MCAT BIOLOGY 18'

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*Dump* the *HUNK*

*H*+ *U*rea *N*H3 *K*+

charge of sodium

+1

phases of menstral cycle

,1. follicular phase, 2. ovulation phase, 3. luteal phase 4. menstral phase

name four functions of the liver

- Control Infections - Remove bacteria and toxins from the blood - Process nutrients, hormones, and drugs - Make proteins that regulate blood

ripped jeans Q in or have a combination frequency of 2% jeans R & S have a recombination of 6% jeans S & T have a recombination frequency of 23% and jeans q & t every combination of 19% then what is the order of these four genes in the chromosome

- SQ RT

lower esophageal sphincter (cardiac sphincter)

- allow esophagus --> stomach - prevent stomach --> esophagus (why it's called heartburn)

endoderm (interior)

- develops into the lining of the digestive and respiratory systems

what are the two functional roles of extracellular digestion

- digestion -absorption

what triggers determination ?

- inducers - presence of specific mRNA -morphogens ,

dynien

- microtubule motor that moves from (+) to (-) - using 1 atp per step

foramen ovale (fetal shunt)

- one way valve - connects the right atrium to the left atrium -bypassing lungs

Penetrance and Expressivity

- penetrance is the percentage of individuals in the population carrying the allele - expressivity is the degree to which the phenotype associated with the genotype is expressed in individuals who carry the allele - both can be affected

kinetochore

- protein that attaches a chromosome to the spindle in cell division - located at centromere

puberty (g)

- the period of sexual maturation, -hypothalmus releases GNRh -triggering anterior pituitary -synthedizing fsh & LH - triggering production of other sex hormones maintsing reproductive system

the blastocyst consists of what two noteworthy cell groups

- trophoblast -inner cell mas

Why aren't viruses considered living?

- viruses cannot reproduce on their own without a host.

name three things that are true regarding adult stem cells?

-. they are less controversial than embryonic stem cells - they require treatment with various transcription factors -there is a reduced risk of rejection if patients own stem cells are used

how many directions can information flow in a neuron?

-1 -from dendrite to synaptic button

charge of potassium

-1 relative to sodium

how many ions of Na + are moved out of the cell for every 2K plus ions moved into the cell

-3 na + ions are moved out of the cell for every 2 k+ ions moved into the cell -Na+ equals 3 OUT=3 -K + equals 2 IN= 2

archea

-3rd domain of unicellular life -visually similar to prokarya -genes similar to eukarya

what is the depolarization threshold of a neuron?

-55 to -45 MV

epithelial tissue

-A body tissue that covers the surfaces of the body, inside and out -involved in absobtion, secretion & sensation -tightly connected to each other & basement membrane

Mitosis

-A process of asexual reproduction in eukaryotic cells - in which two identical daughter cells are produced by a single cell -occurs in somatic cells

endothelial cells

-Epithelia cells -line blood vessels

Dichorionic/diamniotic twins

-have their own chorion & amnion

sinoatrial (SA) node

-the pacemaker; -highly specialized, neurological tissue impeded in the wall of the right atrium; -responsible for initiating electrical conduction of the heartbeat, -causing the atria to contract and firing conduction of impulses to the AV node

puberty (male,)

-the period of sexual maturation, - testosterone produced by testis - fsh& LH are stimulated -secibdy secusl characteristics develop

Puberty (girls)

-the period of sexual maturation, -estrogen release -secondary effects (boobs /butt) -menarchy -progesterone secreated from follicle (corpus luteium)

Gastrulation

-the process in which a gastrula develops from a blastula by the inward migration of cells -post implantation

dizygotic twins

-the result of two separate eggs fertilized by two sperm; - also called fraternal twins -no more similar than siblings

how many nuclei are found in a cardiac muscle cell

1-2

what are the main functions of the liver

1. Carbohydrate metabolism 2. Lipid metabolism 3. Protein metabolism 4. Processing of drugs and hormones 5. Excretion of bilirubin 6. Synthesis of bile salts 7. Storage 8. Phagocytosis 9. Production of vitamin D 10. processing nutrients 11. detoxification

what are the 3 Humps in the EKG

1. P bump(0.0/0.8) 2. PQR an s peeks (0.1/0.9) 3. t bump (0.3-0.4)

path of deoxygenated blood through the heart lungs and back into the circulatory system

1. Superior and inferior vena cava to right atrium 2. right ventricle into pulmonary arteries 3. gas exchange in the lungs 4. pulmonary veins two left ventricle to left atrium 5. into the aorta 6. up to the brain and arms and down to the descending aorta

initiation does muscle contraction part 2

1. depolarization triggers and action potential 2. which spreads down the sarcolemma to the T tubules w 3. which travel to the muscle tissues to the sarcoplasmic reticulum 4. once reached CA 2 + is released 5. triggering a change in confirmation of tropomyosin exposing myocincebinding sites

pancreas serves what two functions

1. endocrine functions = release of insulin glucagon and somatostatin 2. exocrine functions= production of digestive juices

what are the three processes by which solutes are exchanged between filtrate and the blood?

1. filtration 2. secretion 3. reabsorption

what three ways does calcitonin decrease calcium plasma levels?

1. increase calcium secretion from the kidneys 2. decrease calcium absorption from the gut 3. increase calcium storage in the bone

viral life cycle

1. infection 2.translation + progeny assembly 3. progeny release 4. lytic + lysogenic cycles

what are the three possible responses for antibodies secreted into bodily fluids

1. opsonization 2.agglutination 3. neutralization

basic tenants of evolution

1. organisms produce Offspring few of which survive to reproduce maturity 2. transfer stations within individuals in a population may be heritable if they give a slight survival Advantage they are favorable 3. individuals with greater preponderance for these favorable variations are more likely to survive and have increased Fitness

while epithelial cells contribute to the organs _____ connective tissue contribute ____

1. parachyma 2. stroma

purposes of cortical reaction

1. prevents multiple fertilization 2. increasesCa+ concentration increasing zygote metabolic rate

renal structures in order

1. proximal convoluted tubule 2 . decending Loop of henle 3. loop of henle 4. ascending loop of henle 5. distal convoluted tubule 6. collecting duct

how many liters does the kidney filter per day

180

how does impulse propagation work?

1sodium rushes into one segment of the Axon 2 it will cause depolarization in the surrounding regions of the Axon 3 this depolarization will subsequently bring segments of the axon to threshold 4 opening the sodium channels in those segments 5 each of these segments then continues through the rest of the action potential in a wave-like function until the action potential reaches the nerve terminal

what signal does the AV node send

2 ND contraction the signal is delayed from the SA node to the AV node to allow the intervals to fill completely before they contract

how long is the small intestine

20 feet

How many checkpoints are there in the cell cycle?

3

How many pairs of spinal nerves make up the peripheral nervous system?

31 spinal nerves and 10 of the 12 pairs of cranial nerves

Wobble site

3rd nucleotide of codon, GGG=GGU

Meiosis II produces

4 haploid cells

the entire volume of a person's blood is filtered about every?____ by the kidneys

40 minutes

what fraction of the population has a heterozygous genotype

42%

what fraction of the population has a homozygous recessive genotype

49%

tidal volume formula

5-7mL/ Kg of body weight

what fraction of the population has a dominant phenotype

51%

what is the composition of blood

55% plasma, 45% cells

how many signals per minute does the SA node generate with out kneading neurological input

60 to 100

rhythm of SA node

60-100 bpm

what is the normal partial pressure of oxygen in the blood

70-100 mmhg

prokaryotic ribosomes

70S (30S and 50S)

Eukaryotic ribosomes

80S (40S and 60S)

structure of centrioles

9 tripplets of microtubles around a hollow center

range of normal blood pressure

90/60-120/80

low levels of camp

A bacterium growing on sucrose, a usable carbon source, will have:

glomerulus

A ball of capillaries surrounded by Bowman's capsule in the nephron and serving as the site of filtration in the vertebrate kidney.

missense mutation

A base-pair substitution that results in a codon that codes for a different amino acid.

deep vein thrombosis (DVT)

A blood clot in a deep vein, most often an extremity

exoskeleton

A body covering, typically made of chitin, that provides support and protection found in arthropods

cell membrane

A cell structure that controls which substances can enter or leave the cell.

mutation

A change in a gene or chromosome.

chromosomal mutation

A change in the chromosome structure, resulting in new gene combinations.

mutagens

A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.

urea

A chemical that comes from the breakdown of proteins

basophils

A circulating leukocyte that produces histamine.

recombination

A combining of genes or characters different from what they were in the parents

the cardiac cycle

A complete heartbeat consisting of contraction and relaxation of both atria and both ventricles

dna

A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

codominance

A condition in which neither of two alleles of a gene is dominant or recessive. dots

crentinism

A condition in which the thyroid gland is unable to produce normal levels of growth hormone.

cartilage

A connective tissue that is more flexible than bone and that protects the ends of bones and keeps them from rubbing together.

dihybrid cross

A cross between individuals that have different alleles for the same Gene

monohybrid cross

A cross between individuals that involves one pair of contrasting traits

TSH and trh

A decrease in the level of thyroxine would increase the secretion of _______.

periosteum

A dense fibrous membrane covering the surface of bones (except at their extremities) and serving as an attachment for tendons and muscles.

ureter

A duct leading from the kidney to the urinary bladder.

epiglottis

A flap of tissue that seals off the windpipe and prevents food from entering.

Notochord

A flexible rod that supports a chordate's back just below the nerve cord.

active immunity is

A form of acquired immunity in which the body produces its own antibodies against disease-causing antigens.

Erythropoietin

A hormone produced and released by the kidney that stimulates the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow.

erythropoietin

A hormone produced and released by the kidney that stimulates the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow.

oxytocin

A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.

secretin

A hormone secreted by the small intestine (duodenum) in response to low pH (e.g., from stomach acid). It promotes the release of bicarbonate from the pancreas to act as a buffer.

Cytoplasm

A jellylike fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended

Epididymis

A long, coiled duct on the outside of the testis in which sperm mature.

Flagella

A long, whip-like filament that helps in cell motility.

ovum

A mature egg cell

heart rate

A measure of cardiac activity usually expressed as the number of beats per minute.

blood-brain barrier

A mechanism that prevents certain molecule from entering the brain but allows others to cross

motor unit

A motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates

anus

A muscular opening at the end of the rectum through which waste material is eliminated from the body

nonsense mutation

A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of the three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.

hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. the hypothalamus regulates the pituitary gland through trophic hormones

homologous pairs

A pair of chromosomes of the same type, one from each parent.

Nucleus

A part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction

prophage

A phage genome that has been inserted into a specific site on the bacterial chromosome.

F factor (fertility factor)

A plasmid found in the donor cell in bacterial conjugation (in e coli usually)

Boyle's Law

A principle that describes the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

glucagon

A protein hormone secreted by pancreatic endocrine cells that raises blood glucose levels; an antagonistic hormone to insulin.

Tropomyosin

A protein of muscle that forms a complex with troponin regulating the interaction of actin and myosin in muscular contractions

Troponin

A protein of muscle that together with tropomyosin forms a regulatory protein complex controlling the interaction of actin and myosin and that when combined with calcium ions permits muscular contraction

Centrosome

A structure in animal cells containing centrioles from which the spindle fibers develop.

what are the four blood types

A, B, AB, O

what are the four fat soluble vitamins

A, D, E, K

Hardy Weinberg calculation

A=p a=q p+q=1 AA=p^2, Aa=2pq, aa=q^2

what blood type is the universal recipient

AB

A type blood can donate to

AB or A

Universal acceptor

AB+

B type blood can donate to

AB, or B

why isn't it a problem if the fetus in the mother have mismatching blood types

ABO antibodies cannot readily cross the placenta

what is the trigger for ADH production?

ADH is secreted in response to low blood volume a diuretic hormone increases the reuptake of water

what does the process of muscular contraction depend on for energy and movement

ATP &Ca+

muscles fatigue due to:

ATP depletion in tetanus

Mitochondria function

ATP production via electron transoprt chain in inner membrane of mitochondria

large intestine

Absorbs water and forms feces

what condition occurs if there is excess growth hormone during adulthood?

Acromegaly, most commonly affecting hands and feet results in adults going up to do for shoe sizes and five to six and sizes

adenylate cyclase

Activated by a G-protein. Converts ATP to cyclic AMP in response to an extracellular signal.

primary active transport

Active transport that relies directly on the hydrolysis of ATP.

Telophase

After the chromosome seperates, the cell seals off, Final Phase of Mitosis.

Teratogens

Agents that damage the process of development, such as drugs and viruses alcohol

extensor muscles

Aid in the straightening of a joint

Viruses are not

Alive

action potentials are?

All or Nothing

muscle cells like neurons have a ____ response

All or Nothing

movable joints

Allow the body to make a wide range of movements.

what type of cells do islets contain

Alpha Beta And Delta cells

thyroxine

Also called thryoid hormone, thyroxine is produced and secreted by follicle cells in the thyroid gland. it targets all cells in the body and increases overall body metabolism.

how does antidiuretic hormone increased blood pressure?

Alters permeability of the collecting duct allowing more water to be reabsorbed by making the cell Junctions Less leaky causing decreased water output

residual volume

Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation

monocytes

An agranular leukocyte that is able to migrate into tissues and transform into a macrophage.

recessive allele

An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present

dominant allele

An allele whose trait always shows up in the organism when the allele is present.

creatine phosphate

An energy storage molecule used by muscle tissue. The phosphate from creatine phosphate can be removed and attached to an ADP to generate ATP quickly.

pepsin

An enzyme present in gastric juice that begins the hydrolysis of proteins

adaptive radiation

An evolutionary pattern in which many species evolve from a single ancestral species

arrector pili muscle

An involuntary muscle fiber attached to the underside & base of the hair follicle that contracts too close hair follicle hole

hemoglobin

An iron-containing protein in red blood cells that reversibly binds oxygen. about 250 molecules of hemoglobin in each red blood cell

genetic map

An ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome.

Lysosomes

An organelle containing digestive enzymes

heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a trait

homozygous

An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait

phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

Myoglobin

An oxygen-storing, pigmented protein in muscle cells.

Kinetochores

Anchor on the Sister Chromatid that attaches to the centrioles that pulls the sister chromatids apart.

endoskeletons

Animals that have skeletons on the inside. Examples are humans, tigers, birds, and reptiles.

Protostomes

Animals with mouths that develop from or near the blastopore -mouth first

what is a dendritic cell?

Antigen-presenting cells that process antigen material and present it to T-cells

interferons

Antiviral proteins secreted by T cells proteins that prevent viral replication and dispersion

Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)

Any of the blood cells that are colorless, lack hemoglobin, contain a nucleus, and include the lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils.

Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)

Any of the hemoglobin-containing cells that carry oxygen to the tissues and are responsible for the red color of vertebrate blood.

centromere

Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached

how does prokaryotic Reproduction occur?

Asexually through binary fission.

intercalated discs

Attachment sites between the transverse lines between cardiac muscle cells -containing many Gap Junctions

intercalated discs

Attachment sites between the transverse lines between cardiac muscle cells which contain Gap Junctions directly connecting the cytoplasm of adjacent cells

adapt cells

B cell T cell

humoral immunity

B cell mediated and involves production of antibodies takes as long as a week antigens are produced by B cells

name the site of development site of maturation major functions specificity and meditation of the b-cell?

B cells are developed in the bone marrow and mature in the spleen and lymph nodes the major function is to produce antibodies B cells are non-specific B cells are humoral meditated.

Domains of Life

Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya

what is the body's response to high blood pressure

Baroreceptors are stretched in the carotid and aorta -> stimulates the brainstem to increase parasympathetic output and/or decrease sympathetic output -> lowers the heart rate and increases vasodilation

distal convoluted tubule

Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct; Selective reabsorption and secretion occur here, most notably to regulate reabsorption of water and sodium

distal convoluted tubule

Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct; concentrating the urine and decreasing its volume, (removing water)

Senescence

Biological aging

renal portal system

Blood leaving the glomerulus travels through an efferent arteriole before surrounding the nephron in a capillary network called the vasa recta

Mesoderm(middle ,)

Blood vessels + muscle skeletal

appendicular skeleton

Bones of the limbs and limb girdles that are attached to the axial skeleton

list the structures from where the filtrate enters the nephron to the excretion of urine from the body

Bowman space proximal convoluted tubule descending limb of the loop of henle ascending limb of the loop of henle distal convoluted tubule collecting duct renal pelvis ureter bladder urethra

what tissues do neuralcrest cells develope into ?

CNS

bicarbonate buffer system

CO2 (g)+ H2O(l)↔H2 CO3 (aq)↔H+ (aq)+HCO3- (aq) -Blowing off CO2 (hyperventilation) decreases levels of CO2 which causes reaction to shift left consuming H+ and reducing H+ in the blood making pH less acidic -mechanism that deals w/ acidemia (excess H+ in blood)

what is the chemical reaction between CO2 and bicarbonate that allows us to breathe out CO2 and diffuse bicarbonate in our blood

CO2+H2O↔️H2CO3↔️H+HCO3 -

name the hormonal pathway from corticotropin-releasing factor to cortisol and cortisone

CRF=hypothalamus adrenocorticotropic hormone=anterior pituitary adrenal cortex=Target Oregon cortisol and cortisone=hormones released by Target organ

Tumors

Cancer cells form masses of cells called

Microfillaments

Causes cellular movement (contract & expand)

Pluripotent

Cells that are capable of developing into most, but not all, of the body's cell types

Chondrocytes

Cells that secrete cartilage.

Multipotent

Cells with limited potential to develop into many types of differentiated cells within a cell group

Prophase

Chromosomes become visable, nuclear envelop dissolves, spindle forms

Metaphase II

Chromosomes line up at the equator.

Plasmids

Circular DNA molecules that can replicate independently of the main chromosomes of bacteria and usually inquire antibiotic resistance

What causes tetanus?

Clostridium tetani, a bacterium found in the soil and manure.

Bacteria shapes

Cocci, bacilli, and spirilli,

minor duodenal papilla

Collects from accessory pancreatic duct

micturition reflex

Communications between stretch receptors and the nervous system that the bladder requires empting followed by parasympathetic neuron fire the detursor muscle contractions

what is humoral immunity?

Community Driven by B cells and antibodies

difference between Compact and spongy bone

Compact - dense, strong, yellow marrow Spongy - Ends of bones red marrow, blood made (yellow in adults that can convert to red to make blood)

lymphatic system

Composed of a network of vessels, ducts, nodes, and organs. Provides defense against infection.

ligaments

Connect bone to bone

tendons

Connect muscle to bone

signaling Cascade

Connection between the hormone at the surface and the effect brought about by second messengers within the cell

pyloric glands

Contain G-cells that secrete gastrin, a peptide hormone.

Autosomal cells

Contain diploid (2n) number of chromosomes

reticular layer of dermis

Contains blood vessels, sweat and oil glands, and deep pressure receptors; lower dermal region.

inbreeding

Continued breeding of individuals with similar characteristics

sarcomere

Contractile unit of muscle

creatine phosphatete + ADP eqn

Crtn + ATP ↔️ Crtn phos + ADP CRTN= CREATINE

Recombination DNA

DNA produced by combining DNA from different sources

genes

DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission.

pulmonary veins

Deliver oxygen rich blood from the lungs to the left atrium

Parts of a neuron

Dendrite, Soma (Cell Body), Axon hillock axon Schwann cells nodes of ranvier myelin sheath axon ( Fork) nerve terminals

cell fate

Describes what a particular cell at a given stage of development will normally give rise to.

gastrin

Digestive hormone that stimulates sustained secretion of gastric juice from the stomach

Secretin

Digestive hormone that stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate to neutralize acid in duodenum.

Cytokinesis

Division of the cytoplasm during cell division

abductor muscles

Draw a limb away from the midline

Urethra

Duct through which urine is discharged.

chondrin

Elastic cartilage matrix substance secreted by chondrocytes

megakaryocytes

Enormous cells in the bone marrow that release packets of cytoplasm (platelets) into the circulating blood.

salivary amylase

Enzyme in saliva that breaks down starch

chemical digestion is

Enzymes break down food into smaller molecules

brush border enzymes

Enzymes secreted by the mucosal cells lining the intestine. The brush border enzymes are disaccharides adn dipeptidases taht digest the smallest peptides and carbohydrates into their respective monomers.

Four tissue types

Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

Heterochromatin

Eukaryotic chromatin that remains highly compacted during interphase and is generally not transcribed.

Scrotum

External sac that contains the testes

pneumonic for products of the anterior pituitary?

FLAT PEG follicle-stimulating hormone luteinizing hormone adrenocorticotropic hormone thyroid stimulating hormone prolactin endorphins growth hormone the four hormones in FLAT are all trophic hormones while the three hormones PEG are all direct hormones

hormones of anterior pituitary

FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH, prolactin,GH

symptoms of hyperthyroidism

Fatigue, wt loss, nervousness, rapid heart beat, increased sweating, feeling hot when others don't, changes in menstrual periods, more frequent bowel movements, and tremors.

F generation

Filial generation, offspring

how to calculate allele frequencies

First count # of times an allele occurs in an gene pool then divide by the total # of alleles in the gene pool

Cytosol

Fluid portion of cytoplasm

vocal cords

Folds of connective tissue that stretch across the opening of the larynx and produce a person's voice.

Schwann cells (PNS)

Form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system

secondary active transport

Form of active transport which does not use ATP as an energy source; rather, transport is coupled to ion diffusion down a concentration gradient established by primary active transport. . how glucose fructose and galactose and amino acids are absorbed in the small intestine

directional selection

Form of natural selection in which the entire curve moves; occurs when individuals at one end of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end of the curve

Nucleolus

Found inside the nucleus and produces ribosomes

mesenchymal tissue

Function: gives rise to all other connective tissue types Location: primarily in embryo

what type of receptors do neurotransmitters have?

G protein or - ligand gated ion channels

Interphase

G1, S, G2

linked genes

Genes located on the same chromosome that tend to be inherited together in genetic crosses.

advantageous mutations

Genetic changes that improve their carriers' chances of survival or reproduction.

Transposons

Genetic elements capable of inserting and removing themselves from the genome

Transduction

Genetic recombination, involves the transfer of genetic material by a virus. -virus uses cell to replicate & later kills host

Define gigantism

Gigantism is abnormal growth due to an excess of growth hormone during childhood

what are the three classes of corticosteroids?

Glucocorticoids Mineralocorticoids Cortical sex hormones

name the pathway starting at gonadotropin-releasing hormone and ending at testosterone and ovaries?

GnRH=hypothalamus FSH and LH=interior gonads=Target Oregon testosterone or estrogen and progesterone=Target organ hormones

difference between granulocytes and agranulocytes

Granulocytes are leukocytes that have granular cytoplasm; agranulocytes are leukocytes that lack cytoplasmic granules.

coagulation factors

Group of plasma protein substances (Factor I-XIII) contained in the plasma which act together to bring about blood coagulation

Growth Hormone (GH)

Growth hormone is a hormone produced in the anterior pituitary that stimulates growth throughout the body, targeting bones and muscles.

epiphyseal plate

Growth plate, made of cartilage, gradually ossifies

canaliculi

Hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal allow for exchange of nutrients and waste between osteocytes and the major canals

pronuclei

Haploid aspect of sperm. Joins ovum to make the zygote.

compact bone

Hard, dense bone tissue that is beneath the outer membrane of a bone

hydroxyapatite

Hardy crystals consisting of calcium and phosphate that form the bone matrix.

Organelles of eukaryotic cells

Have nucleus nucleolus centrioles endocytotic vesicles ribosomes cytoplasm lysosomes nuclear membrane cell membrane Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Mitochondria

what does low blood pressure indicate

Hemorrhage, heart attack ,sepsis, neurological damage

Blastula

Hollow ball of cells fluid filled center

During prophase I of meiosis,

Homologous chromosomes stick together in pairs during prophase I.

triiodothyronine

Hormone secreted by the thyroid gland (contains three atoms of iodine); stimulates body metabolism; T3.

amino acid derivative hormones

Hormones that are synthesized by modifying amino acids. Most amino acid-derivative hormones act via secondary messengers, while some act in a fashion similar to steroid hormones catecholamines = fast acting thyroxine = slow long acting

how does parathyroid hormone affect phosphorus homework homeostasis?

I reabsorbing phosphate from bone and reducing reabsorption of phosphate in the kidneys producing excretion in urine

what is immunologic function of mucus

I'm Traping incoming pathogens

what are the 2 genotypes for a blood type

IAIA or IAi

what are the 2 genotypes for type B blood

IBIB or Ibi

inspiratory Reserve volume formula

IRV = VC - (TV + ERV)

if all autonomic input to the heart were cut what would happen

If all autonomic innervation to heart were lost, the heart would continue beating at an intrinsic rate of the pacemaker (SA node). The individual would be unable to change his/er heart rate via the sympathetic or parasympathetic NS but heart would not stop beating.

Autoimmunity is due to

IgG and IgM antibodies in which antibodies do not recognize cells of their own body and attack their own system

passive immunity is

Immunity conferred by transferring antibodies from an individual who is immune to a pathogen to another individual.

innate immunity

Immunity that is present before exposure and effective from birth. Responds to a broad range of pathogens.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

In BOTH types of cells. Carries substances, like proteins, to various parts of the cell.

what is insulin?

Insulin is a hormone which converts glucose into glycogen (when blood sugar levels are too high)

smooth muscle

Involuntary muscle found inside many internal organs of the body

cardiac muscle

Involuntary muscle tissue found only in the heart.

peristalsis

Involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system.

peristalsis

Involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system.

fat soluble vitamins

K, D, E, A k9 DEA

Bacteriophage?

Kind of virus that infects bacteria

diaphragm

Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing

basement membrane

Layer between epithelium and underlying connective tissue

spongy bone

Layer of bone tissue having many small spaces and found just inside the layer of compact bone.

What are eosinophils?

Lead the bodys counterattack against parasitic worms, lessen the severity of allergies by phagocytizing immune complexes.

plasma

Liquid part of blood, mixture of nutrient salts respiratory gases and hormones and blood proteins

Locus

Location of a gene on a chromosome

vas deferens

Long, narrow tube carrying sperm from epididymis to ejaculatory duct

name the 8 parts of the microanatomy of the renal vascular system of the Nephron?

Loop of henle Vasa recta collecting duct proximal convoluted tubule glomerulus distal convoluted tubule afferent arteriole efferent arteriole

Calcitonin

Lowers blood calcium levels

what do interferons upregulate?

MHC class 1 and Class 2 molecules

exogenous pathway

MHC class two pathway binds to antigens that are *outside the cell

what activates melanocytes

MSH

Dump the HUNK

Major waste products excreted in urine are H+, Urea, NH3, and K+.

Androgens

Male sex hormones

Blastocyst

Mammalian blastula

Metatherians

Marsupials non egg laying mamals

what is the difference between mechanical and chemical digestion

Mechanical digestion is where food is chewed, mixed, and churned. Chemical digestion occurs when chemical reactions occur that break down food into smaller particles.

pleura

Membrane surrounding the lungs

Pathogens

Microbes that cause disease

capillaries

Microscopic vessel through which exchanges take place between the blood and cells of the body

Prions

Misfolded proteins that cause other protiens to misfold

pancreatic juices

Mixture of enzymes in a bicarbonate rich alkaline solution. This neutralizes the acidic chyme.

prostaglandins

Modified fatty acids that are produced by a wide range of cells.

neutrophils

Most abundant white blood cell., Phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few days.

neutrophils

Most abundant white blood cell., The most abundant type of white blood cell. Phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few days.

Reciprocal Development

Multiple inducers communicating over the course of development.

Dichorionic

Multiple pregnancy with two chorionic sacs

stratified epithelium

Multiples tiers of cells.

Adult stem cells are

Multipotent

inversion mutation

Mutation in which a chromosome piece reattaches to original chromosome but in reverse orientation

what is the key concept of the na + k + pump?

Na+ wants to go into the cell because the cell is more negative inside ( electrical gradient)and has a lower concentration of Na+ inside(chemical gradient)

What ions are neurons selectively permeable to maintain the negative internal environment?

Na+/K+ AtPase

sonic hedgehog

Name a protein secreted by the mesoderm that signals ectoderm cells to become nervous tissue.

seminiferous tubules

Narrow, coiled tubules that produce sperm in the testes.

stabilizing selection

Natural selection that favors intermediate variants by acting against extreme phenotypes

what does the small intestine absorb

Nutrients, amino acids watermelon and simple sugars derived from proteins and carbohydrates directly into the blood.

universal donor

O-

insertion mutations

Occur when a segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another.

hybrid offspring

Of a genetic cross, offspring having a pair of nonidentical alleles for a trait.

phrase to remember which cells produce myelin in CNS and pns

Old Cans (have) Sour Pickles Oligodendrocytes produce myelin in CNS Schwann cells produce myelin in PN S

memory T-cells

Once activated, T cells multiply and give rise to clone cells, some of which become memory T-cells. Memory T-cells recognize pathogen they have encountered before, allowing for a quicker immune response in a second exposure.

Chromatid

One half of a duplicated chromosome

vena cava

One of two large vessels (superior and inferior) that return deoxygenated blood to the right atrium of the heart.

glottis (vocal cords)

Opening between vocal cords

Capsid

Outer protein coat of a virus

Metaphase I

Pairs of homologous chromosomes move to the equator of the cell.

P generation

Parental generation, the first two individuals that mate in a genetic cross

punctuated equilibrium

Pattern of evolution in which long stable periods are interrupted by brief periods of more rapid change

Interkinesis

Period of time between meiosis I and meiosis II during which no DNA replication takes place.

Anaphase

Phase of mitosis in which the chromosomes separate and move to opposite ends of the cell

differential reproduction

Phenomenon in which individuals with adaptive genetic traits produce more living offspring than do individuals without such traits.

mechanical digestion is

Physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces

what is mechanical digestion

Physical breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller pieces

metaphase plate

Plane midway between the two poles of the cell where chromosomes line up during metaphase.

axial skeleton

Portion of the skeletal system that consists of the basic framework of the body: -skull, -rib cage, & -vertebral column

Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production

convergent evolution

Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments

Differentiation

Process in which cells become specialized in structure and function

endochondral ossification

Process of transforming cartilage into bone.

memory B cells

Produced during a B cell response, but are not involved in antibody producing during the initial infection; are held in reserve for the rest of your life in case you encounter that pathogen again.

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death via release of destructive enzymes- either mitochondria or lysosomes

Stages of Meiosis

Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II

Stages of Mitosis

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

adductor muscles

Pull the fingers or toes together

ABO antigens

RBC surface glycolipids

the cellular portion of blood consists of

RBCs, WBCs, and platelets

function of collecting duct

Reabsorption of water (ADH required)

reading frame

Reading mRNA nucleotides in the correct groupings.

Rh factor

Refers to the presence or absence of the Rh antigen on red blood cells. is indicated with plus or minus subscript on ABO blood type

germ cells

Reproductive cells that give rise to sperm and ovum (haploid(n))

HIV is what type of virus?

Retrovirus

medial rotation

Rotation toward the midline

electrical heart pathway

SA > AV > HIS > PF

where does the electrical impulse of the heart begin

SA node

what triggers saliva

Scent of food

arterial natriuretic peptide

Secreted from the atrium of the heart in response to stretch caused by increased blood volume. ANP stimulates excretion of Na+ and therefore water. Decreased blood volume, BPH, NFP, and GFR lowers blood pressure

Exocytosis

Secretion of material out of the plasma membrane via product vesicle merging with the cell membrane - releasing the contents outside if the cell

Mendel's first law

Segregation pairs of homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis so that only one chromosome from each pair is present in each gamete ie0 2 alleles for each gene, then gametes carry only 1 allele for a trait

what do dorsal root ganglion contain?

Sensory neurons

describe Sensory neurons?

Sensory neurons are afferent and enter the spinal cord on the dorsal side

Gametes

Sex cells

paracrine signaling

Signal released from a cell has an effect on cells in area.

morphogens

Signaling molecules that stimulate cell differentiation and development.

columnar epithelium

Single layer column shaped cells - lining stomach, small intestine - secrete and absorbs

simple epithelium

Single layer of cells.

Anaphase II

Sister chromatids separate

Ribosomes

Site of protein synthesis

incomplete dominance

Situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele pink

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

Small loop of DNA found in the mitochondria. It is clonally and maternally inherited. & is autonomous of other replication

Viroids

Small pathogens consisting of a very short circular single-stranded RNA that infect plants

Morula

Solid ball of cells

in which neural structure are ribosomes primarily located?

Soma

location of endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes in neurons?

Soma / cell body

intrapleural space

Space between the two membranes, visceral pleura and parietal pleura, that cover the lungs.

motor proteins

Specialized proteins that use energy to move cells or structures within cells along the cytoskeleton via microtubule tracts

cocci

Spherical bacteria. -eg e. coli

Gram negative bacteria

Stains pink it red; cell wall thinner so it cannot hold onto stain

totipotent

Stem cells with the potential to differentiate into any type of cell.

how does the sympathetic nervous system increase the heart rate

Stimulates the SA and AV node via cardiac accelerator nerves -epinephrine from the Adrenal medulla binds to the adrenergic receptors in the heart causing increased heart rate

what is the function of the posterior pituitary?

Stores oxytocin and antidiuretic hormones the posterior pituitary contains nerve terminals of neurons with cell bodies in the hypothalamus

osteons

Structures in bones that carry the blood supply

Chromatin

Substance found in eukaryotic chromosomes that consists of DNA tightly coiled around histones

Stroma

Supportive, connective tissue of an organ

visceral pleura

Surface adjacent to the lung

transverse tubules

System of tubules that provides channels for ion flow throughout the muscle fibers to facilitate the propagation of an action potential.

amino acid derived hormones

T3 and T4 epinephrine and norepinephrine

which hormone in the anterior pituitary does not require a factor from the hypothalamus to be released?

TGIF which is actually dopamine

total lung capacity formula

TLC = VC + RV

vital capacity formula

TV + IRV + ERV

where is lysozyme found?

Tears, saliva, nasal and sinus fluids

Rough ER

That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum studded with ribosomes allowing translation of protiens to be secreated into the luemen

Smooth ER

That portion of the endoplasmic reticulum that is free of ribosomes and is responsible for lipid synthesis & detoxification & protiens transport to the Golgi

stroke volume

The amount of blood ejected from the heart in one contraction.

juxtaglomerular cells

The cells of the afferent artery at the juxtaglomerular apparatus. They are baroreceptors that secrete renin upon sensing a decrease in blood pressure.

secondary spermatocytes

The cells that are formed during spermatogenesis by the first meiosis are called

Autolysis

The digestion of damaged or extra cells by the enzymes of their own lysosomes

spermatogonia

The diploid cells in a testis that can give rise to primary spermatocytes.

Prophase II

The duplicated chromosomes and spindle fibers reappear in each new cell.

amplification cascade

The effect of second messengers (such as alpha) to activate a single channel, which in turn activates many more messengers to amplify a received signal.

Z lines

The ends of a saromere.

saliva

The fluid released when the mouth waters that plays an important role in both mechanical and chemical digestion

corona radiata

The layer of granulosa cells taht surround an oocyte after is has been ovulated.

inner mitochondrial membrane

The membrane of the mitochondria that is the site of electron transport and chemiosmosis.

the enteric nervous system

The nervous system of the gastrointestinal tract. It controls secretion and motility within teh Gi tract, and is linked to the central nervous system.

wild-type allele

The non-mutant form of a gene, encoding the normal genetic function. Generally, but not always a dominant allele.

bronchi

The passages that direct air into the lungs

penetrance

The percentage of individuals with a particular genotype that actually displays the phenotype associated with the genotype.

Blastulation

The process by which a morula develops into a blastula with a fluid-filled cavity.

Implantation

The process by which the zygote attaches to the uterine wall

cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases

The proteins that participate in the functioning of the checkpoints thatcontroll the cell cycle .

nucleoid region

The region in a prokaryotic cell consisting of a concentrated mass of DNA

aortic valve

The semilunar valve separating the aorta from the left ventricle that prevents blood from flowing back into the left ventricle.

efferent arterioles

The small blood vessels exiting the glomerulus. At this point blood has completed its filtration in the glomerulus.

Bohr effect

The tendency of certain factors to stablize the hemoglobin in the tense conformation, thus reducing its affinity for oxygen and enhancing the relase of oxygen to the tissues. The factors include increased PCO2, increase temperature, increased bisphosphoglycerate (BPG), and decreased pH. Note that the Bohr effect shifts the oxy-hemolobin saturation curve to the right.

sliding filament model

The theory explaining how muscle contracts, based on change within a sarcomere, the basic unit of muscle organization, stating that thin (actin) filaments slide across thick (myosin) filaments, shortening the sarcomere; the shortening of all sarcomeres in a myofibril shortens the entire myofibril

what happens to old red blood cells

They are broken down in the spleen & liver

Axon Hillocks

They form part of the trigger zone and are cone shaped (join the cell body) -plays role in action potential.

Microtubules

Thick hollow tubes that make up the cilia, flagella, and spindle fibers. (moving structures of cell)

papillary layer of dermis

Thin layer, areolar connective tissue, with fine interlaced mat of loosely woven collagen and elastic fibers

how does the skin thermoregulate

Through sweat glands, blood flow, fat of hypodermics, hairs

where does calcitonin come from?

Thyroid C cells

What is TRH and what does it do?

Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone: increases TSH

what is the purpose of melanin

To protect the DNA in skin cells from sun exposure producing pigment to Shield skin cells DNA

classical complement pathway

Triggered by antibodies (activated by the presence of antibody bound to microorganism)

What are microtubules made of?

Tubulin

parallel evolution

Two related species that have made similar evolutionary adaptations after their divergence from a common ancestor

oligodendrocytes

Type of glial cell in the CNS that wrap axons -producing the myelin sheath.

Oligodendrocytes (CNS)

Type of glial cell in the CNS that wrap axons in a myelin sheath.

ileocecal valve

Valve at the junction of the small and large intestines

semi-lunar valves

Valves in either side of the heart that controls exit from the ventricles.

provirus

Viral DNA that inserts into a host genome.

what are neutrophils?

WBC's that ingest and destroy microbes in a process called phagocytosis.

Which sex chromosomes carry the most genetic information?

X

SRY gene

Y linked gene that triggers the male sexual development pathway in animals.

which zone or band in the sarcomere does not change its length during muscle contraction

a band because it is the entire length of the myosin filament myosin filaments do not change in length

what is the hypophyseal portal

a blood vessel system that directly connects the hypothalamus with the anterior pituitary

negative pressure breathing

a breathing system in which air is pulled into the lungs because of the difference in pressure between the two systems

bundle of His

a bundle of modified heart muscle that transmits the cardiac impulse from the atrioventricular node to the ventricles causing them to contract

primary oocyte

a cell that divides to form the polar body and the secondary oocyte

primary spermatocyte

a cell that divides to form two secondary spermatocytes

Punnett squares

a chart that shows the possible combination of alleles due to fertilization

what would occur during inflammation of the thyroid?

a decrease in metabolism due to a reduction in thyroid hormones

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

a disorder related to a defective recessive gene on chromosome 12 that prevents metabolism of phenylalanine

direct remotes

a hormone that stimulates and action directly such as prolactin

the hypodermis is

a layer of connective tissue that connects the skin to the rest of the body

gaba

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter

Inclusive fitness

a measure of an organisms success in a population, based on number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of offspring to then support others

allantois

a membrane sac that stores wastes and is the site for gas exchange

pentose phosphate pathway

a metabolic process that produces NADPH and ribose - 5- phosphate for nucleotide synthesis

tissue Factor

a mixture of lipoproteins and phospholipids released from the surfaces of damaged cells that initiates the extrinsic pathway of blood clotting

difference between mono and poly synoptic reflex arcs?

a monosynaptic reflex arc is simpler only one motion is involved. for example knee-jerk a polysynaptic reflex is more complex having several emotions at once for example withdrawal reflex in which you balance with one foot and withdraw with the other

insertion mutation

a mutation in which one or more nucleotides are added to a gene

deletion mutation

a mutation in which one or more pairs of nucleotides are removed from a gene

duplication mutation

a mutation that involves duplication of a region of DNA on the same strand

what brings the oxygen to the alveoli's?

a network of capillaries surrounding each of Euless to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

Tetanus

a sustained muscular contraction resulting from a rapid series of nerve impulses

counter-current multiplier system

a system in which energy is used to create a concentration gradient

Induction

ability of one group of cells to influence the fate of other nearby cells

potency

ability to change into other types of cells

pattern recognition receptors

able to recognize categories of Invaders allows for appropriate production of cytokines to the right type of emmue cells

what triggers the release of prolactin?

absence of pif (dopamine)

modern synthesis model

accounts for mutation and recombination as mechanisms of variation and considers differential reproduction to be the mechanism of reproductive success

what neurotransmitter is used in the ganglia of both sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?

acetylcholine

what is the body's reaction to a blood pH below 7. 35?

acid sensing chemoreceptors just outside the blood-brain barrier send signals to the brain to increase respiratory rate increasing O2 intake

most common mineralocorticoids

aldosterone

hormones that control blood pressure

aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone

a b type blood can receive

all blood

expressivity is constant

all individuals with a given genotype express the same phenotype

Darwin's Theory of Evolution

all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.

what activates basophils and mast cells

allergens

tail fibers

allow the bacteriophage to attach to the host cell

what type of hormone is T3 and T4?

amino acid derived

what type of hormones are epinephrine and norepinephrine?

amino acid derived

chemical precursor of a peptide hormone?

amino acids

what are proteins broken down into

amino acids

extraembryonic membranes

amnion, chorion, yolk sac, and allantois

Plasma cells produce

antibodies

dendritic cells

antigen-presenting cells in the skin

what do helper cells respond to?

antigens present in MHC II

germinal center

area found within the lymph node that produces the lymphocytes

which are thicker arteries or veins

arteries

hook

attaches to the filament & rod

what neural structure innitiates the action potentials ?

axon hillok

white matter

axons encased in myelin sheaths

what are the five types of infectious pathogens?

bacteria viruses fungi parasites and prions

what is the stimulus that activates neutrophils

bacteria especially those that are tagged by an antibody

why is genetic drift more common in small populations

because genetic drift is due to chance if there's a smaller population chance increases

what is the left side of the heart generate more pressure

because it must pump blood to the rest of the body

why is the left side of the heart more muscular

because it must pump blood to the rest of the body

why is high blood pressure more dangerous than low blood pressure

because the body has many different ways of raising blood pressure but very few to lower it

why does the blood pressure drop the arterioles

because the capillaries would rupture with higher blood pressure

why is it a problem if the mother and the fetus have different RH factors

because the mothers anti-rh bodies can attack the fetus blood cells

what stage has the greatest ratio between nuclear and cytoplasm

blastula

When does implantation occur?

blastula stage

platelets

blood clotting

what would occur if a diabetic did not inject insulin after eating sugar?

blood glucose would spike damaging the eyes and other vital organs

renal vein

blood vessel that carries blood away from the kidney and toward the heart

what are the functions of osteoclasts

breaking bone

pancreatic lipase

breaks down fats

vasa recta capillaries

capillaries entering and exiting the glomerulus

where are amino acids absorbed

capillaries of small intestine

where are carbohydrates absorbed

capillaries of the small intestine

negative selection

causing apoptosis to cells that are self reactive

archenteron (gastrulation )

cavity created by deep invagination later develops into gut

thoracic cavity

cavity housing lungs and heart

three sections of the large intestine

cecum, colon, rectum

envelope

cell wall + cell membrane

glial cells (glia)

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

point mutations

chemical changes in just one base pair of a gene

radial spokes(9+2)

connect each doublet to the center

interstitium

connective tissue around the Nephron that reabsorbs solutes

neuroglia

connective tissue holding nervous tissue together aka glial cells

hook

connects the basal body to the extracellular component of the flagellum, the filament

umbilical cord

consists of two arteries and a vein that are twisted together -opposite to normal veins & arteries - vein carries oxygen blood to fetus - arteries carry deoxegensted blood & waste to the placenta fir gas exchange

portal system

consists of two capillary beds in series through which blood must travel before returning to the heart

eukaryotic flagella

contain microtubules composed of tubulin, 9+2 arrangement

enteropeptidase

converts trypsinogen to trypsin

greater curvature

convex lateral surface of the stomach

macrophages also release?

cytokines

flexor muscles

decrease the angle between two bones at a joint

pulmonary arteries carry

deoxygenated blood

steroid hormones

derived from cholesterol and produced primarily by the gonads and adrenal cortex because steroid hormones are derived from nonpolar molecules they can cross the cell membrane steroid hormones bind directly to DNA resulting in increased or decreased transcription of particular genes

where are most sensory receptors located

dermis

synergistic

describes organisms that are cooperative in action, such as hormones or other growth factors that reinforce each other's activity

natural killer cells

destroy the body's own cells that have become infected with pathogens it also goes after cancer cells

alimentary canal

digestive tube that extends from the mouth to the anus

isomaltase

digests isomaltose

stratum corneum contains?

dozens of layers a flattened keratinocytes and hair projections above the skin are openings for the sweat glands and sabbaticals glands

endocytotic vesicles

enclose bacteria and raw materials from the extracellular environment

acinar cells

enzyme-secreting cells of the pancreas

what allows for gas exchange in the alveoli?

exceptionally large surface area for gas exchange 100 m²

what are calluses

excessive keratin deposition in areas of repeated strain due to friction providing protection to avoid damage in the future

polyuria is

excessive urination

MHC 2

exogenous antigens

MHC2 responds to?

exogenous antigens (outside)

eosinophils

fight parasites and allergies

Esinophils

fight parasites and allergies release large amounts of Histamine

parts of flagella

filament, hook, basal body

main function of the kidney

filter blood and regulation of blood volume and osmolarity

renal corpuscle

filters blood plasma

function of Bowman's capsule

filtration of blood through which most everything passes

what does flat peg stand for?

follicle-stimulating hormone luteinizing hormone adrenocorticotropic hormone thyroid stimulating hormone prolactin endorphins growth hormone antidiuretic hormone oxytocin calcitonin parathyroid hormone glucagon insulin somatostatin melatonin erythropoietin atrial natriuretic peptide thymosin

parenchyma

functional tissue of an organ

gnrh

gonadotropin releasing hormone

what hormones are released by the hypothalamus and what secondary hormones do they stimulate in the pituitary?

gonadotropin releasing hormone = follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone growth hormone releasing hormone= growth hormone thyroid releasing hormone= thyroid stimulating hormone corticotropin-releasing=adrenocorticotropic hormone

name the hormones of the hypothalamus

gonadotropin releasing hormone corticotropin-releasing Factor thyroid releasing hormone dopamine growth hormone releasing hormone

white fat

good insulation

exposure to which sub endothelial compound starts the coagulation Cascade

graduation tissue Factor

what are the two types of leukocytes

granulocytes and agranulocytes

shift to the left of the partial pressure curve indicates

greater affinity for O2 in hemoglobin

fetal hemoglobin

greater affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin

what does a shift to the right in the partial pressure curve indicate

greater unloading of oxygen into the tissues occurs during exercise

Galt

gut associated lymphoid tissue

oxygen is carried by

hemoglobin

glomeruli

highly convoluted capillary Tufts to ride from afferent arterioles

fillament

hollow helicak structure that is the movie of the flagella

on a cold day what structure helps the body set and maintain a normal temperature

hypothalamus

you ingested an inhibitor of acetylcholine esterase what are your symptoms

increased urination and increased sweating because there is nothing to stop acetylcholine effect

what is the biological function of parathyroid hormone?

increases blood calcium concentrations

parathyroid hormone

increases blood calcium levels

pth

increases blood calcium levels

parathyroid hormone

increases blood calcium levels by removing calcium from the bones

inhibitory input

information entering a neuron that signals it not to fire

excitatory input

information entering a neuron that signals it to fire

menil Second Law of Independent Assortment

inheritance of one gene does not affect inheritance of another Gene

Mendel's second law of independent assortment

inheritance of one gene doesn't affect inheritance of another gene (prophase I)

somatostatin

inhibitor of both insulin and glucagon secretion

trypsin

initiates activation Cascade

two anal sphincters

internal and external

stomach

large muscular sac that continues the mechanical and chemical digestion of food capacity to hold up to two leaders

what is the biological definition of a species

largest group of organisms capable of breeding to form a fertile offspring

stomach body

largest region; functions as a mixing tank; contains gastric glands

inferior vena cava

largest vein in the body that returns blood from all the portions of the body below the heart

what are the three sections of the hypothalamus?

lateral ventromedial and anterior hypothalamus

Mendel second law

law of independent assortment genes passed on don't affect the way other genes are passed on

single crossover

leads to half recombinant, half non recombinant

which side of the heart generates more pressure

left

assuming bacteria enters through the bloodstream from the small intestines what would be the first major organ that it would encounter

liver

where are bile salts synthesized

liver

Chlamydia trachomatis

lives inside cells if reproductive tract

host cell

living cell in which a virus replicates

liver structures

lobes: right, left, quadrate, caudate; falciform ligament; common hepatic duct

what is the duration of the auction with steroid

long-lived

long bones

longer than they are wide characterized by cylindrical shafts called diaphyses

Euchromatin

loosely packed chromatin gross

what would occur if a root ganglion where snipped during spinal surgery?

loss of sensation at that level

equational division

meiosis II

pineal gland secretes

melatonin

where is the neurotransmitter stored?

membrane-bound vesicle in the nerve terminal

what occurs if the thyroid is not able to produce enough hormones during childhood?

mental retardation and developmental delay

what are the two functions of the thyroid?

metabolism and Calcium regulation

what is intracellular digestion

metabolism of certain molecules for energy via oxidation of glucose and fatty acid synthesis can only occur once extracellular digestion has occurred

what are the three types of tissue specific microphone ages?

microglia /CNS Langerhans /skin osteoclasts/ bone

chorionic villi

microscopic fingerlike projections that penetrate the endometrium - supporting maternal fetal gas exchange

diamniotic

multiple pregnancy with two amniotic sacs

homozygous individuals are either

non carriers or affected

sebaceous glands

oil glands

where is the thyroid?

on the front surface of the trachea

main function of loop of henle?

on the way down excrete water into tissues on the way up excrete salt into tissues

prodgeny release assembly stage 3 of viral life cycle

one of three things can occur - cell death -cell lyses(explosion) -extrusion

what are the endocrine organs in the female

ovaries pancreas adrenal glands thyroid gland pituitary gland hypothalamus pineal gland parathyroid glands

intracellular digestion

oxidation of glucose and fatty acids for energy can only occur once extracellular digestion is completed

what does hemoglobin measure

oxygen carrying capacity via quantity of hemoglobin in the blood given in grams per deciliter

myoglobin

oxygen-carrying molecule found in muscle cells

arteries carry

oxygenated blood

fetal veins carry

oxygenated blood

pulmonary veins carry

oxygenated blood

what does aldosterone do to potassium and hydrogen?

p increasing potassium and hydrogen ion excretion

relaxation phase

period after twitch contraction when tension decreases sarcolemma repolarizes occurs when ATP binds to myosin heads bring them of actin once the myosin and actin disconnect the sarcomere will return to its original with without calcium myosin binding sites will be covered by tropomyosin and contraction will be prevented

stationary phase

period of equilibrium; microbial deaths balance production of new cells

what controls the bottom part of the esophagus to the rectum

peristalsis

what is the step following micturition reflex

personal choice to relax the external sphincter to urinate or maintain the tone of the external sphincter to prevent urination

draw hormonal cycle of mentration

pg 68 biology

what are the three functions of macrophages?

phagocytiz invaders digest The Invader presents little pieces of the Invader to the cell using the protein called major histocompatibility complex some binding to a pathogenic peptide(antigen)

Bilirubin

pigment released by the liver in bile by product of hemoglobin breakdown conjugated in the liver and secreted in the Bile

where is melatonin produced?

pineal gland

B cells exposed to an antigen

plasma cells

prothrombin

plasma protein; converted to thrombin in the clotting process the endpoint of the Cascade of coagulation

episomes

plasmids that can integrate into the genome

nucleotide level mutations

point, frameshift, silentm missense, nonsense, insetion and deletion

obligate anaerobes

poisoned by oxygen

calcitonin

produced by parafollicular cells acts to decrease plasma calcium levels in three ways

red marrow

produces blood cells

lactic acid

product of fermentation in many types of cells, including human muscle cells due to anaerobic metabolism

apoptosis

programmed cell death

Microvilli

projections that increase the cell's surface area

what cell types do not contain nuclei

red blood cells

where are all blood cells formed

red bone marrow

what are the main functions of the hypothalamus?

regulate sleep-wake Cycles blood osmolarity appetite and satiety

Hypothalamus

regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior -restricts production of GnRH until puberty

functions of excretory system

regulation of blood pressure, blood osmolarity, acid-base balance, and removal of nitrogenous wastes

cortical reaction

release of CA+ that prevents any other sperm from binding to the egg via depolarizing the membrane

how does the thyroid regulate calcium levels?

release of calcitonin

list the vessels in the regional vesicular pathway starting at the renal artery and ending at the renal vein

renal artery afferent arteriole glomerulus efferent arteriole Vasa recta renal vein

bacilli

rod shaped bacteria -eg strep throught

myofibrils are surrounded by a covering known as

sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)

Metaphase

second phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell

parietal cells

secrete HCl

organizing cells

secrete inducers

mucous cells

secrete mucus

interstitial cells

secrete testosterone in testes

cck

secreted by the enteroendocrine cells of the duodenum and jejunum as an appetite-supressing effect on the brain. and stimulates the release of both bile and pancreatic juice

what is the function of a parietal cell

secretes HCL and intrinsic factor

what is the function of a G cell

secretes the hormone gastrin increases HCL production

Loop of henle

section of the nephron tubule that conserves water and minimizes the volume of urine

Loop of Henle

section of the nephron tubule that conserves water and minimizes the volume of urine & takes care of water pressure

transposons

segments of DNA that can move from one region of DNA to another

what is cell mediated immunity?

self to sell combat provided by T cells

presynaptic neuron

sending neuron

functions of nervous system

sensation & perception motor function cognition executive function language comprehension memory emotion & emotional expression balance and coordination regulation of endocrine organs regulation of heart rate & autonomic system

afferent neurons

sensory neurons

Cristae

series of inner membranes in mitochondria where cell respiration occurs

sex linked crosses

sex chromosomes are usually used to indicate sex as well as genotype

what determines male bacteria from female bacteria ?

sex factors (genetic information to be donated )

gonads

sex glands

diaphysis

shaft of a long bone

what are some mechanisms the body uses to retain heat

shivering piloerection

what is the duration of the action of a peptide hormone?

short lived

types of point mutations

silent, missense, nonsense

what are the three types of point mutations

silent, misssense, nonsense

what do Delta pancreatic cells secrete?

somatostatin

yolk sac

source of blood cells and future sex cells for the fetus

what determines the sex of a child

sperm

biometric techniques

statistical analysis of biological data used heavily in genetics ex. Punnett square, mapping of chromosomes with RF, Hardy Weinberg equilibrium

what does the stratum basale contain?

stem cells and keratinocytes

what type of hormone is estrogen?

steroid

what type of hormone is progesterone?

steroid

why do we feel alert during stressful situations

sympathetic nervous system blood is reciprocated from the digestive tract back into the brains and muscles

what liquid provides lubrication for movable joints

synovial fluid

functions of anterior pituitary

synthesizes and secretes different products for of these are Tropic hormones while three of them are direct hormones

what does absorption entail

take up of the molecules that have been broken down into the blood to be absorbed and metabolized by cells

nares (nostrils)

takes in air from outside

fluid balance

taking in and eliminating equal amounts of fluid

what protein is activated in cancer cells that accounts for Unstoppable growth?

telomerase

what are the vital signs

temperature, pulse, respiration, blood pressure

Spermatogenesis

the production of haploid sperm cells via meiosis

Oogenesis

the production, growth, and maturation of an egg, or ovum

where does food leave the stomach through

the pyloric sphincter

why is a B positive blood a universal recipient

the recognize All Surface antigens as their own

what occurs if carbon dioxide rises above normal levels?

the respiratory rate will increase so that more carbon dioxide is exhaled and carbon dioxide levels in the blood will fall

how does the respiratory system regulate Heat?

the respiratory thermal regulates via vasodilation and vasoconstriction when the blood vessels are dilated more blood can pass through these vessels and a larger amount of thermal energy can be dissipated

simple twitch

the response of a single muscle fiber to a brief stimulus at or above the threshold stimulus and consists of a latent period, a contraction period, and a relaxation period

niches

the role of an organism in its habitat, or how it makes its living

disjunction

the separation of homologous pairs of chromosomes following meiotic synapsis

fillament

the stem part of the flagella

sensory /afferent neurons

transmit nerve impulses toward the CNS.

tricuspid valve

valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle

pulmonary valve

valve positioned between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery

expressivity vs. penetrance

variable expressivity: variations in phenotype with the same genotype --same dog species with different pattern spots --same height pattern allele but different heights incomplete penetrance: have allele but not always showing any phenotype complete penetrance: everyone with the allele will show the phenotype penetrance is the likelihood the gene shows anything at all; expressivity is variations in what that gene shows

antidiuretic hormone

vasopressin

Brown fat

very high in baby skin less efficient electron transport chain which means more heat energy released as fuel

how are the hypothalamus and pituitary glands connected?

via a portal system connecting the two organs directly

what are CD8+ cells most effective against?

viral and intracellular bacterial or fungal infections due to their endogenous nature

virons

viral prodgeny - baby viruses

Infection stage 1 of viral life cycle

virus injects its genome into the host cell

extrusion

virus leaves cell by fusing with plasma membrane

what is the mathematical relationship between vital capacity inspiratory Reserve volume expiratory Reserve volume and tidal volume?

vital capacity is the sum of inspiration Reserve volume expiration Reserve volume and tidal volume VC=IVR+ERV+TV

intrathoracic volume

volume of the chest cavity

what formula is used to calculate pressure differential across the circulation

∆P = CO x TPR ∆P=pressure differential across the circulation CO=cardiac output TPR= total peripheral resistance

lag phase

"flat" period of adjustment, enlargement; little growth

AV node

(atrioventricular node) region of the heart between the right atrium and right ventricle from which electrical impulses spread to the ventricles during a heartbeat

Transformation

(genetics) modification of a cell or bacterium by the uptake and incorporation of exogenous DNA

transformation principle

-Ability of some (e.g. nonvirulent) bacteria to take traits from other (e.g. virulent) bacteria, even when they are dead -Made possible by directly taking DNA

Centrioles

-Cell organelle that aids in cell division in animal cells only -found in centrosome -organizing centers of microtubles during mitosis -hollow 9triplets of microtubles that migrate to opposite ends of the cell during mitosis

Mendel's first law of segregation

-Genes exist in alternative forms (alleles) -An organism has two alleles for each gene (1 from each parent) -Alleles segregate during meiosis, resulting in gametes with only one allele for any trait -If two alleles are different, only one will be expressed (exceptions are codominance and incomplete dominance) -Correlates closely with anaphase I of meisos (segregation of homologous chromosomes)

Red fibers (slow-twitch fibers)

-High myoglobin content -primary really derived their energy aerobically -contain many mitochondria

Anaphase I

-Homologous chrmosomes move to the oppisite poles of the cell. - disjunction

asters

-Microtubules and fibers that radiate out from the centrioles. -that anchor the centrioles to the membrane of the cell

Mitosis vs. Meiosis

-Mitosis is normal cell division everywhereMeiosis happens only in sex cells (gametes) -during anaphase of meiosis synapsis occurs

Telophase II

-Nuclear membrane reforms, cytoplasm divides, -4 haploid daughter cells formed

How do CDKs promote cell division?

-They phosphorylate transcription factors -when they are activated by the right cyclins

how many peptides can be absorbed into the small intestine wall at once

-Tri peptides 3

9 + 2 structure

-Used in flagella and cilia. -Nine pairs of microtubules, with two in the center. -only in eukaryotes

Bundle of His

-a bundle of modified heart muscle - that transmits the cardiac impulse from the atrioventricular node -to the ventricles causing them to contract

ventilation Center

-a collection of neurons in the medulla oblongata that regulate ventilation - fire rhythmically to cause regular contraction of respiratory muscles - contain chemoreceptors that are sensitive to carbon dioxide concentration -as the partial pressure of CO2 in the blood rises (hypercarbia), the respiratory rate increases so that more CO2 is exhaled causing CO2 levels in the blood to fall -also respond to changes in oxygen concentration --> only significant during period of hypoxemia (low [O] in blood)

Sarcomere

-a structural unit of a myofibril in striated muscle, -consisting of a dark band and the nearer half of each adjacent pale band.

similarities between the three muscle types

-all capable of contraction -all contraction relies on calcium ions -all muscle is innervated

what happens to oocyte during monthly cycle

-all oocytes are waiting in ovaries arrested before m 1 - during the month one oocyte per month will reach m1 and produce a secondary oocyte + a polar body -secondary oocyte remains arrested at m2 untill fertilized

resting membrane potential

-an electrical potential difference (voltage) between the inside of the neuron and the extracellular space -usually about -70 MV -inside the neuron negative relative to the outside

cortical sex hormones

-androgens and estrogens - made by adrenal glands -Males secrete a lot of androgens in testes so adrenal testosterone plays a small role - excess androgen production in females leads to masculinized genitalia

the circulatory system is under ___ control?

-autonomic

enveloped virus vs bacteriophage

-bacteriophage interts nucleic acid & remains outside cell - enveloped virus enters the class whole

tracts of nerves

-bundles of axo form tracts -carry only one type of information

Gametocytes

-cells that divide to form gametes -germ cells

Inducers (differentiation)

-chemical substance that

Chondroblasts

-connective tissue -produces cartilage matrix

Osteoblasts

-connective tissue -produces osteoid forms bones

Fibroblasts

-connective tissue, -cells produce collegen

ductus arteriosus (fetal shunt )

-connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta, -bypassing the lungs

ductus venosus( fetal shunt)

-connects the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava, -bypassing the liver

white fibers (fast-twitch)

-contain less myoglobin -contract rapidly -Tire quickly

menstrual phase

-days of the menstrual cycle on which menstrual bleeding occurs -pro & est falling -LH & FSH constant

what occurs during an excitatory impulse?

-depolarization -raising the membrane potential -increasing the likelihood of the neuron to fire an action potential

initiation of muscle contraction

-depolarization of a neuron leads to action potential in the following steps 1. communicated through neuromuscular Junction 2. via motor (efferent) neurons 3. Reching the nerve terminal 4. acetylcholine is released into the synapse 5. acetylcholine binds to The receptors in the sarcolemma causing depolarization

what results from extreme physical trauma to the muscles

-destruction of skeletal muscle tissue -the products of muscle destruction are toxic and circulate through the blood until they are filtered out

Neurulation

-development of the nervous system -begins after the 3 germ layers are formed

what are the two roles of the extracellular digestive system

-digestion -absorption

apoptotic blebs

-during apoptosis the cell undergoes changes in morphology and divides into many self contained pieces - for nearby cells to digest

selective transcription

-during differentiation -only genes needed for particular cell type are transcribed

Monochorionic/ diamniotic twins

-each have their own amnion but share same chorion

Nerve terminal or synaptic bouton

-end of axon -releases neurotransmitters

ectoderm gives rise to (attractive)

-epidermis , -hair -nails -epithelia of nose, mouth & lower anal canal -eye lense -nervous system -adrenal medulla -inner ear (attracto= cosmetic +smarts)

what are the parts of the interior structure of the Bone

-epiphyseal plate -spongy bone -periosteum -compact bone -marrow cavity

3 parts of the bone

-epiphysis -metaphysis -diaphysis

alpha cells

-epithelial cells -produce glucagon

extracellular digestive system that focuses on digestion

-from mouth until intestines -focuses on breakdown of food into organic molecules

the liver is also the site of

-glycogen storage -gluconeogenesis -bile production

S stage (synthesis)

-governed by a restriction point -DNA is replicated

third trimester

-growth -brain development -antibodies transferred -less activity -48 cm

second trimester

-growth -movement -face -fingers elongate -36cm

microtubules

-hollow polymers of tubulin proteins - pathway for motor protiens (kinesins & dynein - which carry vesicles)

inhibitory and put causes what?

-hyperpolarization - lowering the membrane potential -making the neuron less likely to fire

post -fix of amino acid derived hormones

-in

what is the cause of lactose intolerance

-lack of lactase -which causes an inability to break down lactose -the bacteria in the intestines hydrolyze the disaccharide producing methane gas aka farts +and has an osmotic effect pulling water into the stool causing diarrhea

lytic & lysogenic cycles stage 4 of viral life cycle

-lytic cycle = baceria uses cell untill cell is destroyed (virulent) -lysogenic cycle= replicates but cell lives

components of microfilaments

-made up of solid polymerized rods of actin which are organized into bundles & networks - can use atp to generate force motion by interacting with myocin (muscle contract)

what are the two fundamental types of digestion occurring in the extracellular system

-mechanical digestion -chemical digestion

what are the two processes of the digestive part of the extracellular digestive system

-mechanical digestion -chemical digestion

follicular phase

-menstral Flo -preovulatory phase - pituitary secretes FSH - follicle secretes estrogen -all hormones stagnant

Kinesins

-microtubular motors that 'walk' intracellular organelles along microtubules towards positive end - use 1 atp per step

mesoderm gives rise to (means)

-musclulo- skeletal -circulatory -excretory system -gonads -connective tissues -digestive system -respiratory -anal cortex (means = of getting around )

how is the negative potential maintained?

-na + cannot readily enter at rest -negative potential is maintained

atrioventricular (AV) node

-neurological tissue in the center of the heart that -receives and amplifies the conduction of impulses from the SA node - to the bundle of His

what are the five main characteristics of smooth muscle

-non-striated -involuntary -autonomic innervation - one nucleus per cell - calcium required for contraction

Telophase I

-nuclear membrane forms around each new nucleus -consisting each of two sister chromatids joined at the centromere -both cells haploid

steroid post- fix?

-one -ol -oid

endoderm gives rise to (endernal)

-pancreas, -parts of liver, -thyroid, -lung, -bladder, -urinary tract -epithelial lining of lungs (lines internal organs)

parenchyma cells

-play a role in storage, secrection, and photosynthesis in cells - made of epithelial cells - functional unit of cells -often polarized (one side facing in the other out having different functions on each side )

what are the five criteria for Hardy Weinberg eq

-population is very large (no genetic drift) -there are no mutations that affect the gene pool -mating between individuals in a population is random (no prefference or selection) -there is no migration of individuals into or out of the population -the genes in a population are equally successful at reproducing

luteal phase

-postovulatory phase - corpus luteum begins to secrete large amounts of progesterone -estrogen spike -LH & FSH fall

G2 stage (postsynthetic gap)

-quality control checkpoint 2 - checks for proper formation - organelles

parts of 9 + 2 structure

-radial spokes -central microtubules -inner sheath -nexin -b tubule -a tubule dynein arms

function of loop of henle

-reabsorbs 25% of the water and 20-25% of the NaCl of the original filtrate -creates the concentration gradient in the medulla

function of proximal convoluted tubule

-reabsorbs about 60-70% of all water, 99% of all organic substrates, and 60-70 of all NaCl -secretes hydrogen, ammonium, creatinine, drugs, and toxins

function of proximal convoluted tubule

-reabsorbtion about 60-70% of all water, 99% of all organic substrates

smooth muscle

-responsible for involuntary action -controlled by the ANS -found in the respiratory tract digestive tract bladder uterus blood vessel walls -have one single nucleus in each cell -contain actin and myosin

cooperative binding

-results in sigmoidal curve -In lungs, O diffuses into alveolar capillaries -as first O binds to a heme group, it induces a conformational shift in shape of hemoglobin from tense to relaxed which increases hemoglobin's affinity for O making it easier for subsequent O molecules to bind to remaining 3 unoccupied heme groups -as other heme groups acquire O, affinity increases (+ feedback mechanism) -Once all of the hemoglobin subunits are bound to O, the removal of 1 O induces conformational shift decreasing affinity for O making it easier for other O molecules to leave the heme groups -as O molecules leave, it becomes progressively easier for more O to be removed

a patient has creatine kinase circulating through their blood what is the disease that is affecting them and what is the end result of the disease

-rhabdomyolysis -causes kidney failure

what are the four organs that secrete enzymes and lubrication necessary to Aid in the digestion of food

-salivary glands -pancreas -liver -gallbladder

menopause

-sensitivety to LH & FSH are lost - no more ability to be pregnant

monochorionic/monoamniotic twins

-share the same amnion and chorion

Prokaryotes

-single celled organisms that do not contain nuclei -do not contain cell bound organelles -circular dna

bacteria

-single-celled organisms -lack a nucleus; prokaryotes -contain cell membrane & cytoplasm

monozygotic twins

-single-celled zygote splits in two -twins who are genetically identical -if division is incomplete conjoined twins results

dendrites?

-small appendages emanating directly from Soma -which receive incoming message from other cells

in a resting membrane potential Which is higher outside the cell potassium or sodium?

-sodium is much higher than potassium in the outside of a resting membrane potential -net positive charge

what are the main 5 characteristics of skeletal muscle

-straited -voluntary -somatic innervation -many nuclei -calcium required for contraction

what are the main five characteristics of cardiac muscle

-striated -involuntary -autonomic innervation - 1 to 2 nuclei per cell - calcium required for contraction

ABO antigens

-the A and B alleles are codominant, while the O allele is recessive

first trimester

-the embryo develop brainwaves -beating heart -major organs begin to develope -9cm long -called fetus at weak 9 instead of embryo

amnionic sac

-the fluid-filled sac surrounding the embryo. -One of the fetal membranes

ovulation phase

-the second stage of the cycle, -when the ovum is released. -spike FSH -spike estrogen -spike LH -rising progesterone

amnion

-thin tough membrane filled with amniotic fluid - shock absorber for bby

Extra cellular matrix

-this is the environment that surrounds animal cells -mafe of collegen elastin etc . - protects cells

what are the functions of intercalated discs in the heart

-to connect the cytoplasm of heart cells with many Gap Junctions thereby allowing for coordinated ventricular contraction

ways of introducing new genetic material in prokaryotes

-transformation -conjugation -transduction

translation & progeny assembly stage 2 of viral life cycle

-translation of viral genome into host DNA - create protiens that form viral prodgeny

cardiac muscle

-uni nucleated (but cells may contain 2 nuclei) -controlled by automatic nervous system -appear striated -connected by intercalated discs

list male reproductive system parts Superior to inferior (seven up )

-ureter -urinary bladder -vas defense -seminal vesicle -ejaculatory duct -prostate gland -bulbouetheral gland -urethera -epididymus -testis

assume a population is in hardy-weinberg equilibrium if not percent of the population is homozygous dominant then what is the frequency of the dominant allele

0. 3

what is the frequency of the recessive allele

0. 7

how many molecules of oxygen can one red blood cell Carry

1 billion 250M x 4

what are the two major antigen families

1. abo 2. Rh factor

tenants of cell theory

1. all living things are composed of cells 2. the cell if the basic functional unit of life 3. cells arisenonly from pre- existing cells .

list at least one pancreatic enzyme that digest each of the major class of biomolecules

1. amylase 2. lipase 3. trypsin

renal portal system (glomerulus/Nephron)

1. blood leaving the Glomerulus capillary bed 2. travel through an efferent arteriole surrounding the Nephron in a capillary Network called the Vasa recta 3. before entering the renal papillary system

hypophyseal portal system (hypothalamus/anterior pituitary)

1. blood leaving the capillary beds in the hypothalamus 2. Pass through a second layer of capillaries 3. then travel to a capillary bed in the anterior pituitary to allow for paracrine secretion of releasing hormones

what are the 6 parts of a movable joint

1. bone A 2. bone B 3. synovium 4. synovial capsule 5. joint cavity containing synovial fluid 6. articular cartilage

how are neurotransmitters removed from the synaptic cleft?

1. broken down 2. reuptake 3. diffusion out of synaptic cleft

what are two circulatory vessels in A villus

1. capillary 2. lacteals

what are the 25 major groups of Bones

1. cranium 2. mandible 3. cervical vertebra (7) 4. thoracic vertebra (12) 5. clavicle 6. scapula 7. sternum 8. ribs 9. lumbar vertebra (5) 10. humorous 11. ulna 12. radius 13. pelvis 14. sacrum 15. coccyx 16. purples 17. metacarpals 18. phalanges 19. femur 20. patella 21. tibia 22. fibula 23. tarsals 24. metatarsals 25. phalanges

what Tendencies does the heart exhibit on a cardiac cycle over time in one cycle

1. left arterial pressure stays relatively constant and right above zero with small bumps around the QRS 10 mmhg phase, S3 phase and S4 phase 7 mmhg 2. aortic pressure stays between 79 and 100 mmhg, with one significant hump in the T phase 100 mm HG around S2 followed by a smaller pump in S3 phase around 85 mmhg 1. volume of the heart is around 1: 50 until S1 phase in which it drops significantly 250 Ml and then quickly goes back to a hundred and 50s S3-s4

what are the parts of the cardiac cycle diagram

1. minimal valve closing 2. aortic valve opening 3. aortic valve closing 4. minoval valve opening 5. left arterial pressure 6. ventricular volume 7. left ventricular pressure 8. aortic pressure

shortening of the sarcomere (part 2 of muscle contraction)

1. myosin binds to the myosin binding sites on the actin filaments 2. actin-myosin cross bridges allows myosin to pull on actin draws the thin filaments to be pulled toward the M line 3. resulting in shortening of the sarcomere 4. powered by binding of ATP releasing myosin responsible for Powerstroke

how are neurotransmitters released?

1. neurotransmitter molecules are stored in vesicles in the nerve terminal 2. when the action potential reaches the nerve terminal voltage-gatedcausing calcium channels open up 3. calcium enters the cell 4. increase in calcium causes exocytosis of neurotransmitter 5. neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across cleft bind to receptors in postsynaptic membrane

how does oxygen diffuse into the blood

1. oxygen diffuses into the a violar capillaries 2. the first oxygen binds to a heme group 3. this binding induces a conformational shipped in the shape of the hemoglobin from T (tense) to R (relaxed ) 4. as more oxygen binds the affinity for oxygen of hemoglobin increases 5. once al four molecules of oxygen have bonded to the heme group a conformational change occurs decreasing the overall affinity for oxygen making it easier for other molecules of oxygen to leave the human group

what are the events that initiate muscle contraction in order

1. release of acetylcholine from motor neuron 2. activation of acetylcholine receptors in sarcolemma 3. depolarization of sarcolemma 4. spreading of signal using T tubules 5. release of calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum 6. binding of calcium to troponin 7. conformational shift of tropomyocin 8. exposure of myosin binding sites 9. myosin binds to actin

the four steps of actin myosin cross Bridge cycle are -

1. resting stage, ATP is hydrolyzed 2. Ca²⁺ binds to troponin, myosin binds to actin 3. powerstroke occurs, the sarcomere contracts, ADP and Pi dissociate from myosin 4. new ATP binds to myosin, causing detachment of myosin from actin; hydrolysis of ATP to ADP and Pi causes recocking of the myosin head -key point: it is the dissociation of ADP and Pi from myosin that is responsible for the powerstroke, NOT the hydrolysis of ATP

hepatic portal system (gut/liver)

1. the blood leaving the capillary beds in the walls of the gut 2. passing through a second layer of capillaries 3. before entering the hepatic vein and reaching the capillary beds in the liver

what are the two sites of gas exchange in the body

1. the lungs which except CO2 re oxygenate hemoglobin 2. the capillaries that dissipate oxygen into the tissues and pick up CO2

phases of birth

1. water breaks 2. contractions & birth 3. placental expulsion I

from zygote to gastrula what are the various stages of development

1.zygote 2. 2-4-8-16 cell embryo 3. morula 4. blastula 5. gastrula

full penetrance

100% of the individuals with the allele show phenotype

how long do red blood cells last

120 days

if two genes were 25 map units apart what would we expect to be the percent of total gametes examined to show recombination somewhere between these two genes

25%

what percentage of oxygen saturation is healthy

97%

draw a picture of a pair of sister chromosomes attached by a centromere

>•< > =sister chromatids • = centrimere

cell walls

A rigid layer of organic material surrounding delicate cell membranes of bacteria

collecting duct

A segment of the nephron that returns water form the filtrate to the bloodstream. responsive to both aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone as permeability increases so does water absorption

collecting duct

A segment of the nephron that returns water form the filtrate to the bloodstream. urea returns to the loop of henle

rectum

A short tube at the end of the large intestine where waste material is compressed into a solid form before being eliminated

appendix

A small, fingerlike extension of the vertebrate cecum; contains a mass of white blood cells that contribute to immunity.

second messenger

A small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecule or ion, such as calcium ion or cyclic AMP, that relays a signal to a cell's interior in response to a signal received by a signal receptor protein. signaling Cascade

bolus

A soft mass of chewed food.

bone marrow

A soft tissue inside the bone that produces blood cells

bile

A substance produced by the liver that breaks up fat particles.

intrinsic factor

A substance produced by the mucosa of the stomach and intestines that is essential for the absorption of vitamin B12.

Golgi apparatus

A system of membranes that modifies (adds groups) and packages proteins for export by the cell

Golgi apparatus

A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell

compliment

A system that consists of a number of proteins in the blood that act as a nonspecific defense against

Conjugation

A temporary union of two prokaryotic organisms for the purpose of DNA transfer.

zona pellucida

A thick, transpartent coating rich in glycoproteins that surrounds an oocyte. I

Axon

A threadlike extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.

endocrine signaling

A type of long-distance signaling in animals that utilizes hormones.

lymphocytes

A type of white blood cell that make antibodies to fight off infections

hepatic portal vein

A vein connecting the capillary bed of the intestines with the capillary bed of the liver. This allows amino acids and gluocse absorbed from the intestines to be delivered first to the liver for processing before being transported throughout the circulatory system.

umbilical vein

A vein in the umbilical cord; returns nutrient blood from the placenta to the fetus.

acrosome

A vesicle at the tip of a sperm cell that helps the sperm penetrate the egg

Bacteriophage

A virus that infects bacteria

skeletal muscle

A voluntary muscle that is attached to the bones of the skeleton and provides the force that moves the bones.

Fitness

Ability of an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment

water soluble vitamins

B and C

B blood can receive

B and O

facultative anaerobes

Can make enough ATP to survive using using fermentation or respiration.

Vasa recta

Capillary branches that supply loops of Henle in the medulla region of the kidney

Parts of virus

Capsid, Nucleic acid, sometimes Envelope ,tail sheth, tail fibers

chemotaxis

Cell movement that occurs in response to chemical stimulus

Centrioles

Cell organelle that aids in cell division in animal cells only

peptidoglycan

Cell wall of prokaryotes, but NOT ARCHAEA. Made of a sugar polymer and polypeptide.

Organelles only in plant cells

Cell wall, chloroplast, central vacuole

G1 stage (presynthetic gap)

Cells create organelles for energy and protein production, while also increasing their size

female reproductive system

Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, fallopian tubes , uterus, endometrium , cervix, uterus, and vagina

Inducers

Compounds that stimulate the transcription of specific genes

what do the four s's in the cardiac cycle electrocardiogram represent

S4= the sound of the material valve closing and the aortic valve closing due to stiffness of the heart muscle or high blood pressure s1= the sound that is produced when two AV valves closed at the start of systole to prevent backflow into the art are S2= produced when two semilunar valves close at the end of a systole to prevent backflow into the ventricles S3= result of stiffness of the heart muscle or blood pressure during atrial valve opening and a Aortic pressure S4= results of stiffness of the heart muscle or high blood pressure during the left ventricular increase in pressure at the end of one cycle

Plasmid DNA

Separate from circular DNA and can replicate independently & can be passesd between prokaryotes of a same group

Function of ANP and BNP

Serves to maintain volume equilibrium in hypervolemic states HF, excess IV fluid

name the cell type site of development site of maturation major functions specificity and mediation of T cells?

T cells are developed in the bone marrow and mature in the thymus the major function of T cells is to coordinate immune system and directly kill infected cells T cells are specific and cell-mediated

name the hormonal pathway between T3 and T4 to bone and muscle increase

T3 and T4=hypothalamus growth hormone=anterior pituitary bone and muscle=Target Oregon

how do we breathe?

We take in air through our nasal cavity. it then passes through the phyarnx and through the larynx into the trachea. the trachea branches into left and right bronchus which enter the left and right lung respectively t the 2 bronchi branch into smaller bronchioles much like the branches of a tree get smaller and smaller ending in 300-500 alveoli (the hollow site of gas exchange) the alveoli are wrapped in capillaries that carry oxygen away from the alveoli to body tissue and bring carbon dioxide to the alveoli

how to remember the parts of the sarcomere

Z= end of sarcomere M=middle of sarcomere H= thick filaments only I=thin filaments only A=all the filaments

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)

a lipid and carbohydrate complex found in (gram - ) bacterial cell walls- triggers immune response in humans -worse than lipo acid in gram +

how many nuclei does the hypothalamus have?

a number of them

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete corticosteroid hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.

reverse transcriptase

a polymerase that catalyzes the formation of DNA using RNA as a template

distal convoluted tubule

a portion of kidney nephron between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct system. where most of the salt is reabsorbed into the body (NaCl)

cecum

a pouch connected to the junction of the small and large intestines. exact fluid exiting the small intestine via the ileocecal valve

Starling forces

a pressure differential that causes the net movement of fluid from the glomerulus to Bowman's space

titin

a protein that positions the myosin filament to maintain equal spacing between actin filaments

what is Type 2 diabetes?

a receptor level resistance to the effect of insulin partially inherited and partially due to environmental factors

monosynaptic reflex arc

a reflex pathway having only one synapse in the CNS

complete dominance

a relationship in which one allele is completely dominant over another red

ip3 inositol triphosphate

a second messenger that functions as an intermediate between certain nonsteroid hormones and a third messenger, a rise in cytoplasmic calcium ion concentration

camp cyclic adenosine monophosphate

a second-messenger system present in the cytoplasm of a variety of cells, including neurons. when activated, cAMP production can ultimately induce gene transcription in the cell nucleus and thus affect the density of membrane receptors at the synapse. the cAMP pathway has been implicated in a variety of functions, including associative learning

polar body

a small cell containing little cytoplasm that is produced along with the oocyte and later discarded

what may be the cause of lactation in males?

a tumor in the pituitary gland causing the compression of the portal system that connects the pituitary and hypothalamus blocking the ability of pif to reach the pituitary and exert its effect increasing the amount of prolactin

vasovagal response

a type of effect that occurs from high anxiety rather than from the actual exam or drug injection

O type blood can donate

a, b ,ab, o

AB type blood can donate to

ab

rarest blood type

ab-

Chemotaxis

ability of a cell to detect chemical stimuli and move toward or away from them

regenerative capacity

ability of an organism to regrow certain parts of the body

Competency

ability of one cell to understand the sign of another & respond to it appropriately

what occurs when the pH is below 7. 35?

acidemia

CO2 is_____ and 02 is

acidic basic

what does AIDS stand for?

acquired immune deficiency syndrome

thin filaments

actin

what are microfillaments made of ?

actin

what does muscle contraction depend on

actin and myosin

impulse propagation

action potential travels down the axon and initiates neurotransmitter release

high levels of camp

activate cAMP dependent protein kinase which phosphorylate and inactivate glycogen synthase

what stimulus activates natural killer cells

activated by cells that do not present MHC such as virally infected cells and cancer cells

what occurs when cell surface antibodies bind to a B cell

activation resulting in proliferation and formation of plasma and memory cells

change in membrane potential occurs by what transport?

active and requires energy

what is the difference between active and passive immunity

active immunity= the simulation of immune system to produce antibodies against a pathogen passive immunity= the transfer of antibodies to prevent infection

spatial summation

addition of multiple signals near each other in space

frequency summation

addition of multiple simple twitches before the muscle has an opportunity to fully relax

summation

additive effect of multiple signals reaching a threshold when combined

prostate gland

adds a chemical fluid to the semen

what organ secretes corticosteroids?

adrenal cortex

where do mineralocorticoids come from?

adrenal cortex

where do epinephrine and norepinephrine come from?

adrenal medulla

shortening telomeres is associated with?

aging

what are basophils?

agranulocyte that promotes inflammaTory response

what role does the by name ATP to myosin head play in the cross Bridge cycle

allows the filament to disconnect from actin

Where are villi found?

along the walls/lining of the small intestines

where does glucagon come from?

alpha cells of pancreas

suppressor T cells(CD4)

also expresses a protein called FoxP3 these cells help tone down the immune response to an affection that has been adequately contained

what two main enzymes are found in saliva

amylase lipase

neural tube

an embryonic structure that gives rise to the central nervous system

RNA replicase

an enzyme that can produce RNA from an RNA template

what is a macrophage

an immune Defender cell that engulfs and consumes pathogens (innate)

superinfection

an infection on top of another infection

histamine

an inflammatory mediator resulting in vasodilation

what is the immunological function of stomach acid

an interim microbial mechanism in the digestive system

Endoplasmic Reticulum

an internal membrane system in which components of cell membrane and some proteins are constructed

chiasma

an intersection or crossing of two tracts in the form of the letter X

basal body

anchors the cilium or flagellum

what are the differences between innate and adaptive immunity?

and Nate is always acting and adapted is a response to specific types of pathogens due to previous exposure

nexin

another protein in cilia and flagella, does something with doublets

what produces thyroid stimulating hormone?

anterior pituitary

where is thyroid stimulating hormone produced?

anterior pituitary

what is immunologic function of defensins?

antibacterial enzymes on the skin

what is humoral immunity

antibody-mediated immunity

agglutination

antigens causing pathogens to Clump together forming large insoluble complexes that can be phagocytized

CD 8 plus sells respond to?

antigens presented on MHC 1 molecules endogenous antigens

clotting factors

any of the various plasma components involved in the clotting process

sex pili

appendages that pull two cells together prior to DNA transfer from one cell to the other

Killer T cells (CD8+ )

are capable of directly killing virally infected cells by injecting Toxic chemicals that promote apoptosis into the infected cell

direct hormones

are secreted and act directly on a target tissue

which have more smooth muscle arteries or veins

arteries

which is more numerous in the umbilical cord arteries or veins?

arteries

death phase

as limiting factors intensify, cells die exponentially

exhalation

as the diaphragm and internal intercostals relax the chest cavity decreases in volume that's the pressure of the intrapleural space will go higher than in the lungs which is still at atmospheric pressure the arrow pushed out of the lungs

atrial systole

atrial contraction increases atrial pressure that forces more blood into ventricles

patellar tendon

attaches muscles to the bottom of the patella (kneecap)

rod of flagella

attaches outside Of flagella to inside if cell

junction

attaches tail of flagella to hook

P ring of the flagella

attaches to the peptidoglycan n the cell wal

insertion

attachment to movable bone

type 1 diabetes is characterized by?

autoimmune destruction of beta cells in the pancreas insufficient insulin production

efferent

away

components of the skeletal system

axial and appendicular

Anarobes

bacteria that does not need oxygen to survive (fermentation)

what are CD4 +T cells most effective against?

bacterial fungal and parasitic infections due to their exogenius nature

what regulates blood pressure in the body

baroreceptors in the walls of the vasculature

why don't we have to take into account a blood donors plasma or antibody type when donating and receiving blood transfusions

because blood is typically transfused with only red blood cells and no plasma

why does the cell require active transport to change its resting potential?

because both potassium and sodium are going against their gradients

why does fetal hemoglobin have a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin

because fetal red blood cells must a literally pull off oxygen from maternal hemoglobin into fetal hemoglobin

how to remember which part of the kidney is the outer versus which part of the kidney is the inner?

because the cortex is on the outside of the kidney and the medulla is on the inside of the kidney remember the letter c comes before the letter M in the alphabet

why are people with type O blood Universal donors

because their blood will not cause hemolysis with any other blood type because it has no surface antigen

how do type 1 diabetics deal with their diabetes?

because they produce no insulin they must inject it

why is it important to match blood types in blood transfusions

because your blood will recognize Itself by the antigen and if the antigens are different it will attack the other blood type causing severe hemolysis

where is insulin from?

beta cells of pancreas

what is the body's optimal pH?

between 7. 35 and 7. 45

how does co2 exist in the blood

bicarbonate when we don't breathe this can cause alkalemia or or blood alkalosis in which the PH of blood rises above 7. 4

when the PH of blood is high (basic) which substance is likely to be excreted in larger quantities in the urine

bicarbonate ions

what two structures in the liver communicate with the digestive system

bile ducts hepatic portal vein

what are the major components of bile

bile salts pigments cholesterol

bile is composed of

bile salts, phospholipids, cholesterol, bilirubin, water, and ions, pigments

2 3 bisphosphoglycerate

binds in the center of the hemoglobin tetramer

neutralize

blocking ability of a pathogen to invade tissues

renal artery

blood vessel that carries blood to the kidney

intramembranous ossification

bone develops from a fibrous membrane

osteoblasts

bone forming cells

are healthy periosteum is necessary for

bone growth and repair

immovable joints

bone joints that are fused together hello little to no movement

what are the organs of the immune system?

bone marrow, thymus gland, lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic vessel, appendix, tonsils, spleen, peyer's patches

what are the critically important functions of calcium?

bone structure and strength release of neurotransmitters from neurons regulation of muscle contraction clotting of blood calcium also plays a role in cell movement and exocytosis of cellular materials

connective tissue

bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, fat , blood and other soft padding tissue

heterozygous alleles

both alleles are different, one is expressed and the other doesn't affect the organism and the allele that is expressed is dominant Xx

mutualistic symbiotes

both humans and the bacteria benefit from the relationship

strong bones are made of

both organic and inorganic materials

immunizations provide what type of immunity?

both passive and active immunity

which nervous system controls salivation

both sympathetic and parasympathetic

cuboidal epithelial cells

boxlike, approximately as tall as they are wide epithelial cells

osteoclasts

break down bone

Rhabomyolysis

breakdown of muscle fibers; may be caused by heatstroke or heavy exercise

what does digestion entail

breakdown of the foods we eat into smaller particles that can be digested

salivary lipase

breaks down fats

lactase

breaks down lactose

what does lipase do

breaks down lipids

Maltase

breaks down maltose

Peptidase

breaks down peptides into amino acids

what does amylase do

breaks down starch

sucrase

breaks down sucrose enzyme

plasmin

breaks down the blood clot

how does our respiratory system adjust if we move to higher altitude where oxygen is less available?

breathing more rapidly and finding dynamics of hemoglobin to oxygen would be altered to facilitate uploading of oxygen at the tissues

disaccharidases

brush-border enzymes that break down maltose, isomaltose, lactose, and sucrose into monosaccharides

what are the functions of osteoblasts

building bones

how does the lungs play an immediate rule in the adjustment of hydrogen ion levels?

by adjusting carbon dioxide levels

how do steroid hormones travel in the bloodstream?

by binding to a carrier protein

how do anesthetics work?

by blocking voltage-gated na channels in the sensory neurons

how are neurotransmitters broken down?

by enzymatic reactions - EG acetylcholine

how does the thyroid control metabolism?

by releasing T3 and T4

how are neurotransmitters reuptake in?

by the presynaptic neuron using reuptake carriers -dopeamine

mnemonic to remember T cells?

c d x M H C = 8 CD4 + cells respond to MHC II ( 4x2 = 8) cd8 + cells respond to MHC 1 (8x1 = 8)

how does caffeine alter water output?

caffeine is a diuretic which interferes with antidiuretic hormone ADH would usually cause increased reabsorption of water however, when ADH is suppressed more water leaves the Nephron and is excreted

what hormone works counter to parathyroid hormone?

calcitonin which decreases the amount of blood calcium after a calcium rich meal

what does the contraction of the cardiac muscle rely on

calcium

parts of nephron from capillaries to renal pelvis

capillary bed proximal convoluted tubule Loop of henle distal convoluted tubule collecting duct

what type of nutrients are digested by pancreatic juices

carbohydrates fats and proteins

myocytes

cardiac muscle cells

heterozygous individuals are

carriers

efferent arteriole

carries blood away from the glomerulus

afferent arteriole

carries blood to the glomerulus

efferent arterioles

carry blood away from the glomerulus

arteries

carry blood away from the heart

afferent arterioles

carry blood to the glomerulus

veins

carry blood to the heart

umbilical arteries

carry deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta

pulmonary arteries

carry deoxygenated blood out of the right ventricle and into the lungs

what are the two major components of the skeleton

cartilage and bone

what are the three sections of the large intestine

cecum, colon, rectum

what events adults from growing further?

ceiling of the long bones closing of the epiphyseal plates

islets of langerhans

cell clusters in the pancreas that form the endocrine part of that organ

juxtacrine signaling

cell communication by direct contact between cells

necrosis

cell death due to external factors, -lack of oxygen or physical damage

Platelets (thrombocytes)

cell fragments or shards released from cells in the bone marrow form blood clots

G2/M checkpoint

cell monitors DNA synthesis and damage

G1/S checkpoint

cell monitors size and DNA integrity

lysosomes

cell organelle filled with enzymes needed to break down certain materials in the cell

G0 stage

cell performs its function without any preparation for division

what is a mast cell?

cell releasing histamine and other chemicals that promote inflammation (innate)

fourth tenant of molecular biology

cells carry genetic info in the form of DNA & is passesfrom parent to daughter cell

endothelial cells

cells lining the blood vessels

autocrine signaling

cells respond to signaling substances that they themselves secrete

interstitium

cells surrounding the blood vessels

what are T cells

cells that kill infected cells

oogonia

cells that produce primary oocytes by mitotic division specific number in women

negative T-cell selection

cells that respond die

positive T Cell selection

cells that respond survive

microtubule organizing center

centrosome

what are the tenants of natural selection

certain traits arise from chance are more favorable for Reproductive success in a given environment a given environment

four parts of spinal cord

cervical thoracic Lumbar and sacral

genetic drift

changes in the composition of the gene pool due to chance

volkmann's canals

channels lying at right angles to the central canal, transverse channels connecting blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the Haversian canal

what are hormones?

chemical messages

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

what are cytokines?

chemical substances that stimulate inflammation and recruit additional immune cells to the area

most synapses are what in nature?

chemical they use small molecules referred to as neurotransmitters

failure of the epiglottis can lead to

choking or aspiration of food

chemical precursor of steroid hormones

cholesterol

sister chromatids

chromatids from the same chromosome

mucociliary escalator

cilia that transport mucus and foreign material out of the respiratory tract to be sneezed or swallowed

what catches material that has made it past the mucous membranes of the nose and mouth?

ciliated epithelial cells in the bronchial and trachea

portal systems

circulatory routes in which the blood travels through two sets of capillary beds before returning to the heart there are three portal systems in the body hepatic, hypophyseal and renal portal systems

what does high blood pressure indicate

clinical hypertension, anxiety, tumors, stimulant use

Piloerection (goosebumps)

close follicle when cold to contain heat and minimize heat loss

extracellular pathogenic bacteria

clostridium tetani= causes tetunus by producing tocibs & secreating them into the blood stream

Ganglia (ganglion)

cluster of neurons in PNS

nuclei

clusters of cell bodies in the CNS

dorsal root ganglia

clusters of sensory neurons outside the spinal cord

vasopressin regulates the insertion of aquaporins into what apical membrane of the epithelial cells of which renal cell structure

collecting duct because vasopressin regulates the fusion of aquaporins within be a pickle membranes of the collecting ducts of epithelial cells

nephrons empty into?

collecting ducts and eventually into the renal pelvis which Narrows from the ureter

determination

commits a cell to specific liniage

renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

compensatory process that leads to increased blood pressure and blood volume to ensure perfusion of the kidneys; important in the continual regulation of blood pressure

what is the difference between complete dominance codominance and incomplete dominance

complete = 4x Rr = all red incomplete = 2 Rr 2 rr = pink co dominance = 4x RS= pink & White

esophagus

composed of both skeletal and smooth muscle muscular tube that pushes the food to the stomach

thick filaments

composed of myosin

bile salts

compounds in bile that aid in emulsification

lesser curvature

concave medial surface of the stomach

what concept allows gas exchange

concentration gradients a higher concentration gradient on one side of the capillary wall then the other allows for movement of gases and solutes by diffusion

llamellae

concentric rings of hard, extracellular calcified bone matrix

inborn errors of metabolism

congenital disabilities preventing normal metabolism

I bands

contain only thin filaments

head (sperm)

contains genetic material covered w/ acrosome

systole and diastole

contraction and relaxation (contraction should be significantly higher than relaxation)

Mineralocorticoids

control salt water homeostasis

nuclear membrane

controls what goes in and out of the nucleus

what is the purpose of shivering

converting ATP into thermal energy producing heat

Angiotensin converting enzyme

converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II

helper T cells (CD4+)

coordinate the immune response by secreting chemicals known as lymphokines

layers of epidermis from superficial to Deep

corneum, lucidum, granulosum, spinosum, basale

which region of the kidney has the lowest solute concentration under normal physiological circumstances

cortex

what are the parts of the kidney?

cortex and medulla

what are the parts of the kidney

cortex, medulla renal pelvis renal artery renal vein ureter Nephron

process by which glucose corticoids are released

corticotropin-releasing factor from the hypothalamus promotes release of adrenocorticotropic hormone from the anterior pituitary which promotes release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex

most common glucocorticoids

cortisol and corticosterone

articular cartilage

covers the surfaces of bones where they come together to form joints

what is the combined function of the Vasa recta and Nephron?

creating a countercurrent multiplier system making the flow of filtrate through the loop of henle in the opposite direction from the flow of blood through the Vasa recta this causes the filtrate to be exposed to hypertonic blood which allows maximal reabsorption of water

double crossover

cross over then cross back (two events)

what explains Mendel's second law of independent assortment ?

crossing over

types of epithelial cells shape

cuboidal , columnar, squamos,

Bowman's capsule

cup-shaped strucutre of the nephron of a kidney which encloses the glomerulus and which filtration takes place.

lytic cycle

cycle of viral infection; results in replication of virus and cell destruction

what causes a bruise

damage to capillaries allowing blood to leave the capillaries and enter a closed interstitial space

what is pus

dead neutrophils

opening capillary beds will do what to the vascular resistance

decrease increasing cardiac output

what can cause a right shift of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve (increase release of oxygen)

decrease in pH

if blood levels of CO2 become too low what does the brain altering the respiratory system to maintain homeostasis?

decrease respiratory rate in order to raise CO2 levels

deleterious mutations

decrease the fitness of the organism

function of renin

decreased blood pressure stimulates the release of renin renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I

what is the biological function of calcitonin?

decreases blood calcium concentrations

Enterogastrone

decreases stomach emptying allowing enzymes to act further breaking down fats

renal hilum

deep slit in the center of the medulla of the kidney where the renal artery, vein and ureter enter and exit

hypoxemia

deficient amount of oxygen in the blood

what occurs when an antigen binds to antibodies on the cell surface of a mast cell

degranulation causing an allergic reaction

molecular clock model

degree of difference in the genome b/w 2 species is related to the amount of time since the 2 species broke off from a common ancestor

the majority of mutations are

deleterious or neutral

types of chromosomal mutations

deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation

where is somatostatin produced?

delta cells of pancreas

fetal arteries carry

deoxygenated blood

veins carry

deoxygenated blood

Na+ influx causes _____K + eflux causes______

depolarization & action potential fire hyperpolarization return to membrane potential

what is a biological function of estrogen?

develops and maintains female reproductive system and female secondary sex characteristics

what is the biological function of testosterone?

develops and maintains male reproductive system and male secondary sex characteristics

what is the name of the condition characterized by insufficient secretion or intensity to insulin?

diabetes mellitus

which muscles are involved in inhalation?

diaphragm and external intercostal muscles neck and back may also be involved

what are the three structural parts of the bone

diaphysis metaphysis epiphysis

sex linked disorders

dieseases that are determined by genes found on the sex chromosomes. particularly the X chromosome (more ecperessed in males bc only one copy)

responsive cells

differentiate according to the inducers secreted by organizing cells

what does the autonomic nervous system generally regulate?

digestion and glandular secretions as well as heartbeat and respiration and other involuntary needs

extracellular digestion

digestion that breaks down food into molecules these molecules are absorbed in the intestine and transported through the bloodstream and are taken up by cells who perform intracellular digestion

gastric juice

digestive secretions of the stomach glands consisting chiefly of hydrochloric acid and mucin and the enzymes pepsin and rennin and lipase

what is the difference between a direct and trophic hormone?

direct hormones can penetrate the lipid bilayer and affect the DNA directly trophic hormones must act vs secondary messenger which expands the message inside the cell because they cannot enter the cell

modes of natural selection

directional, disruptive, stabilizing

how does the fetus breathe during pregnancy?

directly from the fetal bloodstream it does not use its lungs until birth

what account for Mendel's first law ?

disjunction

what role does the dissociation of ADP and inorganic phosphate from myosin head play in the cross Bridge cycle

dissociation of ADP and inorganic phosphate from myosin cause the Powerstroke

how do peptide hormones travel in the bloodstream

dissolves and travels freely

Antrum

distal portion of the stomach

pylorus

distal region of the stomach, opening to the duodenum attaches intestine to stomach

intermediate filaments

diverse class of structural proteins that make up the permanent framework of the entire cell

aerotolerant anaerobes

do not utilize oxygen but can survive and grow in its presence

alternative complement pathway

does not require antibodies complement proteins punch holes in the walls of cell bacteria

prolactin inhibiting Factor is?

dopamine

Catecholamines

dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine

catecholamines are

dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine

the three parts of the small intestine

duodenum, jejunum, ileum

what are the three sections of the small intestine

duodenum, jejunum, ileum

what are the three segments of the small intestine

duodenum, jejunum, ileum

what are the three types of comatose cell mutations that do not share the name with the type of frameshift mutation

duplication inversion translocation

positive feedback loop childbirth

during childbirth the release of oxytocin promotes your uterine contraction which promotes more oxytocin release which promote stronger uterine contraction and so on until birth

relaxation period

during this time, calcium ions are actively transported back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, myosin-binding sites are covered by tropomyosin, myosin heads detach from actin, and tension in the muscle fiber decreases

contraction period

during this time, calcium ions bind to troponin, myosin-binding sites on actin are exposed, crossbridges form

what is the result of a deficit of growth hormone during childhood?

dwarfism

primary germ layers

ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

if a neuron signals to a gland or muscle the postsynaptic cell is termed?

effector

what fibers do motor impulses travel along?

efferent fibers

Prototherians

egg laying mammals

ejaculation

ejection of sperm and fluid from the male urethra

what does an electrocardiogram measure

electrical activity of the heart

action potentials

electrical signals sent by neurons to communicate

vetebral column

encloses and protects spinal cord, -supports head and serves as point of attachment for ribs n muscle -has both white and gray matter

the placenta is a ____organ bc it secreats hormones

endocrine

accessory organs of digestion grow out of

endoderm

the accessory organs of digestion originated from which primary germ layer

endoderm

MHC 1 =

endogenous (inside )

what do macrophages do?

engulf and digest pathogens and signal to the rest of the system that there is an invader

acromegaly

enlargement of the extremities

enteropeptidase

enzyme bound to plasma membrane of duodenal epithelial cells, activates pancreatic protease trypsinogen to trypsin

thrombin

enzyme that converts fibrinogen to fibrin during coagulation

what is chemical digestion

enzymes break down food into the small molecules the body can use

what prevents food from entering the larynx

epiglottis

common amino acid derived hormones

epinephrine norepinephrine triiodothyronine and thyroxine

biggest difference between eukaryotic & prokaryotic cells ?

eukaryotes have a nucleus

pancreas functions

exocrine= secretes hormones into small intestine; endocrine= secretes hormones into bloodstream; Insulin stimulates muscles to remove glucose from the blood when glucose levels are high (like after a meal); Islets of Langerhans secrete glucagon that respond to low levels of blood glucose

two types of skeletons

exoskeleton and endoskeleton

what are the tenants of the modern synthesis model

explains that selection is for specific alleles which are past to Future Generations through formation of gametes and that these favorable traits arise from mutations

what are the tenants of Inclusive fitness

explanation that reproductive success of an organism is not only due to a number of offspring created but also due to the success of the organism and taking care of its offspring

log phase

exponential growth

where is the location of the receptor of a peptide hormone?

exterior

what type of infection is a bacterial infection?

extracellular

founder effect

extreme case of genetic drift small population of species finds itself in reproductive isolation increases frequency of those individuals in population future

microglial cells

extremely small glial cells that remove cellular debris from injured or dead cells

vasovagal syncope

fainting, dizziness before, during or after venipuncture

what are fats broken down into

fatty acids and glycerol

what usually causes pancreatitis

fatty meals/garbage gall stones

job of capillary bed

feed blood to be filtered through Nephron

which sex is more susceptible to cortical sex hormones?

females

zygote

fertilized egg

pregnancy

fertilized ova attaches to uterine lining - secreating HCG

low penetrance

fewer sequence repeats

what protein help stabilize the blood clot

fibrin

sympathetic nervous system

fight or flight

what are the three different processes of the kidney?

filtration, secretion, reabsorption

what role do microfilaments play in cytokinesis ?

firming cleavage furrow separating the two daughter cells

duodenum

first part of the small intestine primarily involved in digestion

proximal convoluted tubule

first section of the renal tubule that the blood flows through; reabsorption of water, ions, and all organic nutrients

if an autoimmune disease attacks the voltage-gated calcium channels in a nerve terminal what is the likely symptom of this condition?

flaccid paralysis the lack of neurotransmitters means that the neuron cannot send signals that's the symptoms resulting from this disease would be due to inability of a neuron to communicate if neurons cannot communicate flaccid paralysis may be the result

tip

flagellum whip tip

list all the hormones in the human body

follicle-stimulating hormone luteinizing hormone adrenocorticotropic hormone thyroid stimulating hormone prolactin endorphins growth hormone antidiuretic hormone oxytocin T3 and T4 calcitonin parathyroid hormone glucocorticoids: cortisol and cortisone mineralocorticoids: aldosterone epinephrine and norepinephrine glucagon insulin somatostatin testosterone estrogen progesterone melatonin erythropoietin arterial nitriuretic peptide thymosin

what trophic hormones are secreted by the anterior pituitary?

follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone growth hormone thyroid stimulating hormone adrenocorticotropic hormone

prosthetic heme group

for prosthetic in groups on one hemoglobin molecule The Binding of oxygen in one he group allows the other human groups to be more susceptible to oxygen-binding

fetal shunts

foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus are ___ ___

disruptive selection

form of natural selection in which a single curve splits into two; occurs when individuals at the upper and lower ends of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle

vasa recta function

formation of concentrated urine

what are the functions of chondrocytes

forming cartilage

MHC Class 2 molecules

found on antigen presenting cells like macrophages

spermatids

four haploid cells that are formed when a diploid reproductive cell divides meiotically

what is the pathway of urine from the Nephron in to the dick

from the Nephron into the collecting duct into the renal pelvis into the ureter out through the dick hole

jejunum and ileum

function mainly in absorption of nutrients and water

what are the four main anatomical divisions of the stomach

fundus body Antrum pylorus

what effect does the sympathetic nervous system have on the digestive system

funnels blood back into the brain and skeletal muscle making you feel alert

what effect does the parasympathetic nervous system have on the digestive system

funnels blood into the digestive tract making you feel tired

where are bile salts stored

gallbladder

Bile duct connects

gallbladder, small intestine, to the liver

Outcrossing

gametes from different individuals combine to form offspring

Nodes of rainvier

gaps in the myelin sheath that serve to speed up neural impulses

midpiece (sperm)

generates ATP from fructose and contains many mitochondria

Pentose Phosphate Pathway (PPP)

generates NADPH (reducing power) and ribose 5-phosphate (for nucleotides)

sex factors

genes in plasmids

Transformation

genes transferred from one bacterium to another as "naked" DNA

genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

what occurs if there is an excess in growth hormone release in childhood?

gigantism

in a disease where finding protein in the urine of a patient is common where is the likely deficit in the Nephron

glomerulus

what do alpha pancreatic cells secrete?

glucagon

steroid hormones

glucocorticoids (cortisol and cortisone) mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) testosterone estrogen progesterone

what type of hormone is glucocorticoids?

glucocorticoids such as cortisol and cortisone are steroids derived from cholesterol

what is the energy source of red blood cells

glycolysis generation of aTp

what fetus does to protect liver &lung from blood pressure

has three shunts to redirect blood away from these organs

silent mutations

have no effect on the amino acid produced by a codon because of redundancy in the genetic code

Vagus Nerve (X)

he's responsible for much of the parasympathetic intervention in the thoracic and abdominal cavity

Parts of sperm

head= Acrosome, plasma membrane , nucleus , mid = centrioles, mitochondria tail= axial filament ( flagellum), end piece

how are shunts affected after birth ?

heart pressure differential reverses shutting the ovals

cardiovascular system

heart, blood vessels, blood

spindle fibers

help pull apart the cell during replication and are made up of micrtubules

what are the three types of T cells

helper T cells suppressor T cells and killer T-cells

what are the functions of helper suppressor memory and killer T-cells?

helper T cells increase the response to an infection killer T-cells destroy the infected cells memory T-cells keep in memory of the microbe and when activated results in a more rapid response suppressor T cells suppressor teeth cells towing down the immune response Wednesday infection has been contained

precursor to granulocytes and agranulocytes

hematopoietic stem cells

what type of cell gives rise to red blood cells and platelets

hematopoietic stem cells

the production of blood cells and platelets is called

hemopoiesis

Carriers

heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but are phenotypically normal

hfr

high frequency of recombination cells that are now male via conjugation

what triggers increase in calcitonin production by C cells?

high levels of calcium in the blood

nuclear pores

holes in the nuclear envelope that allow materials to pass in and out of the nucleus

reductional division

homolog number reduced by half meiosis 1

cck

hormone secreted by small intestine that reduces hunger

renin

hormone secreted by the kidney; it raises blood pressure by influencing vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels) Ann cleeves an inactive plasma protein

somatostatin

hormone that inhibits release of growth hormone and insulin

Thrombopoietin

hormone that regulates platelet formation

peptide hormones definition?

hormones made up of amino acid ranging in size from quite small two relatively large. because peptide hormones are charged they must bind to an extracellular receptor the peptide hormone is considered the first messenger the first messenger binds to the receptor and triggers the transmission of a secondary signal known as a secondary messenger

glucocorticoids

hormones that regulate blood glucose levels

trophic hormones

hormones that require an intermediate to act

trophic hormones?

hormones that work by causing the release of other hormones at the organ level

stomach acid

hydrochloric acid

what type of pressure pushes fluids out of vessels

hydrostatic pressure

what chemical forms most of the inorganic component of bone

hydroxyapatite crystals

how is diabetes mellitus clinically characterized?

hyperglycemia in the kidneys excessive Luke o the filtrate will overwhelm the nephrons ability to reabsorb glu cose

what results from an excess of thyroid stimulation due to an excess of thyroid hormone?

hyperthyroidism

levels of skin from deepest working out word

hypodermis dermis epidermis

what can excess insulin cause?

hypoglycemia

what organ releases dopamine?,(PIF)

hypothalamus and causes a decrease in prolactin secretion

what occurs during an iodine deficiency?

hypothyroidism slow metabolism due to insufficient secretion of thyroid hormones

structure of flagella

identical axoneme to secondary cilia (9 boublets+2 microtubles inside)

how does the bicarbonate buffer system link the respiratory and renal systems

if an individual hyperventilates excess CO2 is blown off Shifting the bicarbonate buffer system to the left decrease in the concentration of protons causing alkalemia what the kidney is unable to affectively excrete acid - acidois occurs & hyperventilation increases bicarbonate in the blood

what is the genotype of type O blood

ii

opsonization

immediate phocytosis of antigens

cell mediated immunity

immunity against abnormal cells and pathogens inside living cells Tcells

adaptive immunity

immunity or resistance to a specific pathogen due to experience with that pathogen

what is the charge of the inside and outside of a resting membrane potential?

in equals negative out equals positive

Where are fats absorbed?

in the lymph by the lacteals & packaged into

interstitial cells

in the testes, these cells lie between the seminiferous tubules and produce the hormone testosterone

zymogen

inactive form of an enzyme

pepsinogen

inactive form of pepsin

plasminogen

inactive form of plasmin

what causes varicose veins

incompetent venous valves

what is the biological function of epinephrine and norepinephrine?

increase blood glucose concentrations and heart rate dilate bronchial after blood flow patterns

what is the biological function of glucocorticoids?

increase blood glucose concentrations decrease protein synthesis and anti-inflammation

in bacterial sepsis a number of capillary beds throughout the body open simultaneously what effect would this have on blood pressure

increase in blood pressure causing a heart attack

functions of sympathetic nervous system

increase in heart rate redistributes blood to muscles of locomotion increases blood glucose concentration relaxes the bronchi decreases digestion and peristalsis dial EB eyes to maximize light intake releases epinephrine into bloodstream

what causes a shift to the left of oxygen delivery (decreased oxygen delivery)

increase in pH

negative feedback pathway caused by increase in plasma calcium level

increase in plasma calcium level inhibits pth which increases vitamin D3 to 2500 D3 metabolism and decreases renal phosphate reabsorption

what causes varicose veins during pregnancy

increase in total blood volume due to fetal blood

what do diuretics do?

increase in urine output

a drug is used that prevents the conversion of Angiotensin 1 to Angiotensin 2 what is the likely effect of this drug

increase potassium reabsorption

what is another effect of aldosterone on the excretory system

increase sodium reabsorption decrease potassium reabsorption

function of villi

increase surface area to aid nutrient absorption

what is the biological function of mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone?

increase water reabsorption in the kidneys by increasing sodium reabsorption promote potassium and hydrogen ion excretion

excitatory input causes an _____ action potential while inhibitory input causes a ____ action potential

increased decreased

what are the function of MHC class 1 and Class 2 molecules?

increased antigen presentation and better detection of infected cells

what would be the metabolic result of increased T3 and T4?

increased cellular respiration and a great amount of protein and fatty acid turn over by speeding up both synthesis and degradation of these compounds

function of antidiuretic hormone AK vasopressin?

increases reabsorption of water in the collecting ducts of the kidneys

anp

increases urinary output and reduces TPR in response to atrial stretch loss of salt within the nephron acting as a natural diuretic with loss of fluid

expressivity is variable

individuals with the same genotype may have different phenotypes

pax6

induces development of optic lense

why would genetic leakage animals be rare prior to the last century

infertility of hybrids

tail sheath

injects the viral genetic material into a bacterium

which mito membrane is larger - inner or outer ?

inner - it is compounded by folds

renal pelvis (of kidney)

inner collecting tube

stator

inner membrane part of flagella

what is the renal medulla

inner portion of the kidney

L ring of flagella

innermost, attaches to the lipid bilayer of the membrane

what are the two types of frameshift mutations

insertion and deletion

sphygmomanometer

instrument to measure blood pressure

spirometer

instrument used to measure breathing

example of direct hormone?

insulin

glucagon antagonist

insulin

what do beta pancreatic cells secrete?

insulin

what inhibits glucagon release?

insulin hyperglycemia somatostatin

how can we speed up the process of exhalation during active tasks?

intercostal internal muscles which opposed the external intercostal muscles and pull the rib cage down this decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity

what type of infection is a viral infection?

interior

rugae of stomach

interior folds

what is the location of the receptor of a steroid hormone?

interior of the cell

what are the two renal sphincters?

internal and external urethral sphincters

longest phase of cell cycle

interphase

small fatty acids can diffuse directly into

intestinal capillaries

what are the two types of digestion

intracellular and extracellular

neural groove

invagination of neural plate

what activates esinophils

invasive parasites and allergens

internal urethral sphincter

involuntary smooth muscle

basophils

involved in allergic responses

what is biological function of melatonin?

involved in circadian rhythms

Psudostratified Epithelia

is one heterogeneous layer that looks like multiple layers

2,3-BPG

is present in human red blood cells (RBC; erythrocyte) at approximately 5 mmol/L. It binds with greater affinity to deoxygenated hemoglobin (e.g. when the red cell is near respiring tissue) than it does to oxygenated hemoglobin (e.g. in the lungs). thus enhancing the ability of RBCs to release oxygen near tissues that need it most. shift rxn to the right

proximal convoluted tubule

is the first section of renal tubule where filtrate enters the majority of salts are reabsorbed along with water the filtrate remains isotonic solutes that enter the interstitium- are picked up by the Vasa recta and our return to the tissue surrounding the Nephron the PCT is also the site of secretion for waste products

if you increase salt and put what happens to osmolarity?

it increases the body of takes more water to dilute the salt in the tissues

what does HIV do to plasma cells, T-cells and macrophages

it kills them

what are the tenants of punctuated equilibrium

it states that for some species little Evolution occurs over a long period of time which is interrupted by rapid verse of evolutionary change

what occurs if the nuron has a g protein-coupled receptor?

it will cause either changes in the levels of camp or an influx of calcium

where does most of the absorption in the small intestine take place

jejunum & ileum

synovial fluid

joint-lubricating fluid secreted by the synovial membrane

what is the purpose of surfactant?

keep alveoli from collapsing by reducing the tension at the air liquid interface of the alveoli

keratinocytes produce

keratin

what are fingernails and hair made of

keratin

what are intermediate filaments made of?

keratin, desmin, vimentin

examples of intermediate filaments

keratin, desmin, vimentin, lamins

types of cells in the epidermis

keratinocytes, melanocytes, langerhans cells, merkel cells

where is erythropoietin from?

kidney

what organs are involved in maintaining PH homeostasis?

kidneys and lungs

excretory system organs

kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra

how do chromosomes attach to centrioles?

kinetochores

example of monosynaptic reflex arc

knee jerk reflex

arterial ventricular valves

lab rat left artrium = bicuspid right atrium = tricuspid

a child is born without an anus what occurred?

lack of apoptosis in fetal anal cells

non penetrance

lack of clinical expression of the mutant gene

phases of growth

lag, log, stationary, death

which side of the heart is more muscular

left

blowing off CO2 will shift the bicarbonate buffer system to the?

left according to Le chatelier's principle

difference between mhc1 and mhc2

let me see one is found in all nucleated cells and presents proteins created within the cell intracellular pathogens MHC II it's only found an antigen presenting cells and prisons proteins that result from digestion of extracellular pathogens

what cell types and blood contain nuclei

leukocyte s

how do bile salts work General?

like soap

Ependymal cells (CNS)

line the ventricles and secrete cerebrospinal fluid

what are the factors that affect resistivity

links and cross-sectional area

how does bile and pancreatic lipase work together to digest fats

lipase breaks down triglycerides into free fatty acids these fatty acids Clump into Micells bile salts emulsify the missiles with their hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends allowing them to be digested easier

complete regeneration

lost or damaged tissues are replaced with identical tissues

how is aldosterone synthesized from the adrenal cortex?

low blood pressure stimulates the release of renin renin converts angiotensinogen forming Angiotensin 1 a peptide is then metabolized by Angiotensin converting enzyme to form and you're testing to which promotes the release of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex

what is the biological function of insulin?

lowering blood glucose concentration and increasing anabolic processes

internal intercostal muscles

lowers the rib cage during forced expiration

where is Angiotensin 1 converted to Angiotensin 2?

lungs

example of trophic hormone?

luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone

what are the four most important organs of the immune system?

lymph nodes= filter length and are a site where immune response can be mounted bone marrow= where immune cells are produced the thymus=the site of T Cell maturation the spleen= a storage area for blood filters blood and lymph

agranulocytes

lymphocytes and monocytes

what are the two types of agranulocytes?

lymphocytes and monocytes

what are the two types of granulocytes?

lymphocytes and monocytes

agranulocytes

lymphocytes and monocytes important in the specific immune response the body's targeted fight against particular pathogens primary responders against infection

self tolerance

lymphocytes unresponsive to own antigens preventing autoimmune disease

enzyme in nasal cavity that is able to attack peptidoglycan in walls of gram-positive bacteria?

lysozyme

what is the immunological function of lysozyme

lysozyme is an antimicrobial in tears and saliva

Codons

mRNA base triplets.

innate cells

macrophage mast cell granulocyte dendritic cell natural killer cellular cell

which are professional antigen presenting cells

macrophages dendritic cells B cells shorten epithelial cells

what is the immune response to a bacterial infection (extracellular pathogen)?

macrophages and other antigen presenting cells engulf the bacteria and subsequently release inflammatory mediators these cells also digest the bacterium and present antigens from pathogens on their surfaces in conjunction with MHC II cytokines attract inflammatory cells including neutrophils and additional macrophages mast cells are activated by inflammation and degranulate resulting in histamine release and increased leakness of the capillaries B cells produce correct antibody proliferate through the clonal selection to create plasma cells and memory cells antibodies then travel to the bloodstream and affected tissue where they tag the bacteria for Destruction by T cells

prokaryotic flagella

made of flagellin & consider of fillaments & hook

sarcomere structure

made thick and thin filaments contraction => Hzone, I band, and distance between Z line become smaller, A band remains constant (defined as total length fibers)

renal system mnemonic

major waste product excreted in the urine =d u m p the h u n k.

nucleic acid in virus

makes up all genetic information in virus - arranged non specifically

what is the biological function of gastrointestinal Flora

making it hard for bad bacteria to live in the intestines

penis

male external organ of reproduction :D

testes

male reproductive organ that produces sperm and hormones

testis

male reproductive organ that produces sperm and hormones

opsonized bacteria

marked with an antibody from a B cell

what is the correct order of early development milestones during embryogenesis?

marula -blastula -gastrula

what are the functions of mast cells

mast cells bind to substances and release inflammatory chemicals into the surrounding area to promote immune response

most connective tissue produce ?

material such as collegen and elastin to form the ecm

osteocytes

mature bone cells

positive selection

maturing only cells that respond to the presentation of an antigen MHC cells that cannot respond to MHC undergo apoptosis

viral genomes

may have single or double stranded DNA or RNA, size varies, linear or circular

ascending limb of the loop of henle

medullary concentration gradient

where do platelets come from

megakaryocytes in bone marrow

Parasites

microscopic organisms that take advantage (nourishment) from hosts & are harmful

mv

millivolt

haversian canals

minute spaces filled with blood vessels; found in compact bone longitudinal channels

M stage

mitosis and cytokinesis

lymphokines

molecules capable of of recruiting other immune cells and increasing their activity

Endorphins are

molecules that decrease the perception of pain

what are starches and other carbohydrates broken down to

monosaccharides

High penetrance

most but not all with the allele show symptoms of the disease/ corresponding phenotype

cillia and flagella

motile structures composed of microtubules

efferent neuron

motor neuron

Types of nerves (3)

motor, sensory, mixed

where does chemical digestion begin

mouth saliva digest food with enzymes

parts of digestive tract

mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine rectum

what are the two major varieties of joints

movable joints movable joints

transcellular transport

movement of molecules through the cytoplasm of the epithelial cells

cell migration

movement of newly formed cells away from their point of origin

secretion

movement of solutes from blood to filtrate anywhere besides Bowman's capsule

filtration

movement of solutes from blood to filtrate at Bowman's capsule

reabsorption

movement of solutes from filtrate to blood

paracellular transport

movement of substances between epithelial cells

disruptive selection

movement towards both extremes with loss of the norm speciation may occur

directional selection

movement towards one extreme or the other due to selection

spindle apparatus

moves and organizes the chromosomes before cell division

what do mucous cells secrete

mucous

what protects the wall of the stomach from hydrochloric acid

mucus that is bicarbonate rich

nerve

multiple neurons serving a single function bundled together

monoamniotic

multiple pregnancy with one amniotic sac

monochorionic

multiple pregnancy with one chorionic sac

temporal summation

multiple signals are integrated during a relatively short period of time

intercostal muscles

muscles between the ribs

tp53

mutation in gene that produces p53 = cancer

translocation mutation

mutation in which one part of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another

frameshift mutation

mutation that shifts the "reading" frame of the genetic message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide

how do nephrons contribute to the bicarbonate buffer system

my increasing or decreasing the amount of hydrogen ions reabsorbed

sarcomeres are attached end-to-end to form

myofibrils

list the structures in the respiratory pathway from the air entrance to the nares of the a alveoli

nares nasal cavity pharynx lyrics trachea bronchi bronchioles alveoli

parts of the respiratory system

nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, left bronchus, right bronchus, upper love right lung, upper left lung, middle libe right lung, oblique fissure right lung, oblique fissure left lung, lower love left lung, lower libe right lung , aveoli

three parts of pharynx

nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

polymorphisms

naturally occurring differences in forms between members of the same population

what is the functional unit of the kidney

nephron

renal secretion

nephrons are also able to secrete salts acids bases and urea directly into the tubule the quantity and identity of the substance secreted into the Nephron is directly related to the needs of the body at that time

collecting duct

nephrotic duct collecting urine into the renal pelvis

what are the parts of the hypophyseal portal system?

nerve cells that regulate the posterior pituitary neurosecretory cells hypothalamus pituitary stalk artery oxytocin ADH FSH LH ACTH and TSH prolactin endorphins and GH capillary bed anterior pituitary portal vein artery 2

mixed nerves

nerves carrying both sensory and motor fibers

what is the difference between nerves and tracts?

nerves make carry more than one type of information tracts can only carry one type of information

ectoderm (outside)

nervous system and skin

reflex arcs

neural circuits that control reflexive behavior

postganglionic neuron

neurons of the autonomic nervous system that form synapses directly with their target organ

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

motor /efferent neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

what are the five types of white blood cells

neutrophils , lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils

what are the three types of granulocytes

neutrophils eosinophils and basophils

granulocytes

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

what are the three types of granulocytes?

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils

what are granulocytes

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils 3 cell types with tiny granules in their Interiors

granulocytes

neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils contain cytoplasmic granules that are toxic to invading microbes

incomplete regeneration

newly formed tissue is not identical in structure or function as tissue it replaces

do arteries contain valves

no

do capillaries contain smooth muscle

no

do capillaries contain valves

no

is Hardy Weinberg realistic

no

does gas exchange require energy?

no because the gradient between the blood and Air in the lungs is already present as the blood enters the lungs no energy is required for gas transfer

does an increase in stimulus results in an increase potential difference in action potential?

no, only an increase in frequency of firing

bone matrix

nonliving, structural part of bone where the strength comes from

natural killer cells

nonspecific lymphocytes able to detect the down-regulation of MHC and induce apoptosis

nonspecific immunity

nonspecific prevention of enterance of invaders into the body

NASAIDS

nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs ( prevent side effects of inflammation caused by mast cells and basophils do to a reaction to an exterior Force)

tonus

normal, partially steady state of muscle contraction observed and smooth muscle

naive B cells

not exposed to antigen yet

sertoli cells

nourish developing sperm

astrocytes

nourish neurons and form the blood-brain barrier

what are the cell bodies of neurons in the same tract grouped into?

nuclei

what defense mechanism exist in the alveoli?

numerous immune cells and macrophages

O type blood can receive

o

bone remodeling

ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue

hemizygous

only one allele is present for a given Gene X in males

Hemizygous alleles

only one version X

major duodenal papilla

opening of the pancreatic duct into the duodenum

are projections above the skin are?

openings for sweat and sabaceous glands

functions of parasympathetic nervous system

opposite of sympathetic nervous system

trace the path of food through the body starting with the ingestion and ending with excretion of feces

oral cavity pharynx esophagus stomach small intestine and large intestine rectum

digestive tract parts

oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine

Peroxisomes

organelles containing oxidase - enzymes that detoxify alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and other harmful chemicals - whoes primary function is to break down very long chain fatty acids via ß oxidation & synthesis of phospholipids via PPP

kidneys are able to balance

osmolarity and pH

what type of pressure pulls fluid back into the vessels

osmotic

osmotic pressure

osmotic pressure of sucking by solutes to draw in water

bone forming cells

osteoblasts

cells that break down bone

osteoclasts

parietal pleura

outer layer of pleura lying closer to the ribs and chest wall

what is the renal cortex

outer portion of the kidney

chorion

outermost layer of the fetal membrane - develops into placenta

female gonads are

ovaries

where does estrogen come from?

ovaries

how to calculate allele frequencies

p+q=1 p= relative allele frequency for dominant allele q=relative allele frequency for recessive allele

SA node (sinoatrial node)

pacemaker of the heart

homozygous alleles

pair of alleles for a single gene which contain the same genetic information XX

bulbourethral glands

pair of exocrine glands near the male urethra

dimerization

pairing of two receptor-hormone complexes this causes the effects of hormones to the slower but longer lived

agnostic pairs

pairs of muscles in which one relaxes while the other contracts

a laceration cuts down into a layer of loose connective tissue of the skin which layer of the skin is this

papillary layer

what are the layers of dermis from superficial to Deep

papillary layer and reticular layer

capillary beds are ___ to each other

parallel

how are myofibrils arranged in a myocyte

parallel

what signals decrease heart rate

parasympathetic

why do we become lethargic after we eat

parasympathetic activity sense of blood from our brains into our digestive system

what part of the nervous system is responsible for the contraction of the detrusor muscle?

parasympathetic nervous system

what hormone activates vitamin D?

parathyroid hormone

what is the hormone produced by the parathyroid glands?

parathyroid hormone

where is parathyroid hormone produced?

parathyroids

Mitosis

part of eukaryotic cell division during which the cell nucleus divides into two identical daughter cells

langerhans cells

part of the immune system

Trachea (windpipe)

passageway for air to the bronchi

which muscles are involved in exhalation?

passive exhalation uses the recoil of the same muscles active exhalation uses the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles

milk production in males is always?

pathologic

polysynaptic reflex arc

pathway in which signals travel over many synapses on their way back to the muscle

what type of hormone is Prolactin?

peptide

what type of hormone is adrenocorticotropic hormone?

peptide

what type of hormone is antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)?

peptide

what type of hormone is arterial nature attic peptide?

peptide

what type of hormone is calcitonin?

peptide

what type of hormone is erythropoietin?

peptide

what type of hormone is follicle stimulating hormone?

peptide

what type of hormone is glucagon?

peptide

what type of hormone is growth hormone?

peptide

what type of hormone is luteinizing hormone?

peptide

what type of hormone is melatonin

peptide

what type of hormone is oxytocin?

peptide

what type of hormone is parathyroid hormone?

peptide

what type of hormone is somatostatin?

peptide

what type of hormone is thymosin?

peptide

what type of hormone is insulin?

peptide hormone

what are the main categories of hormones?

peptides steroids or peptide hormones definition? amino acid derivatives

growth factors

peptides that promote differentiation and mitosis in certain tissues

what does hematocrit measure

percentage of red blood cells in the blood

what does hematocrit measure

percentage of red blood cells in the blood normal is 13. 5 to 17. 5 for males for 12 to 16 for females 41-53%

what are the units of hematocrit

percentage points

amino peptidase

polypeptide digestion via removal of n terminal of amino acid from peptide

types of reflex arcs

polysynaptic and monosynaptic

hemizygous

possessing a gene on the X chromosome of a male where there is no equivalent on the Y chromosome

what produces oxytocin?

posterior pituitary

in a resting membrane potential Which is higher inside the cell?

potassium is much higher than sodium inside of a cell membrane at resting potential -net negative charge

what does the cardiac cycle diagram measure

pressure and volume over time

oncotic pressure

pressure attributed to plasma proteins which can draw in water

what governs the movement of solutes and fluid at the capillary level

pressure differentials

what tribes cardiac output through a given vascular resistance

pressure gradient across the circulatory system

prezygotic mechanisms

prevent formation of zygote physically

what is the function of IGA antibodies

prevent microbial attachment to mucous membranes

postzygotic mechanisms

prevent the zygote from developing into a fertile adult

what purpose does myelin provide

prevents signal loss or crossing of signals -maintains electrical signal within one neuron -increases speed of conduction

birth

process of being born -rythmic contractions -coordinated by prostaglandins & oxytocin -amniotic sac ruptures

what are B cells?

produce antibodies

melanocytes

produce melanin

oligodendrocytes

produce myelin in CNS

Schwann cells

produce myelin in PNS

neutral mutations

produce neither adverse or helpful changes

Leydig cells

produce testosterone

cilia

projections from cell surfaces that aid in locomotion and feeding

cell wall is found in

prokaryotes

transcription factors

promote transcription of genes required for the next stage of the cell cycle

what is the biological function of progesterone?

promotes and maintains the endometrium

vitamin D

promotes reabsorption of calcium from the bones into the blood

what is the biological function of atrial natriuretic peptide

promotes salt and water excretion

what is the immunological function of cilia

propelling the mucus upward so that it can be swallowed or expelled

Crossing over occurs during

prophase I of meiosis I.

recombination frequency

proportional to the distance between the genes on the chromosome

albumin

protein in blood; maintains the proper amount of water in the blood

flagellin

protein that makes up flagella

endogenous pathway

proteins bind to and tag invaded cells for T cells to kill

what is the immunological function of complement

proteins in the blood that create holes in bacteria

defensins and cathelicidins

proteins that destroy bacteria, viruses and fungi secreted by keratinocytes, neutrophils and macrophages

synaptonemal complex

proteins that hold together homologous chromosomes

The cytoskeleton

provides -a series of tracks along which vesicles move -structural support for the cell made up of microtubules , microfilaments & intermidiate fillaments

what does the vagus nerve do to the cardiac muscle

provides parasympathetic outflow to the heart and slows the heart rate

edema

puffy swelling of tissue from the accumulation of fluid

after exercise what is lactic acid converted back to

pyruvate which enters the citric acid cycle

functions of cortisol and corticosterone

raise blood glucose by increasing gluconeogenesis decreasing inflammation cortisol is also a stress hormone released during times of emotional stress

purpose of nodes of ranvier

rapid signal conduction

ascending loop of henle

reabsorbs Na+ and Cl- from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid impermeable to water

in the nephron amino acids enter the Vasa recta via the process of

reabsorption

descending limb of the loop of henle

reabsorption of water continues through channels formed by aquaporin proteins

descending loop of henle

reabsorption of water into body from kidney

recipient female -

received plasmid from donor male +via sex pills

anterior pituitary

receives ,& stores two hormones ADH & oxytocin

thoracic duct

receives lymph from the left side of the head, neck, chest, abdomen, left arm, and lower extremities

thoracic duct

receives lymph from the rest of the body me

dormant allele

recessive non Express version of a gene

how do larger fast enter the bloodstream

remove separately into the intestinal cells but then reform into triglycerides and then package into chylomicrons entering a lymphatic system enter through the thoracic duct to fuel the heart muscle

what is the sequence that shows the passage of blood through the vessels of the kidney

renal artery afferent arterioles glomerulus efferent arterioles Vasa recta renal vein

what controls aldosterone

renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system

lysogenic cycle

replicates the phage genome without destroying the host

supraspinal circuits

require input from brain/brainstem

obligate aerobes

require oxygen

Pacinian corpuscles

respond to deep pressure and vibration

ruffini endings

respond to stretch

calcitonin

response to high blood calcium levels encourages bone reabsorption of calcium

parasympathetic nervous

rest and digest

all neurons exhibit?

resting membrane potential

determinate cleavage

results in cells that are committed to differentiating into a specific cell type

indeterminate cleavage

results in cells that can still develop into complete organisms

superior vena cava

returns blood from the portions of the body above the heart

hypoxia will shift the bicarbonate buffer system to the?

right according to the Le chatelier's principle

make a sentence consisting of the pathway of blood through the heart from the deoxygenated vena cava to the oxygenated capillaries

right atrium, ( tricuspid valve ) right ventricle (pulmonary valve) pulmonary artery lungs GAS EXCHANGE pulmonary veins left atrium (material valve) left ventricle (aortic valve) aorta arteries arterioles capillaries GAS EXCHANGE venules veins vena cava right atrium

intermidiate filaments

rods that anchor the nucleus and some other organelles to their places in the cell

lateral rotation

rotation away from the midline

fundus

rounded upper portion of the stomach

M lines

runs down center of sarcomere

which four organs provide enzymes and lubrication necessary to Aid digestion of food

salivary glands pancreas liver gallbladder

accessory organs of digestion

salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder

function of the distal convoluted tubules

salt reabsorption

the cell membrane of a myocyte is known as the

sarcolemma

Adrenal medulla secretes which hormones?

secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine

hypophysis (pituitary gland)

secretes growth and reproduction hormones. Also secretes neurotransmitters.

what is the function of the pineal gland

secretes melatonin and is involved in circadian rhythms

what is the function of a mucous cell

secretes mucus

what is the function of a chief cell

secretes pepsinogen

what does the somatic nervous system consist of?

sensory and motor neurons distributed throughout the skin joints and muscles -Sensory neurons transmit information through aferret fiber

mast cells

similar to basophils mediating allergic response smaller than basophils release large amounts of histamine

kidney filtration

simple diffusion depending on starling forces; filtration coefficient (kf) depends on area of capillary available for diffusion and permeability of capillary membrane; filtration based on size molecules are cells that are larger than glomerular pours will remain in the blood

types of epithelial tissue (layers)

simple, stratified, psudostratified

what type of biological function do T3 and T4 serve?

simulate metabolic activity

Chiasma

site of crossing over

what kind of muscle is always Polly nucleated

skeletal

what kind of muscle is voluntary

skeletal

what kind of muscle is striated

skeletal and cardiac

what kind of muscle exhibits myogenic activity

skeletal and smooth

external anal sphincter

skeletal muscle, voluntary

external urethral sphincter

skeletal muscle, voluntary

what are the three types of muscle

skeletal, cardiac, smooth

what is the largest organ in the body

skin

what is the immunological function of skin?

skin provides a physical barrier and secretes antimicrobial enzymes

atrial kick

slight pause of impulse between SA and AV so the blood has time to push into the ventricles

are pancreatic juices basic or acidic

slightly basic

increase length of the axon causes __ . greater cross-sectional area allows____ propagation

slower movement faster

Joint cavity (synovial cavity)

small amount of synovial fluid which lubricates and bears weight

lacunae

small cavities in bone that contain osteocytes

where are vitamins absorbed

small intestine

where do bile salts carry out their function

small intestine

lacteals

small lymphatic vessels center villus in small intestine transport for chylomicrons (packaged fats)

glomerulus

small network of capillaries encased in the upper end of a nephron; where the filtration of blood takes place

parathyroid glands

small pea-like organs that regulate calcium and phosphate balance in blood, bones, and other tissues

venules

small veins

blood clots

small, insoluble particles of clotted blood and clotting factors composed of proteins and platelets and minimize blood loss

arterioles

smallest arteries

Bronchioles

smallest branches of the bronchi

what kind of muscle is always uni nucleated

smooth

what type of muscle is innervated by the autonomic nervous system

smooth and cardiac

internal anal sphincter

smooth muscle involuntary

myogenic activity

smooth muscle contraction without nervous system input directly in response to other stimuli

why are hormones Amplified?

so less hormone is needed to cause and effect

why don't red blood cells have a mitochondria

so they don't metabolize the oxygen they carry before delivering it to peripheral tissues

yellow marrow

soft, fatty material found in the medullary cavity of long bones

synaptic cleft/gap

space between neuron and effector membranes

evolutionary time

spans many generations and captures adaptation through natural selection

lipoteichoic acid

spans the peptidoglycan layer and is linked to the plasma membrane (prokaryotes)

Purkinje fibers

specialized conductive fibers located within the walls of the ventricles

lacteals

specialized lymph vessels in the small intestine that absorb fat into the bloodstream

isolation

species becomes different because of physical separation from other groups they could mate with

divergent evolution

species with common ancestor become less similar overtime

parallel evolution

species with common ancestor remained similar overtime because of similar evolutionary pressure

blood antigens

specific Target Proteins found on the erythrocyte cell surface. Three antigens (A, B, and Rh) are used to differentiate blood groups.

spermatozoa

sperm cells

kinetochore fibers

spindle fibers that extend from centrosome to centromere

spirilli

spiral shaped bacteria -eg syphilis

Dipeptidase

splits dipeptides into amino acids

Dipeptidase

splits dipeptides into amino acids enzyme

metastasis

spread of cancer cells beyond their original site in the body

neural crest cells

spread out throughout the body, differentiating into many different tissues

positive sense RNA

ssRNA genomes ready for immediate translation (by virus)

negative sense RNA

ssRNA genomes that must be converted into proper form (viral genome) -need rna replicase

gram positive

stains purple, more peptidoglycan

what type of hormone is testosterone?

steroid

what type of hormone are mineralocorticoids?

steroids

phrenic nerves

stimulate the diaphragm and cause it to contract

what is the biological function of thymosin?

stimulates T Cell development

what is the biological function of erythropoietin

stimulates bone marrow to produce erythrocytes

p what action does follicle-stimulating hormone cause?

stimulates follicle maturation in females spermatogenesis in males

thymosin

stimulates the maturation of lymphocytes into T cells of the immune system

what is the biological function of growth hormone?

stimulating bone and muscle growth raising blood glucose levels

what is the biological function of glucagon?

stimulating glycogen breakdown increasing blood glucose

what action does prolactin cause?

stimulating milk production and secretion

what action does luteinizing hormone cos?

stimulating ovulation in females testosterone synthesis in males

what is the biological function of adrenocorticotropic hormone?

stimulating the thyroid to produce thyroid hormones

what is the biological function of oxytocin?

stimulating uterine contractions during labor and milk secretion during lactation May promote bonding Behavior

what biological function does antidiuretic hormone serve?

stimulating water reabsorption in the kidneys by increasing permeability of collecting duct

gallbladder

stores and concentrates bile

gallbladder as

stores and concentrates bile

urinary bladder

stores urine

what are the three strata of the epidermis

stratum basale(base) stratum spinosum stratum granulosum stratum lucidum stratum corneum (conquers top layer)

cardiac output

stroke volume x heart rate

what is a Nephron

structural and functional units that form urine

Tetrad

structure containing 4 chromatids that forms during meiosis

chorionic sac

structure that is normally found within the uterus and contains the developing embryo

where does air flow regarding pressure?

sucked from areas of higher pressure into areas of lower pressure

osmotic pressure

sucking pressure that draws water into the vasculature caused by dissolved particles

Griffith experiment

suggests that bacteria is capable of transferring genetic information in which heat killed by rheumat bacteria mixed with live nonvirulent bacteria was still capable of killing an organism because the bedroom at strains transfer their informations to the nonvirulent strains

what is tetanus

summation of multiple simple Twitches that occurred too quickly for the muscle to relax this leads to a stronger and more prolonged contraction of the muscle

where is the thymus located?

superior mediastinum

trabeculae

supporting bundles of bony fibers in cancellous (spongy) bone

glucorticoid therapy

suppresses T cells that respond to self antigens call the negative selection naturally B cells that respond to self antigens are eliminated before they leave the bone marrow however some are allowed to survive causing autoimmune diseases and hypersensitivity to inert substances

what is the biological function of somatostatin?

suppresses secretion of glucagon and insulin

what allows for self-tolerance

suppressor T cells

what covers a alveoli

surfactant a detergent that allows surface tension and prevents a violi's from collapsing

trophoblast cells

surround the blastocoel and give rise to the chorion and later the placenta

what are some mechanisms the body uses to cool itself

sweating and vasodilation

what produces vitamin K in the body ?

symbiotic bacteria

what signal speed up the heart rate

sympathetic

what are the two types of summation

temporal and spatial

genetic linkage

tendency for genes located close together on the same chromosome to be inherited together

stabilizing selection

tendency towards middle loss of extremes

The male gonads are the _____.

testes

where is testosterone produced?

testes

what are the male endocrine organs?

testes pancreas adrenal glands thyroid gland pineal gland hypothalamus pituitary and parathyroid glands

all five of the criteria of Hardy Weinberg principle are required to imply what characteristic of the study population

that it is not undergoing evolution does allele frequencies remain stable over time

what effect allows oxygen to be dissipated more readily into the tissues while we exercise

the Bohr effect aka the stabilization effects that allow 02 to be released by hemoglobin More readily due to the decrease in pH an increase in temperature

how to remember the epidermis is on the outside and the hypodermis is on the inside?

the EPI pen stabs into the epidermis=top layer the DEEP layer comes next=dermis Hypo means below=hypodermis bottom layer

SRY gene is located on

the Y chromosome

inhalation

the act of taking in air as the diaphragm contracts and pulls downward

oxygen debt

the amount of oxygen required after physical exercise to convert accumulated lactic acid to glucose

what is the change in permeability as the descending limb transitions into the assembling limb of the loop of henle?

the ascending limb is only permeable to salt the descending limb is only permeable to water (on the way down water is removed on the way up salt is removed)

Duterostomes

the blastopore forms the anus and the mouth is formed secondarily -******** since day 1

what occurs if the blood pH rises above 7. 45 alkalemia?

the body will seek to increase acidity the respiratory rate will be slowed to increase carbon dioxide Shifting the buffer equation to the right lowering the pH

what does the central nervous system consist of?

the brain spinal cord and optic nerves

what is extracellular digestion

the breakdown of the foods we eat into the molecules our cells can metabolize for energy

gas exchange in the alveoli

the capillaries bring deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary arteries which originated at the right ventricle of the heart carbon dioxide diffuses down its partial pressure gradient from the capillaries into the alveoli for expiration O2 in the alveoli flows down the partial pressure gradient from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries where it binds to hemoglobin for transport

what portion of the nervous system would not be affected by the death of Schwann cells?

the central nervous system because Schwann cells only create myelination in the peripheral nervous system

marrow cavity

the central, internal cavity of the bones

what is dialysis

the clinical purification of blood by dialysis, as a substitute for the normal function of the kidney. precursor to kidney transplant

what is the danger in deep vein thrombosis

the clot May dislodge and travel through the right heart to the lungs where it can cause a pulmonary embolism

micturition reflex

the communication between stretch receptors and the nervous system leading to parasympathetic neuron fire detrusor muscle contraction this muscle contraction causes internal sphincter to relax

Define osmolarity

the concentration of a solution expressed as the total number of solute particles per liter.

test cross

the crossing of an individual of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual to determine the unknown genotype

expressivity

the degree to which a trait is expressed

Synovium (synovial membrane)

the dense connective-tissue membrane that secretes synovial fluid and that lines the ligamentous surfaces of articular capsules, tendon sheaths where free movement is necessary, and bursae

vital capacity

the difference between the minimum and the maximum volume of the air in the lungs

what part of the Nephron removes excess water during periods of over-hydration

the diluting segment of the loop of henle

how does negative pressure breathing work?

the driving force of negative pressure breathing is the lower (negative pressure) in the intra pleural space compared with outdide the lungs sucks in the air from outside

degranulation

the emptying of granules from the interior of a mast cell into the extracellular environment.

origin

the end of the muscle with the larger attachment to the Bone

Epiphysis

the end part of a long bone, initially growing separately from the shaft.

decidua

the endometrium of the uterus during pregnancy

which contributes most to linear growth

the epiphysis contributes most to linear growth of the bone

menarche

the first menstrual period

preganglionic neuron

the first neuron in a series that transmits impulses from the CNS

intermembrane space

the fluid filled space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes

cerebrospinal fluid

the fluid in and around the brain and spinal cord

mitochondrial matrix

the fluid that is inside the inner membrane of a mitochondrion

blastocoel

the fluid-filled cavity inside a blastula

which fetal shunt connects the two chambers of the heart?

the foramen ovale

speciation

the formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.

where is arterial naturepedic peptide produced?

the heart

what prevents the lungs from collapsing completely on recoil?

the indirect connection of the lungs and the chest wall surfactant

what occurs as you breathe in?

the intercostal muscles expand the thoracic cavity and the diaphragm flattens of the chest wall expands outwards the volume of the cavity dust increases because the intrapleural space closely above the chest wall its volume increases first

saltatory conduction

the jumping of action potentials from node to node

what does the speed of the action potential depend on?

the links and cross-sectional area of the Axon

bile salts are a product of

the liver

total lung capacity

the maximum volume of air in the lungs when one inhales completely usually around 7 to 6

fertilization membrane

the membrane that forms around a fertilized ovum and prevents penetration by additional spermatozoon

pharynx

the membrane-lined cavity behind the nose and mouth, connecting them to the esophagus.

residual volume

the minimum volume of air in the lungs when one exhales completely

what occurs in secretion

the movement of solutes from blood into filtrate anywhere besides Bowman's capsule

what occurs infiltration

the movement of solutes from blood to filtrate at Bowman's capsule

what occurs in reabsorption

the movement of solutes from filtrate back into the blood

upper esophageal sphincter

the muscular ring located at the top of the esophagus

enteric nervous system

the nervous system of the digestive tract these neurons are present in the walls of the digestive tract they trigger peristalsis

postsynaptic neuron

the neuron on the receiving end of the synapse

what do the numbers 3 & 4 mean in thyroid hormone ?

the numbers 3 & 4 refer to the number of Iodine atoms attached to the tyrosine

blastopore

the open end of the archenteron

synovial capsule

the outermost layer of strong fibrous tissue that resembles a sleeve as it surrounds the joint

what is the link between pH and enzyme activity in the body

the pH of that region of digestive system is correlated to the pH at which enzymes in that system function best

tetrads

the paired chromosomes consisting of four chromatids

synapsis

the pairing & crossing /mixing of homologous chromosomes during meiosis

the percent saturation of oxygen in the blood allows us to know what?

the percentage of oxygen that has been released into the tissues

afterbirth

the plancenta expelled after delivery of the newborn

what is the second neuron in the automatic nervous system called?

the postganglionic neuron

what occurs if the neuron has aligand gated ION channel?

the postsynaptic cell will either be depolarized or hyperpolarized

what is the first neuron in the automatic nervous system called?

the preganglionic neuron

hydrostatic pressure

the pressure that the blood exerts against the vessel walls

Gene mapping

the process of determining the locus for a particular biological trait.

outbreeding

the process of mating less closely related individuals when compared to the average of the population

chyme

the pulpy acidic fluid that passes from the stomach to the small intestine, consisting of gastric juices and partly digested food.

what is the difference in the total volume passing through either side of the heart per cardiac output

the same give me a

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in both men and women

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males

how does the skin help maintain osmolarity

the skin is relatively impermeable to water and prevent entrance of water and loss of water

what does cholera affect

the small intestine which absorbs a much larger volume of water causing volumes of watery diarrhea

detrusor muscle

the smooth muscle layers of the bladder

mitochondrial matrix

the space inside the inner membrane of a mitochondrion

what tissue produces synovial fluid

the synovium

vagus nerve

the tenth cranial nerve that innervates digestive organs, heart and other areas

MHC class 1 molecules

the text *intracellular pathogens and tags them

what is the source of T3 and T4?

the thyroid /follicular cells

what does absorption involve

the transport of products of digestion from the digestive tract into the circulatory system for distribution to the body's tissues and cells

Mendels law of segregation

the two copies of a gene segregate from each other during transmission from parent to offspring randomly

how is fluid balance maintained within the bloodstream

the two pressure gradients are essential for maintaining the proper balance of fluid volume and solute concentrations between the blood and the interstitium and hydrostatic and oncotic pressure

what is the effect of injecting insulin for a diabetic?

the uptake of sugar into storage forming fat and muscle converting glucose and storing it as glycogen for later use

what controls parasympathetic reactions

the vagus nerve

what do the gastric glands of the stomach respond to

the vagus nerve

Dicuspid valve

the valve that separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary circulation

what controls the amount of oxygen and CO2 in the blood?

the ventilation Center The akima receptors that are sensitive to carbon dioxide concentration

what mechanism does the respiratory system use to prevent infection?

the vibrissae in the nares lysozyme in the mucous membranes mucociliary escalator macrophages in the lungs IGA antibodies mast cells

what is the immune response to viral infection (intracellular pathogen)

the virally infected cell will begin to produce interferons which reduce the permeability of nearby cells and reduce the rate of transcription and translation in the cells and causes systemic symptoms an intracellular proteins on their surface in conjunction with MHC 1 and if I really infected sell at least some of the intracellular proteins will be viral proteins CDA plus T cells will recognize the MHC 1 antigen complex and destroy the cell via apoptosis memory T-cells will be generated

exploratory Reserve volume

the volume of additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after normal exhalation

inspiration Reserve volume

the volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after normal inhalation

tidal volume

the volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a normal breath

in which segment of the Nephron is sodium not actively transported out of the Nephron

then portion of the ascending limb of henle

endosymbiotic theory

theory that eukaryotic cells formed from a symbiosis among several different prokaryotic organisms thet later became organelles

what occurs if the concentration is the same in the tubule and in the interstitium?

there will be no driving radiant and the water will be lost in urine

squamos epithelial cells

these are flat nucleated cells which slough off from the lining of the urethra.

what are triiodothyronine and thryroxine composed of?

they are both produced by iodination of the amino acid tyrosine in the follicular cells of the thyroid

in what direction do capillaries carry blood

they are the tubes between arterioles and venules they carry oxygenated blood from arterioles into the tissue and then they carry deoxygenated blood from the tissue to the veiens

what occurs when thyroid hormones decrease the sensitivity to the anterior pituitary to trh?

they decrease the TSH secretion

why do non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen naproxen and aspirin cause stomach bleeds

they disrupt the mucus production within the stomach leaving the mucosal of the stomach unprotected

how do trophic hormones work?

they do not cause direct changes in the physiology of muscle bone or hair follicles instead they stimulate the production of another hormone by another endocrine gland that acts on these Target tissues

how can fatty acids diffuse directly into capillaries

they do not require Transporters because they are nonpolar easily transfer sing the cellular membrane

why can't red blood cells carry out oxidative phosphorylation and generate ATP

they don't have mitochondria

how do bile salts work

they facilitate chemical digestion of lipids via emulsification of fats because they have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions

why can't red blood cells divide

they lack nuclei

why can't maternal and Fetal blood mix?

they may have different blood types

how do the lungs fill?

they require skeletal muscle to generate the negative pressure for expansion

how do puffer fish kill you?

they secrete a toxin TTX which blocks the voltage-gated na plus channels blocking neuronal transmission rapidly causing death because frenetic nerves innervating the diaphragm can no longer depolarize leading to paralysis of the muscle and cessation of breathing

when is the stratum lucidum present

thick hairless skin such as sole of foot

diluting segment

thick part of ascending loop of Henle

neural folds

thickening of tissue on either side of neural groove

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

How many pairs of salivary glands do we have

three

how is cardiac muscle able to Define and maintain its own rhythm

through my agenda connectivity

what peptide orgen facilitates the maturation of T cells?

thymosin

where is thymosin from?

thymus

What is the TSH hormone?

thyroid stimulating hormone

what hormone controls the thyroid?

thyroid stimulating hormone

myofibril

tightly packed filament bundles found within skeletal muscle fibers

latent period

time between application of a stimulus and the beginning of a response in a muscle fiber

Synapses

tiny gaps between dentrites and axons of different neurons

alveoli

tiny sacs of lung tissue specialized for the movement of gases between air and blood

parts of prokarytotic flagella(in order)

tip fillament junction hook l ring rod p ring cell wall stator Ms ring c ring type 3 secretion system

why are capillaries so thin

to allow both gas exchange & materials can pass through them

why does cardiac muscle have intercalated discs with many Gap Junctions?

to allow connections between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells -glowing for the flow of ions directly between cells -allowing rapid coordinated muscle cell depolarization -and efficient contraction

what is the function of the peripheral nervous system?

to connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

why are red blood cells flat

to increase the cell's surface area for gas exchange

what is the purpose of insulin?

to lower blood glucose levels after a meal

what is the purpose of glucagon?

to raise blood glucose levels during periods of fasting using degradation of protein and fat conversion of glycogen to glucose

what are the four parts of galt?

tonsils and adenoids in the head peyer's patches & appendix in the intestines

what does a spirometer measure?

total lung capacity residual volume vital capacity tidal volume expiratory Reserve volume inspiratory Reserve volume

a tumor is removed from a patient that appears to contain tissues that resemble placenta hair thyroid tissue and cardiac muscle what is the likely potency of the cells from which the tumor or originated?

totipotent

Merkel cells

touch receptors

meissners Corpuscles

touch receptors

afferent

toward

virulence factors

traits of a microbe that promote pathogenicity (can be carried by plasmids)

common morphogens

transforming growth factor beta (TGF beta), sonic hedgehog(Shh), epidermal growth factor (EGF)

donor male +

transmits plasmid to female - via sex pili

ejaculatory duct

tube through which semen enters the male urethra

acrosomal apparatus

tubelike structure with extends the exterior of the egg allowing the sperm to dump nutrients into the egg

Vas diferens

tubes that connect epididymis to the seminal vesicle, mature sperm travel through these to urethra

p53

tumor suppressor gene that controls cell division and apoptosis (G2/M checkpoint)

Meiosis I produces _____ cells, each of which is _____.

two ... haploid

homologues

two copies of each chromosome

unlinked Gene

two loci are far apart, so a chiasma always occurs between them during the first meiotic division - genetic distance cannot be established - syntectic, but NOT linked

seminal vesicles

two small glands that secrete a fluid rich in sugar that nourishes and helps sperm move

convergent evolution

two species with no recent ancestor become more similar due to evolutionary pressure

macrophages

type of agranulocyte resides within the tissues derived from blood-borne monocytes

cell mediated immunity

type of immunity produced by T cells that attack infected or abnormal body cells

a type of blood can receive

types A and O

with what speed are peptide hormones onset?

typically quick

with what speed do steroid hormones on set?

typically slow

eukaryotic organisns can be either ?

unicellular or multicellular

gray matter

unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies

stem cells

unspecialized cell that can give rise to one or more types of specialized cells

how do we breathe out CO2

upon reaching the alveolar capillaries in the lungs the same reactions that led to the formation of the proton and bicarbonate ion are reversed allowing us to breathe out carbon dioxide

function of collecting duct

urine concentration and blood pressure

Retroviruses

use reverse transcriptase to copy their RNA genome into DNA

dynein arms

uses energy from ATP to crawl up the adjacent pari of microtubules

how do humans thermoregulate?

using capillaries and sweat glands on the skin and rapid muscle contraction (shivering)

how do vaccines work?

vaccines inherit dead or weakened pathogens and use the immune response called secondary response to create a more rapid and robust reaction to the virus

parturition

vaginal childbirth

what slows down heart rate

vagus nerve controlled by parasympathetic signals

why does vitamin D require parathyroid hormone?

vitamin D synthesis requires absorption of calcium and phosphate in the gut increasing blood calcium levels with little effect on phosphate

interventricular septum

wall that separates ventricles

Loop of Henle (nephron loop)

waste products are actively secreted into filtrate from blood maximum reabsorption of water

function of distal convoluted tubule

we absorb more water

secondary response

well B cells approximately die in 7 Days the plasma cells memory will last a lifetime of the organism the memory cells jump into action if the microbe is ever encountered again

what is negative feedback?

when a hormone or product later in the pathway inhibits the hormones or enzymes earlier in the pathway

bottlenecks

when a population's size is reduced for at least one generation causing inbreeding causing increased genetic similarities between offspring

maximal response

when all the muscle fibers are stimulated to contract simultaneously

when is glucagon secreted?

when blood glucose is low

inbreeding depression

when individuals with similar genotypes - typically relatives - breed with each other and produce offspring that have an impaired ability to survive and reproduce

what is an allergic reaction?

when mast cells react to inert substances such as pollen and mold and provide inflammatory chemicals causing an allergic reaction

Diffusion of neurotransmitters out of the Synaptic Cleft

when neurotransmitter diffuses out

how are action potentials propagated down an axon?

when proximal sodium channels open and depolarize the membrane including neighboring sodium channels open up as well because of the refractory character of these channels the action potential can move in Only One Direction

hypersensitivity reactions

when the body over reacts hostilely 2 non harmful substances such as pet dander or pollen causing an exaggerated immune response

when do edemas occur

when the lymphatic system is overwhelmed

what determines the structures MZ twins share ?

when the separation occurred

divergent evolution

when two or more species sharing a common ancestor become more different over time

metaphysis

where diaphysis and epiphysis meet

innercell mass

where embryonic stem cells are; lots of telomerase - gives rise to organisms itself

what does the percentage of white blood cells in blood volume tell us

whether or not a patient is fighting an infection 1% = healthy individual

from which layer does notochord form

while the neural tube forms from ectoderm the notochord itself is mesoderm

chyle

white or pale yellow substance in lymph that contains fatty substances absorbed by the lacteals

ampulla

widest part of fallopian tube where fertilization occurs

example of polysynaptic reflex arc

withdrawal reflex

where would you look on the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve to determine the amount of oxygen that has been delivered to the tissues

y values give the percent of o2 saturation

jaundice

yellowing of the skin and the whites of the eyes caused by an accumulation of bile pigment (bilirubin) in the blood

do arteries contain smooth muscle

yes

do veins contain smooth muscle

yes

do veins contain valves

yes

how does aldosterone increase blood pressure?

you're altering the ability of the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct to reabsorb sodium when sodium is reabsorbed water is reabsorbed with it The increased volume of blood increases blood pressure


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