the mucous membranes mucociliary escalator macrophages in the lungs IGA antibodies mast cells
what is the immune response to viral infection (intracellular pathogen)
the virally infected cell will begin to produce interferons which reduce the permeability of nearby cells and reduce the rate of transcription and translation in the cells and causes systemic symptoms an intracellular proteins on their surface in conjunction with MHC 1 and if I really infected sell at least some of the intracellular proteins will be viral proteins CDA plus T cells will recognize the MHC 1 antigen complex and destroy the cell via apoptosis memory T-cells will be generated
exploratory Reserve volume
the volume of additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after normal exhalation
inspiration Reserve volume
the volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after normal inhalation
tidal volume
the volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath
in which segment of the Nephron is sodium not actively transported out of the Nephron
then portion of the ascending limb of henle
endosymbiotic theory
theory that eukaryotic cells formed from a symbiosis among several different prokaryotic organisms thet later became organelles
what occurs if the concentration is the same in the tubule and in the interstitium?
there will be no driving radiant and the water will be lost in urine
squamos epithelial cells
these are flat nucleated cells which slough off from the lining of the urethra.
what are triiodothyronine and thryroxine composed of?
they are both produced by iodination of the amino acid tyrosine in the follicular cells of the thyroid
in what direction do capillaries carry blood
they are the tubes between arterioles and venules they carry oxygenated blood from arterioles into the tissue and then they carry deoxygenated blood from the tissue to the veiens
what occurs when thyroid hormones decrease the sensitivity to the anterior pituitary to trh?
they decrease the TSH secretion
why do non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen naproxen and aspirin cause stomach bleeds
they disrupt the mucus production within the stomach leaving the mucosal of the stomach unprotected
how do trophic hormones work?
they do not cause direct changes in the physiology of muscle bone or hair follicles instead they stimulate the production of another hormone by another endocrine gland that acts on these Target tissues
how can fatty acids diffuse directly into capillaries
they do not require Transporters because they are nonpolar easily transfer sing the cellular membrane
why can't red blood cells carry out oxidative phosphorylation and generate ATP
they don't have mitochondria
how do bile salts work
they facilitate chemical digestion of lipids via emulsification of fats because they have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions
why can't red blood cells divide
they lack nuclei
why can't maternal and Fetal blood mix?
they may have different blood types
how do the lungs fill?
they require skeletal muscle to generate the negative pressure for expansion
how do puffer fish kill you?
they secrete a toxin TTX which blocks the voltage-gated na plus channels blocking neuronal transmission rapidly causing death because frenetic nerves innervating the diaphragm can no longer depolarize leading to paralysis of the muscle and cessation of breathing
when is the stratum lucidum present
thick hairless skin such as sole of foot
diluting segment
thick part of ascending loop of Henle
neural folds
thickening of tissue on either side of neural groove
Chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
How many pairs of salivary glands do we have
three
how is cardiac muscle able to Define and maintain its own rhythm
through my agenda connectivity
what peptide orgen facilitates the maturation of T cells?
thymosin
where is thymosin from?
thymus
What is the TSH hormone?
thyroid stimulating hormone
what hormone controls the thyroid?
thyroid stimulating hormone
myofibril
tightly packed filament bundles found within skeletal muscle fibers
latent period
time between application of a stimulus and the beginning of a response in a muscle fiber
Synapses
tiny gaps between dentrites and axons of different neurons
alveoli
tiny sacs of lung tissue specialized for the movement of gases between air and blood
parts of prokarytotic flagella(in order)
tip fillament junction hook l ring rod p ring cell wall stator Ms ring c ring type 3 secretion system
why are capillaries so thin
to allow both gas exchange & materials can pass through them
why does cardiac muscle have intercalated discs with many Gap Junctions?
to allow connections between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells -glowing for the flow of ions directly between cells -allowing rapid coordinated muscle cell depolarization -and efficient contraction
what is the function of the peripheral nervous system?
to connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
why are red blood cells flat
to increase the cell's surface area for gas exchange
what is the purpose of insulin?
to lower blood glucose levels after a meal
what is the purpose of glucagon?
to raise blood glucose levels during periods of fasting using degradation of protein and fat conversion of glycogen to glucose
what are the four parts of galt?
tonsils and adenoids in the head peyer's patches & appendix in the intestines
what does a spirometer measure?
total lung capacity residual volume vital capacity tidal volume expiratory Reserve volume inspiratory Reserve volume
a tumor is removed from a patient that appears to contain tissues that resemble placenta hair thyroid tissue and cardiac muscle what is the likely potency of the cells from which the tumor or originated?
totipotent
Merkel cells
touch receptors
meissners Corpuscles
touch receptors
afferent
toward
virulence factors
traits of a microbe that promote pathogenicity (can be carried by plasmids)
common morphogens
transforming growth factor beta (TGF beta), sonic hedgehog(Shh), epidermal growth factor (EGF)
donor male +
transmits plasmid to female - via sex pili
ejaculatory duct
tube through which semen enters the male urethra
acrosomal apparatus
tubelike structure with extends the exterior of the egg allowing the sperm to dump nutrients into the egg
Vas diferens
tubes that connect epididymis to the seminal vesicle, mature sperm travel through these to urethra
p53
tumor suppressor gene that controls cell division and apoptosis (G2/M checkpoint)
Meiosis I produces _____ cells, each of which is _____.
two ... haploid
homologues
two copies of each chromosome
unlinked Gene
two loci are far apart, so a chiasma always occurs between them during the first meiotic division - genetic distance cannot be established - syntectic, but NOT linked
seminal vesicles
two small glands that secrete a fluid rich in sugar that nourishes and helps sperm move
convergent evolution
two species with no recent ancestor become more similar due to evolutionary pressure
macrophages
type of agranulocyte resides within the tissues derived from blood-borne monocytes
cell mediated immunity
type of immunity produced by T cells that attack infected or abnormal body cells
a type of blood can receive
types A and O
with what speed are peptide hormones onset?
typically quick
with what speed do steroid hormones on set?
typically slow
eukaryotic organisns can be either ?
unicellular or multicellular
gray matter
unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies
stem cells
unspecialized cell that can give rise to one or more types of specialized cells
how do we breathe out CO2
upon reaching the alveolar capillaries in the lungs the same reactions that led to the formation of the proton and bicarbonate ion are reversed allowing us to breathe out carbon dioxide
function of collecting duct
urine concentration and blood pressure
Retroviruses
use reverse transcriptase to copy their RNA genome into DNA
dynein arms
uses energy from ATP to crawl up the adjacent pari of microtubules
how do humans thermoregulate?
using capillaries and sweat glands on the skin and rapid muscle contraction (shivering)
how do vaccines work?
vaccines inherit dead or weakened pathogens and use the immune response called secondary response to create a more rapid and robust reaction to the virus
parturition
vaginal childbirth
what slows down heart rate
vagus nerve controlled by parasympathetic signals
why does vitamin D require parathyroid hormone?
vitamin D synthesis requires absorption of calcium and phosphate in the gut increasing blood calcium levels with little effect on phosphate
interventricular septum
wall that separates ventricles
Loop of Henle (nephron loop)
waste products are actively secreted into filtrate from blood maximum reabsorption of water
function of distal convoluted tubule
we absorb more water
secondary response
well B cells approximately die in 7 Days the plasma cells memory will last a lifetime of the organism the memory cells jump into action if the microbe is ever encountered again
what is negative feedback?
when a hormone or product later in the pathway inhibits the hormones or enzymes earlier in the pathway
bottlenecks
when a population's size is reduced for at least one generation causing inbreeding causing increased genetic similarities between offspring
maximal response
when all the muscle fibers are stimulated to contract simultaneously
when is glucagon secreted?
when blood glucose is low
inbreeding depression
when individuals with similar genotypes - typically relatives - breed with each other and produce offspring that have an impaired ability to survive and reproduce
what is an allergic reaction?
when mast cells react to inert substances such as pollen and mold and provide inflammatory chemicals causing an allergic reaction
Diffusion of neurotransmitters out of the Synaptic Cleft
when neurotransmitter diffuses out
how are action potentials propagated down an axon?
when proximal sodium channels open and depolarize the membrane including neighboring sodium channels open up as well because of the refractory character of these channels the action potential can move in Only One Direction
hypersensitivity reactions
when the body over reacts hostilely 2 non harmful substances such as pet dander or pollen causing an exaggerated immune response
when do edemas occur
when the lymphatic system is overwhelmed
what determines the structures MZ twins share ?
when the separation occurred
divergent evolution
when two or more species sharing a common ancestor become more different over time
metaphysis
where diaphysis and epiphysis meet
innercell mass
where embryonic stem cells are; lots of telomerase - gives rise to organisms itself
what does the percentage of white blood cells in blood volume tell us
whether or not a patient is fighting an infection 1% = healthy individual
from which layer does notochord form
while the neural tube forms from ectoderm the notochord itself is mesoderm
chyle
white or pale yellow substance in lymph that contains fatty substances absorbed by the lacteals
ampulla
widest part of fallopian tube where fertilization occurs
example of polysynaptic reflex arc
withdrawal reflex
where would you look on the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve to determine the amount of oxygen that has been delivered to the tissues
y values give the percent of o2 saturation
jaundice
yellowing of the skin and the whites of the eyes caused by an accumulation of bile pigment (bilirubin) in the blood
do arteries contain smooth muscle
yes
do veins contain smooth muscle
yes
do veins contain valves
yes
how does aldosterone increase blood pressure?
you're altering the ability of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct to reabsorb sodium when sodium is reabsorbed water is reabsorbed with it The increased volume of blood increases blood pressure
