Mid-term Grammar Exam Review

Run On Sentence

A RUN-ON SENTENCE (sometimes called a "fused sentence") has at least two parts, either one of which can stand by itself (in other words, two independent clauses), but the two parts have been smooshed together instead of being properly connected.

Sentence Fragment

A SENTENCE FRAGMENT fails to be a sentence in the sense that it cannot stand by itself. It does not contain even one independent clause. There are several reasons why a group of words may seem to act like a sentence but not have the wherewithal to make it as a complete thought.(A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb A clause can be usefully distinguished from a phrase, which is a group of related words that does not contain a subject-verb relationship, such as "in the morning" or "running down the street" or "having grown used to this harassment.)

Misplaced Modifier

A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly separated from the word it modifies / describes. Because of the separation, sentences with this error often sound awkward, ridiculous, or confusing. Modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses that add description to sentences. Typically, you will find a modifier snuggled right next to—either in front of or behind—the word it logically describes. Take the simple, one-word adjective blue. If we add it to the sentence that follows, where should it go? At a downtown dealership, Kara bought a truck from a salesman with a comb over. Should we locate blue next to dealership? A blue downtown dealership? A blue Kara? A blue salesman? Of course not! Logic dictates that blue can describe only one word, truck, so we must place the modifier next to that word: At a downtown dealership, Kara bought a blue truck from a salesman with a comb over. In a similar manner, multi-word phrases and clauses often go right next to the word they describe. Here are some examples: Gazing out the window, Paul missed the homework assignment that Prof. Zuromski wrote on the board. Gazing out the window is a participle phrase describing Paul, the noun that follows. Sam gobbled the sandwich, which was soggy with tomato juice, as he rushed to class. Which was soggy with tomato juice is an adjective clause describing sandwich, the noun before it. As the hurricane approached, we watched the tree branches waving in the strong breeze. Waving in the strong breeze is a participle phrase describing branches, the noun in front. Sometimes a writer places the modifier too far away from the word it should describe. Born in the confusion is a misplaced modifier, an error. Read these examples: Churning in the Atlantic Ocean, we anxiously watched the weather report for information about the hurricane. Churning in the Atlantic Ocean is a participle phrase. In the current sentence, it is describing the pronoun we. How illogical! We cannot churn in an ocean! Raymond wore his one collared shirt to the job interview, which was unfortunately stained with yellow mustard. Which was unfortunately stained with yellow mustard is an adjective clause. In the sentence above, it is describing interview, the noun in front. But an interview can't get stained with mustard! Professor Jones, who was late with another essay, waited for the slacker student. Who was late with another essay is an adjective clause. In this sentence, it is describing Professor Jones, the noun before it. But he's not the identified slacker! The student is! We anxiously watched the weather report for information about the hurricane churning in the Atlantic Ocean. Raymond wore his one collared shirt, which was unfortunately stained with yellow mustard, to the job interview. Professor Jones waited for the slacker student who was late with another essay. Using Initial Modifiers: Dependent Clause: Although she wasn't tired, Maria went to sleep. Infinitive Phrase: To please her mother, Maria went to sleep. Adverb: Quickly and quietly, Maria went to sleep. Participial Phrase: Hoping to feel better, Maria went to sleep. Using Mid-Sentence Modifiers: Appositive: Maria, an obedient child, went to sleep. Participial Phrase: Maria, hoping to catch up on her rest, went to sleep. Using Terminal Modifiers: Present Participial Phrase: Maria went to sleep, hoping to please her mother. Past Participial Phrase/Adjectival Phrase: Maria went to sleep, lulled by music. Maria went to sleep, awakening to scary dreams, relieved when it was morning. Combining Modifiers: Quickly and quietly, Maria, a young girl, went to sleep hoping to please her mom.

Subject-Verb Agreement

Basic Principle: Singular subjects need singular verbs; plural subjects need plural verbs. My brother is a nutritionist. My sisters are mathematicians. Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb. Examples: My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today. Neither Juan nor Carmen is available. Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations. As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by and. Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation. But note these exceptions: Exceptions: Breaking and entering is against the law. The bed and breakfast was charming. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along with, as well as, besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject. Ignore them and use a singular verb when the subject is singular. Examples: The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly. Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking. Parentheses are not part of the subject. Example: Joe (and his trusty mutt) was always welcome. Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when considered as a unit. Examples: Three miles is too far to walk. Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense. Ten dollars is a high price to pay. BUT Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor

Parallel Structure

Parallel structure means using the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. This can happen at the word, phrase, or clause level. The usual way to join parallel structures is with the use of coordinating conjunctions such as "and" or "or." With the -ing form (gerund) of words: Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling. With infinitive phrases: Parallel: Mary likes to hike, to swim, and to ride a bicycle. OR Mary likes to hike, swim, and ride a bicycle. Do not mix forms. Example 1 Not Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and to ride a bicycle. Parallel: Mary likes hiking, swimming, and riding a bicycle. Example 2 Not Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and in a detailed manner. Parallel: The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and thoroughly. Example 3 Not Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his motivation was low. Parallel: The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked motivation. Clauses A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice versa) will break the parallelism. Example 1 Not Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game. Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game. — or — Parallel: The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up exercises before the game. Example 2 Not Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be asked by prospective buyers. (passive) Parallel: The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers would ask him questions. Lists After a Colon Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same form. Example 1 Not Parallel: The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and looking up irregular verbs. Parallel: The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings, pronunciations, correct spellings, and irregular verbs. -Skim your paper, pausing at the words "and" and "or." -Check on each side of these words to see whether the items joined are parallel. If not, make them parallel. -If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel. Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you hear the same kinds of sounds? For example, is there a series of "-ing" words beginning each item? Or do your hear a rhythm being repeated? If something is breaking that rhythm or repetition of sound, check to see if it needs to be made parallel.

Semicolons

Use a semicolon [ ; ] -to help sort out a monster list: There were citizens from Bangor, Maine; Hartford, Connecticut; Boston, Massachusetts; and Newport, Rhode Island. OR We had four professors on our committee: Peter Wursthorn, Professor of Mathematics; Ronald Pepin, Professor of English; Cynthia Greenblatt, Professor of Education; and Nada Light, Professor of Nursing. -to separate closely related independent clauses: My grandmother seldom goes to bed this early; she's afraid she'll miss out on something.

Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks [ " " ] to set off material that represents quoted or spoken language. Quotation marks also set off the titles of things that do not normally stand by themselves: short stories, poems, and articles. Usually, a quotation is set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma -On the other hand, if a question ends with a quoted statement that is not a question, the question mark will go outside the closing quotation mark -In the United States, we use single quotation marks [ ' ' ] to enclose quoted material (or the titles of poems, stories, articles) within other quoted material -"'Design' is my favorite poem," he said. -"Did she ask, 'What's going on?'" -Ralph Ellison recalls the Golden Age of Jazz this way: "It was itself a texture of fragments, repetitive, nervous, not fully formed; its melodic lines underground, secret and taunting; its riffs jeering—'Salt peanuts! Salt peanuts!'"

Verb Tense

Verbs come in three tenses: past, present, and future. The past is used to describe things that have already happened (e.g., earlier in the day, yesterday, last week, three years ago). The present tense is used to describe things that are happening right now, or things that are continuous. The future tense describes things that have yet to happen (e.g., later, tomorrow, next week, next year, three years from now). Simple Present: I read nearly every day. Simple Past: Last night, I read an entire novel. Simple Future: I will read as much as I can this year Present Continuous: I am reading Shakespeare at the moment. Past Continuous: I was reading Edgar Allan Poe last night. Future Continuous:I will be reading Nathaniel Hawthorne soon. Present Perfect: I have read so many books I can't keep count. Past Perfect: I had read at least 100 books by the time I was twelve. Future Perfect:I will have read at least 500 books by the end of the year. Present Perfect Continuous:I have been reading since I was four years old. Past Perfect Continuous:I had been reading for at least a year before my sister learned to read. Future Perfect Continuous:I will have been reading for at least two hours before dinner tonight

Apostrophe

We use an apostrophe [ ' ] to create possessive forms, contractions, and some plurals (see below). The apostrophe shows where a letter or letters have been left out of a contracted verb: I am = I'm you are = you're she is = she's it is = it's do not = don't she would = she'd he would have = he would've let us = let's who is = who's she will = she'll they had = they'd Use the apostrophe to show possession. To show possession with a singular noun, add an apostrophe plus the letter s. Examples: a woman's hat the boss's wife Mrs. Chang's house One method, common in newspapers and magazines, is to add an apostrophe + s ('s) to common nouns ending in s, but only a stand-alone apostrophe to proper nouns ending in s. Examples: the class's hours Mr. Jones' golf clubs the canvas's size Texas' weather Care must be taken to place the apostrophe outside the word in question. For instance, if talking about a pen belonging to Mr. Hastings, many people would wrongly write Mr. Hasting's pen (his name is not Mr. Hasting). Correct: Mr. Hastings' pen Another widely used technique is to write the word as we would speak it. For example, since most people saying "Mr. Hastings' pen" would not pronounce an added s, we would write Mr. Hastings' pen with no added s. But most people would pronounce an added s in "Jones's," so we'd write it as we say it: Mr. Jones's golf clubs. This method explains the punctuation of for goodness' sake. Regular nouns are nouns that form their plurals by adding either the letter s or es (guy, guys; letter, letters; actress, actresses; etc.). To show plural possession, simply put an apostrophe after the s. Correct: guys' night out (guy + s + apostrophe) Incorrect: guy's night out (implies only one guy) Correct: two actresses' roles (actress + es + apostrophe) Incorrect: two actress's roles Do not use an apostrophe + s to make a regular noun plural. Incorrect: Apostrophe's are confusing. Correct: Apostrophes are confusing. Incorrect: We've had many happy Christmas's. Correct: We've had many happy Christmases. English also has many irregular nouns (child, nucleus, tooth, etc.). These nouns become plural by changing their spelling, sometimes becoming quite different words. You may find it helpful to write out the entire irregular plural noun before adding an apostrophe or an apostrophe + s. Incorrect: two childrens' hats The plural is children, not childrens. Correct: two children's hats (children + apostrophe + s) Incorrect: the teeths' roots Correct: the teeth's roots Most would call them the "Hastings." But that would refer to a family named "Hasting." If someone's name ends in s, we must add -es for the plural. The plural of Hastings is Hastingses. The members of the Jones family are the Joneses. To show possession, add an apostrophe. Incorrect: the Hastings' dog Correct: the Hastingses' dog (Hastings + es + apostrophe) Incorrect: the Jones' car Correct: the Joneses' car Never use an apostrophe to make a name plural. Incorrect: The Wilson's are here. Correct: The Wilsons are here. Incorrect: We visited the Sanchez's. Correct: We visited the Sanchezes. With a singular compound noun (for example, mother-in-law), show possession with an apostrophe + s at the end of the word. Example: my two brothers-in-law's hats If two people possess the same item, put the apostrophe + s after the second name only. Example: Cesar and Maribel's home is constructed of redwood. However, if one of the joint owners is written as a pronoun, use the possessive form for both. Incorrect: Maribel and my home Incorrect: Mine and Maribel's home Correct: Maribel's and my(or your) home Correct: his and Maribel's home Use an apostrophe with contractions. The apostrophe is placed where a letter or letters have been removed. Examples: doesn't, it's, 'tis, can't, you'd, should've, rock 'n' roll, etc Amounts of time or money are sometimes used as possessive adjectives that require apostrophes. Incorrect: three days leave Correct: three days' leave Incorrect: my two cents worth Correct: my two cents' worth When an apostrophe comes before a word or number, take care that it's truly an apostrophe (') rather than a single quotation mark ('). Incorrect: 'Twas the night before Christmas. Correct: 'Twas the night before Christmas. Incorrect: I voted in '08. Correct: I voted in '08. Beware of nouns ending in y; do not show possession by changing the y to ies. Correct: the company's policy Incorrect: the companies policy To show possession when a noun ending in y becomes plural, write ies'. Do not write y's. Correct: three companies' policies Incorrect: three company's policies Exception: Names and other proper nouns ending in y become plural simply by adding an s. They do not form their plurals with an apostrophe, or by changing the y to ies. Correct: The Flannerys are coming over.

Comma Splice

When two independent clauses are connected by only a comma, they constitute a run-on sentence that is called a comma-splice. The example just above (about the sunscreen) The sun is high, so put on some sunscreen. is a comma-splice. When you use a comma to connect two independent clauses, it must be accompanied by a little conjunction (and, but, for, nor, yet, or, so).

Pronoun Antecedent Agreement

Whenever you use a personal pronoun like she, it, or they, you first have to have an antecedent, the word that the pronoun is replacing. Read this sentence: Gustavo slowed to the speed limit when he saw the police cruiser in the rear view mirror. The pronoun he replaces Gustavo. Pronouns like he will keep you from repeating Gustavo, Gustavo, Gustavo over and over again. Singular: he, she, it him, her, it his, her, hers, its himself, herself, itself Plural:they them their, theirs themselves The general rule for pronoun agreement is straightforward: A singular antecedent requires a singular pronoun; a plural antecedent needs a plural pronoun. The boy scratched his armpit. The boys scratched their armpits. If you have 1 singular noun + 1 singular noun, then together they = 2 things, or a plural antecedent The woodpecker AND his mate tried THEIR best to oust the squirrel who had stolen THEIR nest. Exercise caution when you use correlative conjunctions like either ... or, neither ... nor, and not only ... but also. Because correlative conjunctions have two parts, you'll find two separate antecedents. Not only the handpicked flowers but also the homemade peanut butter pie will win Briana's heart with its thoughtfulness.