Medieval History Exam 2
-Imitatio Christi
-"Apostolic life" -Voluntary poverty and preaching
-Corpus Iuris Civilis
-"Corpus of Civil law" -Most influential secular text in Western History -It consists of four parts, the Institutes, Digest, Code, and Novels -First comprehensive codification of Roman law -For 900 years after Justinian, guided and modulated the urban and commercial scene upon which Byzantine life depended -Rediscovered in the late 11th century at a library in Pisa -Law as represented by the Corpus is a constantly evolving social creation, not a static body of immutable customs -States of Latin Europe began to codify and standardize their legal codes along the lines of the Corpus
-Inquisition
-"official inquiry" -Assertion of Church authority in spiritual matters -Direct forerunner of modern probable cause hearings
-Sic et Non
-"yes and no" -Assembled texts from the bible, the Church Fathers, papal letters, and conciliar decrees that contradicted one another on such fundamental questions of faith
-Empress Irene (r. 797-802)
-1st Byzantine empress who came to power by killing her son, Constantine VI in 797 -Marriage proposal from Charlemagne but could not accept because it angered her Byzantine subjects -Forced to take holy orders, she stayed in an abbey until her death in 805
Battle of Tours (732)
-A Muslim army attacked Gaul in 732 -Headed straight to the city of Tours, a great pilgrimmage site within Frankish territories -Martel defeated the Muslims where he became known as the Hero of Christendom
Glossing
-A commentary upon an authoritative text --Ex. a professor of canon law would teach his subject by reading a passage from Peter Lombard's "Sentences" and the commenting on it at length, pointing out important details and literary elements, etc
-Almoravids (1056-1147)
-A fundamentalist reform sect within western Islam led by south Moroccan Berbers -Believed that the Christian advances in Iberia resulted from the failure of the Muslims to adhere to Islamic law -Invaded from south -Very strict towards Christians and Jews -Eventually replaced by much stricter Almohads
-Waldensians
-A lay spiritual movement founded around 1173 by Peter Waldes -Had emphasis on voluntary poverty and preaching -Translation of bible to native language (French) -In 1179, gained tacit approval of Pope Alexander but were excommunicated by bishops in 1182 -An issue that they had is that their public preaching undermined the clerical authority -Condemned as heretical in 1184 but still survives -Were suppressed during the 13th century
-Knights
-A man who served his lord as a mounted soldier in armor -Developed form of behavior known as chivalry
-Knights Hospitaller
-A military and religious order founded as the Knights of the Order of the Hospital of St John of Jerusalem in the 11th century. Originally protectors of pilgrims, they also undertook the care of the sick.
-Knights Templar
-A religious and military order for the protection of pilgrims to the Holy Land, founded as the Poor Knights of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon in 1118.
-Medieval Warm Period
-A time interval with better weather and better crop yields -Technological innovations created: three-field crop rotation, heavy plow, padded horse collar & horseshoe, Legumes -Renewal of large kingdoms --> long distance trade -->Growth of "cash economy"
-Peter Lombard (d. 1160)
-Abelard's pupil who carried on his work -Wrote the four books of sentences which became the standard textbook for the study of theology for the rest of the middle ages -The influence of the Sentences reached its highpoint when the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 formally recognized the seven sacraments of official Church doctrine
-Fourth Crusade (1202-1204)
-After Saladin's death in 1193, Innocent started planning a new crusade -Innocent planned to sail to Egypt and then march into Jerusalem, but there were not enough recruits and in order to repay the Venetians, innocent and the crusaders were to recapture Zara from Hungarian control -Innocent excommunicated all of his army into Zara -While in Zara, the crusaders were visited by Alexius who told them to restore his throne in return for soldiers, supplies and money (He was lying) -The crusaders then made their way to Constantinople and sacked in 1204 -The crusade commander, Baldwin of Flanders, then got rid of Alexius, and became the new emperor -While emperor he forced the reunion of Latin and Greek Churches and the great schism was cemented
-Emperor Henry IV (r. 1056-1106)
-After his father's death in 1056, he inherited the imperial title at only 7 years old -After coming of age, he dealt with rebellions and prepared to confront Rome. But before he did, Pope Gregory VII penned the Diactus Papae in 1075 -Excommunicated and deposed from office, Germans rose up against him -To diffuse the situation, In 1077 he made a walk to Canossa to the home of Gregory and stood outside for 3 days begging for forgiveness --> very tactical because Gregory was now a priest and could not refuse to forgive a sinner -After being granted absolution from Gregory, he invaded Italy in 1081. However, Gregory heard of this prior and let know to Robert Guiscard and the Normans and he fled.
-Ontological Proof of God
-Anselm of Canterbury's reasoning of proof of god
-Seljuk Turks
-Asiatic steppe group that converted to Islam and were persianized -Scored a number of victories against the Byzantines in Anatolia -In 1071, demolished the main Byzantine army in Battle of Manzikert, also capturing Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes -Their leaders then took the title of sultan
-Magyars
-Asiatic steppe group with calvary tactics similar to that of the Huns from 500 years earlier -In 896, they were invited by the Byzantines to come help fight the Slavic Bulgars -In 899, Bulgars allied with Asiatic Pechenegs to drive Magyars from modern Bulgaria to Hungary -Raided N. Italy & Germanic lands -Opposed by Saxon Duke Otto the Great (r. 936-973), after he became wealthy after he obtained newly discovered silver mines, at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955
-Papal Election Decree (1059)
-Asserted that henceforth and for all eternity the only way for an individual to become the legitimate pontiff of the Holy Catholic Church was to be freely elected by the College of Cardinals -Removed the Holy See from the clutches of Roman magnates and declared the papacy's independence from the imperial power
Charles Martel (r. 714-741)
-Bastard son of Pepin II -Took control of gov't in 714, killed 2 half brothers, and took control of the state -Devoted to Christianizing Europe --> turned to British monasteries -Confiscated his own land and churches to parcel them out in order to win loyal warriors -Defeated Muslims at the Battle of Tours in 732 which led ti him being known as the "Hero of Western Christendom" -Defeated the Saxons at the Battle of Westphalia in 738 which added to his reputation -Died in 741 and passed power on to Pepin the Short
-Battle of Hastings (1066)
-Battle between Harold Godwinson and Duke William of Normandy -William's army defeated Harold's and William was crowned as the king of England
-Battle of Lechfeld (955)
-Battle in which Otto I "the Great" defeated the Magyars
-Battle of Manzikert (1071)
-Battle in which the Seljuk Turks defeated the main Byzantine army
-Second Crusade (1147-1149)
-Began when Zangi turned his forces against the county of Edessa in 1144 -Lead by France's king Louis VII and his adventurous wife Eleanor of Aquitane -Preached by St. Bernard of Clairvaux -Count Raymond advised Louis VII to dislodge Nur ad-Din, but Louis ignored this -He instead attacked Damascus, which was the Kingdom of Jerusalem's most important ally -Louis and his crusaders were then forced to withdraw and return home. -This led to the embarrassment of Brenard of Clairvaux and Conrad III. Also, Eleanor ended her marriage with Louis
-First Crusade (1095-1099)
-Began with emperor Alexius I appeal to Pope Urban II for papal aid in 1095 -Pope Urban II then spoke at the Council of Clermont which essentially started this campaign -A group of about 30k knights joined by the same amount of attendants, servants, and hang-ons formed the main army -This army was led by 5 main men: Duke Robert of Normandy (son of William the Conqueror), Bohemond (son of Robert Guiscard), Counts Raymond of Toulouse, Geoffrey of Bouillon, & Robert of Flanders -Made deal with Alexius that they would hold as Byzantine fiefs whatever land they conquered -After 2 years of campaigning through Anatolia and Syria, the crusaders reached the Holy Land in 1099 and took Jerusalem itself - a large and brutal slaughtering -Once they had this strip of land, they split it up into 4 principalities: Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, and the Kingdom of Jerusalem - which was divided into fiefs for the remaining knights -Once in control of these states, the crusaders built fortifications to control the countryside, but also established good relations with the Muslims - guaranteed local autonomy ` -Only fully successful one
-Alexius Comnenus (r. 1081-1118)
-Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118 -Although he was not the founder of the Komnenian dynasty, it was during his reign that the Komnenos family came to full power -Inheriting a collapsing empire and faced with constant warfare during his reign against both the Seljuq Turks in Asia Minor and the Normans in the western Balkans, Alexios was able to halt the Byzantine decline and begin the military, financial, and territorial recovery known as the Komnenian restoration.
Boniface (d. 754)
-Came from Southern England and received his education from monasteries -Devoted 40 years to a tireless campaign of teaching and preaching -Made thousands of converts; established dioceses, monasteries, and convents everywhere he went -Laid groundwork for the entire German Church -Became Archbishop of Mainz by papal appt. in 732
-Papal states
-Central portion of Italy of which the pope was the direct political ruler of
-Aachen
-Charlemagne's new capital city located in modern France, which he had ordered built as a copy of Byzantine imperial buildings he had seen at Ravenna
-Spanish March
-Charlemagne's premature assault on Muslim Spain in 778 of which he turned back -The territory he managed to conquer remained free --This territory eventually developed into county of Barcelona
-Louis the Pious (r. 814-840)
-Charlemagne's son and successor - was crowned by Charlemagne in 813 but didn't receive papal coronation until 816 -Reformed monasticism by granting St. Benedict of Aniane the right to revise benedictine rule to be more ascetic, thus giving Benedict complete jurisdiction over every monastery --> Led to alienation of monastic support group -Possessed political weakness: Lack of new conquests -In 822, he failed to institute primogeniture and offered penance afterwards -Shared power: wife as empress, Lothair as co-ruler, and Louis and Pippin as sub kings -In 832, his own sons rebelled against him and imprisoned him -Deposed in 840
-Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153)
-Chief nemesis Abelard -Infuriated by Abelard because of his approach and because Abelard was telling young students to hold the basic tenants of faith up to questioning
-Reconquista
-Christian counter-offense
Pepin II (r. 687-714)
-Commonly known as Pepin of Herstal, was a Frankish statesman and military leader who de facto ruled Francia as the Mayor of the Palace from 680 until his death -He took the title, Duke and Prince of the Franks, upon his conquest of all the Frankish realms. Mayor of the Palace in Austrasia in 680 -Pepin subsequently embarked on several wars to expand his power. He united all the Frankish realms by the conquest of Neustria and Burgundy in 687 -In foreign conflicts, Pepin increased the power of the Franks for several generations, carolingians only had one son, but Pepin II had 2 sons and a bastard son, Charles Martel.
-Serfdom
-Completely at mercy of their lords -Can't be traded still have rights -Sharp reduction of free-holder class
-Ottonian dynasty
-Composed of Henry the Fowler, Otto the Great, Otto II, Otto III, and Henry II -Otto II: Consolidated power over Italian cities & rebellious dukes, Married Byzantine princess (Theophano), Retinue of Byzantine scholars & artists -> seed for "Ottonian Renaissance" -Otto III: Followed his father's initiatives, viewed himself as a successor to charlemagne and Constantine, and died childless -Henry II: Duke of Bavaria and distant relative of the Ottonians
-Papal primacy
-Concept that the the Pope is the universal pastor and supreme head of the Catholic Church -He has full, supreme, immediate, and universal jurisdictional authority to govern the Church -This means that no bishop, synod, or council of bishops can override his authority
-Diet of Paderborn (777)
-Conversion of Saxon leaders where they were forced to swear allegiance to Charlemagne and underwent mass baptism
-Dominicans
-Created by Dominic Guzman -Commissioned by Innocent III to combat heretics in Southern France with education -They would travel in pairs from village to village -They embraced imitatio Christi with vows of poverty -They also obtained theological mastery to debate heretics: Formal affiliations with universities, Required 8 years of study for initiates, Excelled at theology -Instrumental role in the Inquisition -Recognized by Fourth Lateran Council (1215)
-Dominic Guzman (d. 1221)
-Creator of the Dominicans -Was commissioned by Innocent to combat heretics in Southern France
-Council of Clermont (1095)
-Crusade-launching speech by Pope Urban II -Was very harsh towards Muslims and noted plenary indulgence -Received popular response
-Cnut (r. 1016-1035)
-Danish prince who took crown from Ethelred the Unready, married his wife and became undisputed ruler of a united England in 1016 -Inherited Danish crown from older brother in 1018 -Took Norwegian crown in 1028 and conquered Sweden -Self proclaimed title of "Emperor of the Northern Seas" -Semi Christianized but gave money to church
-William the Conqueror (r. 1066-1087)
-Defeated Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Hastings to become King of England in 1066 -Didn't accommodate to Anglo-Saxon ways, he quelled rebellions harshly, seized almost all land and gave it to Normans, and built many castles to assert power -Controlled nobilities by managing numbers and holdings -Introduced Middle English -Ordered writing of the Domesday book in 1086, which was a compilation of an inventory of all the land and property in England -Successors William Rufus and Henry I were also resented by their subjects
-Pope Urban II (r. 1088-1099)
-Devoted himself to completing the work of the church reform by traveling widely, holding council and public ceremonies, and championing the notion of the Holy See's supremacy as foremost of the bishops -Delivered speech at the Council of Clermont in 1095 which began the crusades
-Universities
-Early Islamic Madrasas (Mosque-schools) that taught Islamic law and theory and sometimes science and medicine -These later transformed into Cathedral schools which were more broad and had a systematic curricula --These schools were open access but composed mostly of the urban middle class -There were also specialized centers that specialized in subjects such as theology at Paris & Oxford and medicine at Salerno & Montpellier -In order to manage the inevitable rivalries that would arise between the different scholars, universities were created -Deriving from the word universitas, which was the word for a commercial guild --That is, a universitas was a legal corporation that established its own standards, regulated itself, and enjoyed certain legal privileges -Instruction in universities consisted of glosses & recitation and oral examinations & debates -There was a standard curriculum consisting of trivium, quadrivium, and specialization -You could also receive degrees: B.A. (4-5 yrs) - T.A. M.A (+2-3 yrs) - Instructor or clerical work J.D. (+6 yrs) / M.D. (+8 yrs) / Ph.D. (+12 yrs) -The culture of the university towns were urban, cosmopolitan, and youthful -Commonly housed students based on their nationalities regardless of course of study, which led to political tensions -
Partible inheritance
-Everyone gets a little bit of what you have, one son does not inherit everything -Component of Merovingian dynasty
-Peter Waldes (d. ca. 1205)
-Experienced an apostolic conversion after hearing a reading on the life of St. Alexis -placed his wife and daughters in a convent, hired two priests to translate bible into french, and gave rest of his wealth away -Then dedicated his life to preaching to urban masses -In 1179, he unsuccessfully appealed to Pope Alexander III for approval of his order -Founder of the Waldensians Urban merchants inspired by scripture to donate wealth to poor Administering to urban poor Lay preaching Strong emphasis on voluntary poverty Gathered following Received papal approval
-Manorialism
-Fees and labor service on lord's demesne for "protection" -Demesne: portion of the manor on which the peasants worked in return for their strips and tenements
-Treaty of Verdun (843)
-Formally divided the Carolingian Empire into 3 independent kingdoms -Europe would never again be politically united
-Cluniacs
-Foundation of charter in Cluny in 910 by Duke William of Aquitaine where there was independence from lord and bishop and it was under direct protection of the pope -Sought to implement Benedictine rule more fully by achieving independence from secular authorities -Traveling abbots and the creation of Cluniac houses helped spread Cluniac monasticism -Inspired parallel reform movements -Once Cluny grew wealthy they hired tenants to do field work and the monks remained in their chapels and libraries -Abbot of Cluny became one of the most powerful church leaders
Merovingian Dynasty
-Founded by Clovis -Reigned in Gaul and Germany from a.d. 476 to 751 -Partible Inheritance -Kingship was personal, not institutional -Little bureaucratic function
-Salian Dynasty
-Founded by Conrad II who resisted reforms of the time because he feared the Church would be independent from governmental control -Supported by Henry III who led church reform movement (Peace of God)
-Pope Leo IX (r. 1049-1054)
-Generally regarded as the first "reformed" pope -Filled papal curia with outspoken reformists such as: Peter Damian (d. 1072), Humbert of Silva Candida (d. 1061) and Hildebrand: would become Gregory VII (r. 1073-1085) -Took tours of Western Europe where he was the first ever pope to be seen in the flesh and supported Peace & Truce of God -On these tours he gained great popularity can campaigned against simony. Also used tours to establish authority over the episcopacy --> everyone understood that the bishops served as legitimate leaders of the church because the Holy Father (pope) said so -Established College of Cardinals - skilled advisors that could offer expert counsel -Laid groundwork Papal Election Decree which was carried out by Pope Nicholas II
-Emperor Henry III (r. 1046-1056)
-German emperor who, in 1046, summoned a council that deposed both Benedict and Gregory and installed Clement II -Clement II died and was replaced by Damasus II who also died -He then appointed Bishop Bruno of Toul who took the name of Leo IX
-Beguines
-Group of women who established a significant lay order -Usually widows, virgins, and some married women -Male equivalent to group called the Beghards: much less common and had poor reputation -Dedicated themselves to poverty and service, lived in cities, and held communal worship services, but they stopped short of the type of vows that designated one as a nun -Had no monastic rules, vows, or hierarchy -Lived in houses known as beguinages
-Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153)
-Highly respected abbot of one of France's leading monasteries -Chosen to preach the second crusade by Louis VII
-Anselm of Canterbury (d. 1109)
-Important translational figure from the Neo-platonic and Augustinian model of the first half of medieval intellectual life to the Aristotelian model of the second half -Realist who firmly believed in the power of reason to illuminate faith -Wrote Ontological Proof of God and cur deus homo
-The Danelaw
-Independent Danish realm to which Alfred the Great agreed to pay annual tribune -historical name given to the part of England in which the laws of the Danes held sway and dominated those of the Anglo-Saxons. Danelaw contrasts West Saxon law and Mercian law.
-Henry IV of Germany (r. 1056-1106)
-Inherited the strongest and most developed state in the West -He was the third emperor of the Salian dynasty and one of the most powerful and important figures of the 11th century -His reign was marked by the Investiture Controversy with the Papacy and several civil wars over his throne both in Italy and Germany -He died of illness, soon after defeating his son's army near Visé, in Lorraine.
Mayor of the Palace
-Initially a clerk -Coordinates who gets all of the gifts when the king dies, essentially having all the power.
-Nominalists
-Insisted that universals are mere names or categorizing tools used by men to impose order on the world and are themselves essentially meaningless
-Realists
-Insisted that universals really do exist as sensible and meaningful constructs, even if only in the mind of God
-Carolingian Renaissance
-Intellectual production: small # of court intellectuals, classical commentaries, innovative art, philosophy, architecture, and music -Educational reforms: monastic schools and reformed church by educating clergy -Alcuin: correction of the vulgate bible and creator of the Carolina minuscule
-Franciscans
-Intense commitment to poverty -Based in urban communities -Heart over mind (vs. Dominicans) -Female side: Poor Clares - cloistered -After Francis died, Franciscan rule was revised to be more moderate
-Investiture Controversy
-It began as a dispute between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII -The question was who would control appointments of bishops (investiture) -Pope Gregory VII penned the Diactus Papae in 1075 -Mutual excommunication and deposition from office against both men -To diffuse the situation, in 1077 Henry made a walk to Canossa to the home of Gregory and stood outside for 3 days begging for forgiveness --> very tactical because Gregory was now a priest and could not refuse to forgive a sinner -After being granted absolution from Gregory, he invaded Italy in 1081. However, Gregory heard of this prior and let know to Robert Guiscard and the Normans and he fled -Normans later sacked Rome and Gregory was exiled in 1085 -Formally ended in 1122 when emperor Henry V reached compromise with Pope Calixtus - known as the Concordat of Worms
-Louis VII of France (r. 1137-1180)
-Lead the the second crusade
-Rollo (r. 911-927)
-Leader of the vikings who frequently attacked Fankish ruler, Charles the Simple -In 911, he received from Charles recognition as the Duke of Normandy
-Peasant's Crusade
-Led by Peter the Hermit -Made up of 20k-50k peasants -Peter insisted they make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem as the necessary precursor to Christ's Second Coming -On the way, hundreds engaged in a large scale slaughter of Jewish populations in the Rhine River Valley -When they arrived in Constantinople, they were decimated by the Seljuk Turks
-Alfred the Great (r. 871-899)
-Led campaigns against the vikings -Was forced out of his realm of Wessex into a swamp. He then rallied back and defeated the Danish vikings, forcing them to divide England between Alfred and them --> Danelaw
-Peter the Hermit (d. 1115)
-Led the Peasant's Crusade -Popular lay preacher from Central France
-Dictatus Papae (1075)
-List of 27 single sentence statements about papal power -Written by Pope Gregory VII -Led to investiture controversy
-Hugh Capet (r. 987-996)
-Local baron who overthrew last Carolingian ruler and took over government from himself -Founded Capetian Dynasty which would last for nearly 350 years -Initially controlled thin strip of land from Paris to Orleans
-Friars
-Member of one of the mendicant orders founded since the thirteenth century; the term distinguishes the mendicants' itinerant apostolic character, exercised broadly under the jurisdiction of a superior general, from the older monastic orders' allegiance to a single monastery formalized by their vow of stability -The most significant orders of friars are the Dominicans, Franciscans, and Carmelites
-Gregory I the Great (r. 590-604)
-Missionary efforts -Doctrinal and Monastic authority -Independence from Byzantium -More extensive direction of Western church
-Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153)
-Most admired churchmen of his age and was extremely popular -was a French abbot and the primary builder of the reforming Cistercian order. After the death of his mother, Bernard sought admission into the Cistercian order. "Three years later, he was sent to found a new abbey at an isolated clearing in a glen known as the Val d'Absinthe, about 15 km southeast of Bar-sur-Aube. According to tradition, Bernard founded the monastery on 25 June 1115, naming it Claire Vallée, which evolved intoClairvaux
-Donation of Constantine
-Most famous forgery in Western history which was in response to Byzantine complaints -Sought to undermine authority of Pepin's donation -Formed basis of papal political claims for the next 500 years
-Eleventh-Century Church Reform
-Most revolutionary chapter in Church history -Began at local level gaining momentum until reaching the highest echelons of Church and state -Started due to ill leadership and morals of clergy and papacy -Started with baronial abuse of monasteries which led Duke William I to found monastery in Cluny which was independent from secular and ecclesiastical authorities, particularly when electing an abbot --> gained a lot of monks and monasteries -Protests then followed with commoners demanding for the lords to release holds on churches - these rallies were known as Peace of God rallies -Municipal Bishops then took over these movements and aimed to supplant the power of both the rural abbots and core bishops - for the first time, bishops were dominant figures in the Church -From here the bishops used Psuedo-Isidorian Decretals: forgeries asserting primacy of urban bishops -Papacy reform: Resignation of Pope Benedict IX (in 1044 sold office to Sylvester III who died, so it was sold to Gregory VI but Benedict decided to retake papacy and denounced Gregory as a usurper -Emperor Henry III then marched on Italy & deposed both popes. He installed pro-reform Clement II who died. He then installed Damasus I who died, eventually he installed own cousin, Bishop Bruno of Toul, as Pope Leo IX
- Otto I "the Great" (r. 936-973)
-Most successful of the Saxon kings who contiinued eastern expansion against the Slavs and Magyars -Luckily discovered large silver lode where he immediately became wealthiest man in Europe -With this wealth he gained followers and defeated the Magyars at the Battle of Lechfield in 955 -Subdues rebellions of western dukes and sons -Developed new policy of feudalism where he installed archbishops, bishops, and abbots into his fiefs --> led to strict control of episcopal appointments -Supported German Church and missionary efforts (50% of subjects were pagan) -Gained control of Italy in 961, when he invaded the peninsula at the request of Pope John XII, who wanted his help against a local political rival -Because of this help, the Pope gave him the imperial title in 962, which made him a successor to Charlemagne
-Missi dominici
-Moved in regular circuits throughout the empire as Charlemagne's personal representatives -"Traveling lords" or "emissaries"
-Peace of God
-Movement that aimed to protect peasants, pilgrims, clergy, women, and children from baronial attack movement in the Middle Ages by the Catholic Church that applied spiritual sanctions to limit the violence of feuding. It began with very limited provisions in 989 and survived in some form until the thirteenth century.
-Truce of God
-Movement which forbade fighting during certain seasons of the liturgical year and on major feast days
-Caroline miniscule
-New alphabet that was far more legible than earlier scripts -Introduced spacing -Created by Alcuin
-Carthusians
-New monastic order established in 1084 by Bruno of Cologne -Benedictine in spirit but added features of ascetic discipline that set them apart -Noted for extreme austerity - combined eremetic and cenobitic life -Very isolated: resided in remote locations, lived in individual cells in small, modest priories, in small groups of usually 12 -Highly respected but very small following (only 39 houses by 1300s) and little literary production
-Cistercians
-New monastic order established in 1098 at Citeaux by Robert of Molesme -Benedictine in spirit but devoted itself to simplicity and austerity - not to the level of the Carthusians -Their churches were unadorned, houses unheated, meager diets, and forbidden to speak unless absolutely necessary -Gained mass popularity when Bernard of Clairvaux entered the community (over 500 houses by end of the 12th century) -Admission of peasants to partial membership (conversi) and their task was to work the monasteries' fields - Another reason they gained popularity -Earned income solely from manual labor -Particular appeal to women
-Barons
-New, local warlords -Built castles to insert own claims to power - would assert power over churches and monasteries within their territories and kick out the abbots and staff already there, and replace them with their own loyal agents
-Chivalry
-No knight should violate his sense of honor by taking unfair advantage of another knight
-Norman Sicily
-Normans initially invaded southern Italy in the 1040s -Robert Guiscard knitted Norman baronies into larger units and was appointed as the vassal of the Holy See -Guiscard's brother, Roger "the Great Count" began campaign of Sicily in 1061 and finished in 1091 -Roger II inherited both of these lands and was crowned king in 1130 -Stood out as one of the wealthiest and most powerful kingdoms in Latin Europe -Kingdom ended in 1194 when dynsty's direct line died out
-Hrotsvitha von Gandersheim
-Nun who was entirely unconnected from imperial court -Wrote plays with heroic depictions of females (modeling this after Terence)
Carolingians
-Old Frankish nobility -For several consecutive generations, each leader left behind one legitimate heir --> holdings never dissolved into a mass of princedoms -Frankish noble family with origins in the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century AD.The family consolidated its power in the late 8th century, eventually making the offices of mayor of the palace and dux et princeps Francorum hereditary and becoming the de facto rulers of the Franks. eventually became the royal family after Pepin III (the Short) deposed the Merovingian king.
-Kingdom of Jerusalem
-One of the 4 crusader states -Run by King Baldwin I from 1100-1118 -a crusader state established in the Southern Levant in 1099 after the First Crusade -The kingdom lasted nearly two hundred years, from 1099 until 1291 when the last remaining possession, Acre, was destroyed by the Mamluks, but its history is divided into two distinct periods
-Cathars
-One of the dissident groups that broke into open heresy -Also known as the Albigensians -Centered in southern France, they were a dualist sect who rejected the material world as the creation of an evil god while embracing the spiritual world created by a good god -Believed in destruction of physical body would liberate the spiritual essence --forbade sex, fasting, rejected use of medicine, flagellation -Practice of organization: introduced into Cathar faith was known as melioramentum, Perfects: received the consolamentum -Condemned as heresy in 1207 and suppressed by the Albigensian Crusade
-Saxons
-One of the first victims of Charlemagne's reign -In 777, at the Diet of Paderborn, they swore allegiance to Charlemagne and underwent a mass baptism
-Carolingian Empire
-Overwhelmingly rural, northward oriented, and peasant dominated Germanic world -New capital at Aachen -Imperial court was itinerant - held assemblies, passed laws, adjudicated local disputes, collected taxes, and asserted unity of Christendom
-Encastellation
-Parceling up land into local spheres of influence
-Charlemagne (r. 768-814)
-Pepin's son and successor -Initially shared rule with brother Carolman, but he died in 771 -Over-sized for is time (6'4") and ate and drank constantly -Was constantly at war, waging war on all his enemies -In 774 he completed a conquest of Italy over the Lombards -In 777 he held Diet of Paderborn, where the Saxons were forced to swear their allegiance to Charlemagne and underwent a mass baptism -in 778, launched a premature assault on Muslim Spain which became know as the Spanish March -Pressed into Bavaria where he deposed the ruler (his cousin) and annexed the whole territory, setting it up as a defensive East March providence -From the East March he launched attack at the pagan Avars and Slavs which turned out to be a very lucrative endeavor -All of these conquests virtually made Charlemagne the leader of the of all of Western Europe -On Christmas day in year 800, Pope Leo III crowned him emperor -Divided into administrative units called counties, where he placed his most loyal followers in charge of them (these people were known as counts) -Head of church: issued creation of Libri Carolini and held Council of Aachen where he endorsed filioque -Was angered by Byzantine's nonacceptance of his marriage proposal to Empress Irene which led to alliance with Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid and eventually the summoning of church council at Aachen
-Vassalage
-Person who has entered into a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe -The obligations often included military support and mutual protection, in exchange for certain privileges, usually including the grant of land held as a fiefdom
-Regular canons
-Priests living in community under the Rule of St. Augustine ("regula" in Latin), and sharing their property in common -Distinct from monks, who live a cloistered, contemplative life and sometimes engage in ministry to those from outside the monastery -The purpose of the life is to engage in public ministry of liturgy and sacraments for those who visit their churches -Historically the monastic life was by its nature lay, whereas canonical life was essentially clerical
-Subinfeudation
-Process of which the vassal would parcel out smaller parts of his land to other knights, who would then become the vassals of the first vassal
-Albigensian Crusade (1209-1229)
-Proclaimed by Innocent III in 1209 against Count Raymond and all the Cathars -Horribly bloody affair -Crusaders gathered in N. France under Almaric and beseiged Cathar stronghold of Beziers and killed all of the Christians in the city -The crusaders then began to attack Count Raymond himself which involved Raymond's brother, King Peter of Aragon, who claimed lordship of toulouse. -The new leader of the crusades, Simon, defeated Peter to capture Toulouse itself in 1218 -Becaise the town despised Simon, he was killed and his son surrenderd to the French crown and King Louis IX put an end to the crusade
Franko-Papal alliance
-Promotion of Pepin to kingship by the pope after Pepin gave central Italy (Papal States) to the pope
-Saladin (r. 1174-1193)
-Received power of government in Egypt from Shirkuh -Married Shirkuh's widow in 1174 and after brutally supressing Shi'ite communities, he emerged as sole ruler of the Muslim Middle East -In 1187, he massacred the crusaders' army at the Battle of Hattin and took control of Jerusalem
-Feudalism
-Relationships that were based on the idea of mutual obligation and service to public arena -Individuals desiring protection or a position in society could attach themselves to powerful figures who possessed either great wealth, social stature, or political might and thereby acquire privileges that would otherwise be beyond their reach -Problems: reality was too varied to model as a system and power of within feudal pyramid was deceiving -Feudal societies developed military regimes and chivalry
-Mendicant orders
-Religious orders which depend directly on charity for their livelihood -Christian mendicant orders, in principle, do not own property, either individually or collectively, believing that they are thereby copying the way of life followed by Jesus, and able to spend all their time and energy on religious work -The mendicant orders are marked by two characteristics: poverty, practiced in common; and a way of life that combines praying together in community with the work of the public ministry of the Church.
-Spiritual Franciscans
-Renewed emphasis on poverty -Condemned as heretical in 1323
-Almohads (1130-1269)
-Replaced the Almoravids -Much more strict and radical suppression of Christians and Jews in Spain and North Africa
-Norman Conquest of England (1066)
-Rival claim of duke willliam of Normandy led to battle of Hastings Norwegian king Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in September 1066 and was victorious at the Battle of Fulford, but Harold defeated and killed him at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1066. Within days, William landed in southern England. Harold marched south to confront him, leaving a significant portion of his army in the north. Harold's army confronted William's invaders on 14 October at the Battle of Hastings; William's force defeated Harold, who was killed in the engagement.
-Benedictine monasticism
-Rule of St. Benedict: Obedience to abbot, withdrawal from society, Divine Office, & Lectio Divina, communal property & individual "poverty" -Relationship with community: "Holiness factory" for, Treasury of Merit, Pious donations, Liturgical commemoration -Carolingian promotion: Missionary efforts and Louis the Pious (r. 814-840) & Benedict of Aniane -Abuses of banal lordship
-Trotula of Salerno
-Salernitan medical scholar who may have written an influential work called "The Diseases of Women", the first gynecological treatise in Western History -Virtually the only female practitioner actually to put her knowledge into writing -Followed the Galenic model
-Vikings
-Scandinavian group from the north that started their plundering after overpopulation and lack of land -Made people very scared because they were unpredictable and ferocious in battle, also because they had an unfamiliar language and religion -Used boats called dragonships which were excellent ocean going vessels and could row in very shallow wate -Targeted churches and monasteries because they were unprotected concentrations of wealth -Their raids led to invasion and settlement: Herald Finehair established kingdom of Norway -Three different groups of Vikings: Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish -
Pepin III "the Short" (r. 741-768)
-Second son of Charles Martel -Inherited control of Austrasia, Neustria, and Burgundy -Papal embassy to Pope Zacharias who had Merovingian King, Childeric, deposed -Repaid the pope by defeating the Lombards, who were attacking the church, and conquered Italy -With Italy, he bestowed the central portion of the peninsula as the Papal State.
-Abbasid Caliphate
-Seized caliphate from Umayyads in 750 -First half of this era is referred to as Islam's Golden Era -Persianization and eastern focus alienated western Muslims -Muslim Spain and North Africa strongly disliked easternization of Abbasid rule, so the established themselves as independent caliphates -The Aghlabids of Tunisia took Sicily in 831 and used as a base for launching raids on Mediterranean Europe --> Seized Bari in 840 and sacked Rome in 846 -Destroyed St. Benedict's own monastery at Monte Cassino in 881
The crusades
-Series of campaigns led by the papacy to regain the Holy Land, especially Jerusalem, which had been under Islamic ruler since 639 -Distinguishable from other wars because they were the only wars that were officially sanctioned by the Church -First major effort of the reformed church to flex its muscles
-Fatimids
-Shia Islamic caliphate that spanned a large area of North Africa, from the Red Sea in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west -The dynasty ruled across the Mediterranean coast of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the centre of the caliphate -At its height the caliphate included in addition to Egypt varying areas of the Maghreb, Sudan, Sicily, the Levant, and Hijaz -The caliphate often allowed a degree of religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam, as well as to Jews, Maltese Christians, and Egyptian Coptic Christians -The Fatimid caliphate was also distinguished by the central role of Berbers in its initial establishment and in helping its development, especially on the military and political levels
-Innocent III (r. 1198-1216)
-Single most powerful pope of the middle ages -Youngest and most genius cardinal in the Church at 37 Pope Innocent was one of the most powerful and influential popes. -He exerted a wide influence over the Christian regimes of Europe, claiming supremacy over all of Europe's kings. -was central in supporting the Catholic Church's reforms of ecclesiastical affairs through his decretals and the Fourth Lateran Council -This resulted in a considerable refinement of Western canon law -Pope Innocent is notable for using interdict and other censures to compel princes to obey his decisions, although these measures were not uniformly successful -called for Christian crusadesagainst Muslim Spain and the Holy Land,
-Plenary indulgence
-Sins are forgiven and you are granted admission to heaven -Given to those who gave their lives to the crusades
-Edward the Confessor (r. 1042-1066)
-Son of Ethelred, recalled by witan after Cnut's death --Witan: nobles' council -½ Norman & lived in Normandy since age 3 -Spoke Norman French better than Old English -Accustomed to feudal model for kingship -Died childless
-Nur ad-Din (r. 1146-1174)
-Son of Zangi -Was a member of the Turkish Zengid dynasty which ruled the Syrian province of the Seljuk Empire -Devoted enemy of the crusader presence in Syria
-Ibn Rushd (d. 1198)
-Spanish Arab better know in the west "Averroes" -World class intellectual snob -Believed that Greek philosophy and specifically Aristotelian logic could harmonize with the great teachings of the Islamic faith -Made metaphorical interpretation of the Qur'an -Believed that philosophy was a subject to be taught to only the smartest in the world -philosophy known as Averroism
-Capetian Dynasty
-Started in west Francia when local warlord, Hugh Capet, overthrew most recent Carolingian ruler -Initially incredibly weak due to not enough power to capture cities -Robert II "The Pious" and Henry 1 came to power and instituted strategies to expand -Strategies included: avoid election and co rule with son, always have male heir, and strategically marriage -By the time of Phillip the Fat, they had enough power to overrun smaller baronies
-Libri Carolini
-Stated that images themselves are unworthy of veneration for the simple reason that they are the products of human, not divine, hands -Response to iconoclastic controversy -"Charles Book"
-Ottonian Renaissance
-Stems from conquering N. Italy and the link they establish from Byzantium -Even smaller than the Carolingian renaissance consisting of mostly court scholars, poets, and artists who had wider participation -Influx of Byzantine's influence: Theophano (Otto II's wife) brought sculptors and painters with her from Constantinople
-Harald Finehair (r. 872-930)
-Subdued most of Norway and set himself up as the first king
-Fourth Lateran Council (1215)
-Summoned by Innocent III
-Henry III of Germany (r. 1039-1056)
-Supporter of church reform movement --In 1043, he delivered Peace of God sermon -Subjugated Poland, Bohemia, and Hungary to recognize his feudal overlordship -Created vast empire by controlling Burgundy and N. Italy
-Twelfth-Century Renaissance
-The cultural and intellectual activity that enlivened Europe from 1050 to 1250 -Most notable achievements were in philosophy and theology -Cathedral schools replaced monastic schools and became open to anyone who could pay tuition -Interest in new technologies, new genres of literature, new philosophical systems, new architecture, new approaches to law, and new mathematics all increased
-Iconoclasm
-The dispute, in both the Greek and Latin churches, over whether or not icons of the saints could be used in worship -Led to war between eastern church and icons and their supporters
-Lay piety
-The faith and practice of those who werent in the clergy (priests, monks, nuns, friars...)
-Canon law
-The laws by which the institution of the church operates
-Decretum Gratiani
-The most well known and influential of the canon law codes -Published by scholar monk Gratiani -Harmonized both the northern and southern traditions and quickly became the standard text of canon law -Influenced by aristotle and the Corpus
-Homage/ fealty
-The oaths that formalized the relationship guaranteed the allegiance of the person receiving the fief to the person who bestowed it
-Conversi
-The peasants given admission to partial membership of the Cistercian estates
-Walk to Canossa (1077)
-The pilgrimmage by Henry IV to the home of Gregory VII begging for forgiveness
-Simony
-The purchase and/or sale of ecclesiastical office -One of the most widespread abuses in the corrupted church of the post-Carolingian era
-Holy Roman Empire
-The realm of Otto The Great that did not have a territorial or legal specification -Composed of Germany, N. Italy, Burgundy, and France
-Aristotelian logic
-The traditional system of logic expounded by Aristotle and developed in the Middle Ages, concerned chiefly with deductive reasoning as expressed in syllogisms
-Christendom
-The worldwide body or society of Christians
-Lay Investiture
-Tradition by which secular rulers installed all clergy in their offices
-Third Crusade (1189-1193)
-Triggered by a reconfiguration of Islamic power in the region -In 1168, Jerusalem attempted to take Fatmid Egypt -The Fatmids looked to Nur ad-Din for help, who sent Shirkuh and told him to kill the caliph and take over the government -Shirkuh died a few years later and the power was passed to his nephew, Saladin -Saladin married Shirkuh's widow in 1174, and after brutally supressing Shi'ite communities, he emerged as sole ruler of the Muslim Middle East -In 1187, Saladin massacred the crusaders' army at the Battle of Hattin and took control of Jerusalem -After hearing of this, the three leading kings of the feudal world: Frederick Barbarossa, Philip Augustus, and Richard the Lionheart, gathered their forces -Frederick went to the east but drowned en route -Richard and Phillip sailed to acre, but Phillip got sick and returned to Paris -Richard then campaigned for two years acquiring the coastal regions -Richard and Saladin then came to a truce: The Christian coastal cities would remain free while Saladin controlled the rest of Palestine including Jerusalem - but Jerusalem would stay open to pilgrims of all faith
-Francis of Assisi (d. 1226)
-Urban merchant inspired by scripture to donate wealth to poor -Not ordained -Famed for charity, humility, and peculiar spirituality - tended to lepers and preached to animals -Established Franciscan order in 1210 -Withdrew from Franciscan order in 1220 Spiritual Franciscans: renewed emphasis on poverty Condemned as heretical in 1323
-Italian Communes
-Urban republics with administrative jurisdiction over the surrounding rural zones -Emulated Roman republic -Many civic officials with limited terms -Dominated by rising merchant class
-Fief
-Usually a quantity of land - sometimes and individual estate, or even an entire duchy - the the lord assigned to his vassal in return for that vassal's service
-Peter Abelard (d. 1142)
-Wandering scholar - he traveled place to place offering lectures and tutorials for cash -Son of Breton nobleman -Wrote the book Sic et Non -Tutored woman named Heloise, then seduced her. He wanted to marry her but she refused because it would end his career as a scholar (scholars are regarded as clerics -He then went to a monastery -Died at Cluny en route to rome to appeal his case to the Pope
-Pope Leo III (r. 795-816)
-Was accused of adultery and perjury and was imprisoned and tortured. He then sought out Charlemagne for aid -Crowned Charlemagne emperor on Christmas day in 800 -Protected by Charlemagne from his enemies in Rome, he subsequently strengthened Charlemagne's position by crowning him Holy Roman Emperor and "Augustus of the Romans". had been accused of adultery and perjury and was imprisoned and tortured → went to charlemagne for aid and protection
-Taifas
-Was an independent Muslim-ruled principality, usually an emirate or petty kingdom, though there was one oligarchy, of which a number were formed in Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia) after the final collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba in 1031
-Latin Empire (1204-1261)
-When Count Baldwin of Flanders sacked Constantinople and became new emperor this empire came to existence -During this time, the Latin and Greek Churches were forced into reunion
-Concordat of Worms (1122)
-When emperor Henry V reached compromise with Pope Calixtus -Allowed ecclesiastica appointments to be made by the church alone but gave secular princes the right to participate in "investing" appointees with lands and privileges that accompanied the position
-Heloise (d. 1164)
-Woman tutored by Abelard -He seduced her, fell in love, got her pregnant, and was asked to marry him -She refused because it would end his career as a scholar -She then became a nun
-Tripartite Society
-Workers, fighters, and prayers -Idea that every person fits into these three categories -Exceptions: Royal "freetowns" and Southern Christendom
-Pope Gregory VII (r. 1073-1085)
-Wrote Dictatus Papae in 1075 -Excommunicated and deposed -Took position as priest and was approached by Henry IV known as the walk to Canossa and granted forgiveness against his will -Was exiled when Guiscard sacked Rome and died in 1085 in exile
-Universals
-ideal qualities that all members of a particular class or group share and that define their essence
-Middle English
-language that developed during William the Conquerer's claim to power -Heavy influence on vocabulary and grammar
-Banal lordship
-public authority -local warlords privatized public justice (and tax collection): state as monopoly on legitimate violence"; -Vs. land lordship which is governmental authority over all people free or not in a well defined area whether land is owned or not
-Clerical celibacy
-requirement in certain religions that some or all members of the clergy be unmarried -These religions consider that, outside of marriage, deliberate sexual thoughts, feelings, and behavior are sinful --Clerical celibacy also requires abstention from these.
-Literati
-well-educated people who are interested in literature.
Three waves of Monastic Reforms
1- Cluniac Reform: ca. 910-1184: Monastic independence -> Libertas ecclesiae 2- "Ascetic" Reform: ca. 1184-1205: Austerity & the condemnation of wealth and Flight from urban expansion 3- Mendicant Reform: ca. 1205-1215: Apostolic life (or imitatio Christi): Voluntary poverty and preaching Urban life & engagement
-Caliphate of Cordoba
The region was formerly dominated by the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba (756-929) -The period was characterized by an expansion of trade and culture, and saw the construction of masterpieces of al-Andalus architecture. -The caliphate disintegrated during a civil war between the descendants of the last caliph, Hisham II, and the successors of his hayib, Al-Mansur -In 1031, after years of infighting, the caliphate fractured into a number of independent Muslim Taifa
-The Great Schism (1054)
permanent break b/w Greek orthodox church and the Latin church in the west; Roger II forced byzantine Christians in norman sicily to conform, leads to retaliations Roger II forced Byzantine Christians in Norman Sicily to conform 1052: Patriarch Michael Keroularios retaliates in kind Leo IX's delegation to resolve conflict Headed by Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida Ignored for months July 16th, 1054: Bull of excommunication placed on altar of Hagia Sophia during Eucharist Retaliatory excommunication by patriarch Never fully reconciled Mutual condemnation not lifted until 1965 Not seen as irreversible...
