memory

Who suggested the dual code theory?

Allan Palvio

Who wrote about patient HM?

Brenda Milner

Name the sensory memory for auditory sensations.

Echoic memory

What is implicit memory?

Implicit memory....ncomplete

What is the memory store for permanent memories?

LTM

What is the decay theory or trace theory?

Memory fades with time.

Describe secondary or elaborative rehearsal.

Organize and understand material in order to transfer it into LTM.

Define unlearning

new associations cause you to forget old ones

Serial learning (list) is subject to...

primacy and recency

What are the two most-studied sensory memories and how long do they last?

1-iconic memory lasts a few tenths of a second and 2-Echoic memory lasts a few seconds

What are two types of recall?

1. Cued recall (fill-in-the-blank) 2. Free recall (no cue)

What are the two types of explicit memory?

1. Episodic memory 2. Semantic memory

What are the two types of rehearsal? Which is better for transfer into LTM?

1. Primary or maintenance rehearsal 2. Secondary or elaborative rehearsal Secondary or elaborative rehearsal is better for transfer to LTM.

What are three ways of measuring LTM retention?

1. Recognition 2. Recall 3. Savings

What are the three stages of memory and which psychologists proposed this basis of classifying different memories corresponding to different time intervals.

1. Sensory memory 2. Working memory or short-term memory 3. Long term memory Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

According the the GRE Psych book, name three memory theories that support the idea that test material will be better retained if you take the time to understand it>

1. levels of processing 2. elaborative rehearsal 3. dual code hypothesis

Verbal Learning & Memory Task: four types

1. serial learning 2. serial-anticipation 3. paired associate 4. free-recall

What is the capacity of short-term memory?

7+/-2 chunks

What is backward masking in visual and auditory memory?

A bright light or new pattern will replace the first and it works for auditory as well. (A b.m. is more successful if it similar to the original stimulus.)

Eric R. Kandel

A neuropsychiatrist who studied the California sea slug, aplysia, which has large nerve cells amenable to experimental manipulation, and also a member of the simplest group of animals known to be capable of learning. Discovery: the brain changes with learning and memory.

7 factors that make remembering items on a list easier to remember.

ASBFCMI 1. acoustic dissimilarity 2. semantic dissimilarity 3. brevity of the length of list and items on the list 4. familiarity 5. concrete 6. meaning 7. importance to the subject

Describe how memory is constructive and reconstructive.

At the time a memory is formed and then later on in time, the memory can and does depart systematically from the objective reality that gave rise to it.

This view/perspective of memory explains memory through paired-associate learning. One item is learned with, and then cues recall of another.

Behaviorists.

What do studied of young chicks' brains show?

Brains are altered with memory and learning.

What is chunking and how can it increase the capacity of STM?

Chunking is grouping together items. It can increase the size of the chunks but cannot increase the number of chunks in STM.

Define clustering.

Clustering is the brain's tendency to group together similar items in memory regardless of whether the information was learned together or not. Most often, grouped into conceptual or semantic hierarchies.

What is the interference theory?

Competing information interferes with retrieval.

She found that memory of traumatic events is altered by the event itself and by the way questions about the event are asked...

Elizabeth Loftus

Define declarative knowledge. Is it represented in explicit or implicit memory?

Declarative knowledge is knowing facts. Explicit memory.

This person posited that memory involves changes of synapses and neural pathways, making a memory tree.

Donald Hebb

What term describes the contents of photographic memory?

Eidetic memory (rare but more common in children or in rural communities)

Which type of memory (within explicit memory) is defined as the memory for specific events and experiences?

Episodic memory

Yankee bow ties and California sea slugs.

Eric R. Kandel

What is explicit memory?

Explicit memory is knowing something and being consciously aware of knowing it.

In recall tests involving the order of items on a list, subjects can more quickly state the order of items that are: a. closer together on the list or b. far apart on the list?

Far apart on the list.

These people asserted the depth of processing theory.

Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart

What memory device is being demonstrated when students are asked to recall their memory of finding out about 9-11?

Flashbulb memory: recollections that seem burned into the brain. (not always accurate despite the subject's confidence)

This person discovered memory is reconstructive rather than rote.

Frederick Bartlett

Using the story "War of the Ghosts" he discovered people remember ideas and semantics of the story better than details and grammar.

Frederick Bartlett

This psychologist found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 (plus or minus 2) items.

George Miller

What is the name of the person who first explored sensory memory? What is the name of his experiment involving iconic memory?

George Sperling conducted the partial-report experiment. He found that people could see more than they could remember and report.

HM

HM was suffering from severe epilepsy. Surgically given a lesion to the hippocampus to treat his seizures. Post-procedure, he could remember everything from before the surgery and his STM was intact. He could not store new LTM's.

The law: "Neurons that fire together, wire together."

Hebb's Law or Hebbian Theory

With a memory study including lists of nonsense syllables, this person demonstrated the forgetting curve.

Hermann Ebinghaus (Do nonsense syllables generalize other types of memory?)

What is a tachtiscope used for?

In cognitive and memory experiments, this instrument presents visual material (words or images) to subjects for a fraction of a second.

What is incidental learning?

Incidental learning is learning that takes place without the intent to learn it. In research studies, participants are presented with items while they are not aware that they will be tested for their memory of the items.

dual code theory

Information represented in both visual and auditory formats will be recalled better. The brain has two distinct functional locations for verbal encoding and imagery encoding.

How is recognition measured in LTM retention?

Recognition requires subjects to recognize things learned in the past. Example of a multiple-choice test.

What issue does Elizabeth Loftus's discovery about car crash questions bring up?

Law-psychology issues such as questioning a witness.

Verbal Learning & Memory Task: free-recall learning

Learn a list of words and then the words must be recalled in any order with no cue.

Verbal Learning & Memory Task: serial learning

Learn a list of words to be recalled in order. Feedback given after the entire list is recalled.

Explain (Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart's) depth of processing.

Learning and recall depends on the depth of processing. Different levels of processing exist from the most superficial (phonological) pronunciation level to the deep (semantic) meaning level. *The deeper an item is processed, the easier it is to learn and recall.

Karl Lashley's discovery tested on lab mice in mazes.

Memories are stored diffusely in the brain. (Spread all over the brain.) Later discoveries show that most brain tissue is highly specialized so complex cognitive acts require lots of areas of the brain to do their specific thing.

Verbal Learning & Memory Task: Paired-Associate learning

Memorize word pairs. One word cues the other

This memory device can help learning and recall.

Mnemonics

Why are multiple choice tests easier than essays.

Multiple choice tests are recognition tests. The question and answer choices all serve as retrieval cues. Essay tests are recall so you have to produce the info from your memory with less cues.

Define competition

New associations compete with old ones

What is proactive interference?

Occurs when old info in memory interferes with the learning and recall of new info.

What is retroactive interference?

Occurs with learning and recalling new info in memory interferes with learning and recall of previously learned info.

How is recall measured in LTM retention?

Recall requires subjects to generate information on their own. The two types of recall are cued recall (fill-in-the-blank) and free recall (no cue).

Define procedural knowledge. Is it represented in explicit or implicit memory?

Procedural knowledge is knowing how to do something like riding a bike. Implicit memory.

Describe primary or maintenance rehearsal.

Repeat info to keep it active in working memory.

Primacy and recency effects which time of memory?

STM

How is savings measured in LTM retention?

Savings measures how much information about a subject remains in LTM by assessing how long it takes to learn something a second time as opposed to the first time.

Which type of memory (within explicit memory) is defined as the memory for facts (including word meanings) not tied to any specific time or place?

Semantic memory

How are most items in LTM learned or encoded?

Semantically, for meaning.

What concept is responsible for the the rubber pencil trick?

Sensory memory If you wiggle a pencil you see the pencil in many positions because the sensory information starts in you awareness longer than it takes for the pencil to move.

Define the study of memory in psychology.

Studying memory in psychology involves understanding how things are remembered and why things are forgotten.

Verbal Learning & Memory Task: serial-anticipation learning

Subjects learn a list of words to be recalled in order. Recall one item at a time prompted by the preceding item. Subjects are aware when they get it right/wrong based on the next prompt.

What is the Generation-Recognition model?

The Generation-Recognition model states that anything recallable should be easily recognized. (Helps explain why recognition tests are easier than recall tests.) Recognition failure of recallable items is very low. However, studies show that recognition failure of recallable items is lower for items with less meanings. For example, when recalling celebrity names, Lady Gaga has a lower failure rate than Cooper.

Verbal Learning & Memory Task: serial position curve

The first and last items are remembered and the ones in the middle are forgotten. This is because of primacy and recency.

Why is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon a retrieval failure?

The item is in memory/storage but you can't get to it. You might remember the first sound of the word or the number of syllables but can't say the word. Evidence that the item is failing to be retrieved is show because once you see or hear the word you immediately recognize it.

What is the state-dependent theory?

The state-dependent theory states that retrieval is more successful if it occurs in the same emotional or phsyical state in which coding occurred. This is why depressed individuals have trouble remembering happy things and also why alcoholics only remember the details of their last binge when they are drinking again.

Describe the forgetting curve developed by Hermann Ebinghaus.

There is a sharp drop in retention immediately after learning. This levels off with a slight downward trends.

Who first observed backward masking in iconic memory?

Ulric Neisser

Name the psychologist who coined the term icon for brief visual memory? What did he observe about this image or icon in sensory memory?

Ulric Neisser observed that the iconic memory preserves an exact duplicate of the image falling on the retina and it lasts for about one second.

What is the encoding specificity principle?

When information available at item encoding is also available at item retrieval, the item is more likely to be remembered. You remember better if it is retrieved in the same context it was stored. This is because memory is not recorded in its original form but translated or encoded into a form that includes the thoughts and understanding of the learner.

The effect is the name of zee idea that we recall uncompleted tasks better than completed ones.

Zeigarnik effect

Primacy in list-learning

first items on the list are remembered because they benefit from the most rehearsal and exposure

Elizabeth Loftus discovered that asking "how fast were the cars going when they crashed?" will elicit a higher/lower speed estimate than "what was the rate of the cars upon impact"?

higher

Recency in list-learning

last items on the list are remembered because there is less time for decay