Module Units 6-11 and Textbook Chapters 7-16

Unit 8 Learning Objectives

1. Discuss cultural similarities and differences in leadership. 2. Discuss the impact of authentic leadership on followers. 3. Juxtapose the key features of task vs. people-oriented, contingency, and transformational vs. transactional leadership theories. 4. Apply Goleman's Six Leadership Styles. 5. Apply theoretical concepts of leadership to real-world cases.

Unit 7 Learning Objectives

1. Explain how people and work units gain power through social networks. 2. Identify positive and negative consequences of conflict in the workplace. 3. Discuss the circumstances for which conflict handling style is most appropriate. 4. Describe the consequences associated with the use of the common types of influence tactics. 5.Apply concepts from power, influence, and conflict to real-world case studies. 6. Critique the five sources of power.

Unit 9 Learning Objectives

1. Identify differentiation and integration as organizational design processes. 2. Discuss the effect of the six basic design dimensions on organizations. 3. Recognize key trade-offs in designing an organizational structure. 4. Apply concepts of organization structure and design to real-world cases. 5. Evaluate various structural configurations.

Unit 6 Learning Objectives

1. Identify the different dimensions of team effectiveness 2. Recognize the advantages and disadvantages of team. 3. Diagnose the factors contributing to suboptimal team performance and develop remedial action. 4. use team design, organizational context, and team leadership to influence processes and effectiveness. 5. Create essential team processes that directly impact team effectiveness.

Key Concepts: Team Effectiveness

1.) Effort: Is the team exerting enough effort to accomplish the task, become a more cohesive unit, and meet individual needs? You can look group norms and a sense of cohesion as a marker of the effort of a team. 2.) Knowledge: Does the team know what to do to accomplish its tasks? Does each individual member know what the team expects out of him/her? You can look at roles as a marker of knowledge. 3.) Strategy: Does the team know how to interact in order to facilitate performance? Are there clear communication standards, a decision-making process, or a way to manage conflict? You can look at these as markers of a team strategy. These processes are not things that you, as a manager, can directly influence. Instead, you must leverage other things that can hopefully shape how much effort is exerted or whether knowledge is accessed in the right way to perform most effectively a.)Resources and Settings: Reward System, Informatio systems b.)Nature of Task: Goal Clarity, Complexity team Composition: Abilities, Training c.)Team Size Processes a.) Effort: norms, Cohesion b.) Knowledge: Roles c.) Strategy: Communication, Decision Making, Conflict Team Effectiveness - Team Output - Team Growth - Individual Learning

Key Concepts: Culture and Personal Values

1.) Why is organizational cultural important? - There are many components that make up an organization's culture. Some of these components are visible and some are not. An organization's culture is like an iceberg. - The most visible features are generally artifacts of the culture, not really the culture itself, yet these often receive the most attention: how employees dress and interact with customers and other employees, slogans and stories that are repeated, and ceremonies that are performed. These are important symbols, but they are not the culture itself. Values and deep underlying beliefs serve as the basis for an organization's culture by informing and directing employee behavior, as well as providing guidance for addressing problems and uncertainty. Values can be found below the surface and directly observable behaviors. 2.) Benefits of a strong culture? - In a strong organizational culture, employees are committed to and identify with the organization. A strong culture generates human and social capital by helping to attract talent with similar values and goals to the organization, while also facilitating employee interactions and relationships that foster organizational performance. - Organizational culture is a shared mental model that guides employee behavior. As a result, it can help make the behavior of coworkers more predictable and facilitate interpersonal trust. When employees trust each other, they share common goals and objectives, providing a common sense of identity. When employees know how the organization will approach problems, it helps to reduce some of the uncertainty about the future. 3.) Where does an organization's culture come from? How does a culture get established? - A number of factors come together to create an organization's culture. The personal values and beliefs of the founders are often the original basis for an organization's culture. These include values and beliefs about how to view and treat employees, customers, and shareholders, as well as how to accomplish the mission of the organization. - Another primary factor includes how the organization has historically approached or responded to problems that arise. This approach is also often based on the values instilled by the founders or people in significant roles in the organization. - Organizational culture is built and maintained by the actions of managers and supervisors. Are these managers' actions consistent with the stated values of the organization? How new employees are recruited, selected, and socialized is influenced by the culture as well. How closely do new employees fit the values of the organization? How much focus is put on understanding and maintaining the culture? These kinds of questions help determine how well the culture is being maintained. - Many other factors impact the maintenance and strength of a culture. These include compensation practices (pay differentials between executives and other employees) and what behaviors are financially rewarded. Another factor is the architecture of the office and how employees dress. - Does the architecture or office layout promote employee interaction and creativity, or does it reinforce hierarchy and formality? Do employees dress alike (sport shirts with logos or suits and ties) or is there a difference in dress between management and employees? What rituals or ceremonies does the organization have, what do they mean to employees, and how aligned are they with the culture (holiday parties, award ceremonies, visitor interactions, picnics, etc)? - The stories told about employees who exemplified the organization's culture, or how they dealt with uncertainty or a problem can serve to strengthen and maintain a culture. Culture can even be maintained and enhanced by the jargon used by employees. For example, at The Container Store, employees talk about being Gumby. Flexibility is a core value of the organization and one of the key features of its culture. 4.) In what ways do leaders influence culture? - Leaders influence the culture of an organization in five important ways. - The first important way leaders influence cultures is what leaders pay attention to (customer satisfaction measures, profits, costs, employee satisfaction/retention). Employees take cues from leaders and tend to focus their attention on the same factors. If these factors are not aligned with the values of the organization, then this can be detrimental to the organization. If these factors are aligned with the values of the organization, it will help to reinforce the culture. - How leaders react to problems or crises is the second way in which leaders influence culture. Again, employees take cues from leaders. If leaders approach problems as opportunities to learn and grow, employees tend to do the same. - The third way in which leaders influence culture is how leaders communicate and behave. Leaders must talk the talk and walk the walk. They must talk about the values of the organization (espoused values) as well as behave and act according to the values (enacted values). If the leader is unwilling or unable to behave in accordance with the values of the organization, then the employees will not behave in accordance with those values. - The fourth way in which leaders influence the culture is how leaders allocate rewards. Do the leaders reward behaviors consistent with the culture of the organization or something else? These rewards can include recognition, monetary rewards or advancement, and development opportunities. What gets rewarded tends to get repeated. - How leaders hire and fire individuals is the final way in which leaders influence culture. To strengthen and maintain a culture, leaders need to hire employees who fit with the values of the organization. When dismissing employees, leaders need to remain consistent with the values of the organization. Employees who remain at the organization will look at how the dismissed employee was treated and how that treatment aligned with the culture. 5.) Employee Engagement - Employee engagement refers to the level of emotional and cognitive connection an employee has to the organization for which they work. This concept includes a variety of aspects related to the employee's relationship with the employer, but primarily refers to the level of involvement and enthusiasm one has with the work. Employee engagement also includes how attracted to and inspired an employee is by their work. Engaged employees see their work as meaningful. - Engaged employees believe that they can make a difference, and as a result, put forth greater effort and persist in the face of difficulties. They are more likely to help their colleagues when needed and volunteer to take on extra assignments that help the organization succeed. These are often referred to as Organizational Citizenship Behaviors (OCBs). - In general, how employees experience specific elements of the organization determines their level of engagement. These elements include unit and organizational leadership, overall culture of the organization, how closely they fit with that culture (e.g., values, goals, etc), and the formal and informal organizational processes (e.g., how information flows, perceived organizational support, rewards, and recognition). Job characteristics are also very important in determining employee engagement. These job characteristics include providing the employee with challenging, diverse, and important tasks; opportunities for autonomy; and progress reports and feedback. 6.) Subcultures and Countercultures -Subculture - In some organizations, particularly larger ones and ones that have multiple locations, subcultures and countercultures may arise. An organization subculture is a group of employees who hold values and exhibit behaviors that do not specifically align those of the organization, but are at least compatible with the organization's values. Sometimes this subculture occurs based on the specific job in the organization or to meet the needs of a specific customer or business environment. For example, a division of a larger company located in a different country might develop a subculture that allows it to adapt to the new country's legal and cultural environment, while maintaining consistency with the larger organization. - Counterculture - A counterculture within an organization is a group of employees who hold values and exhibit behaviors that are in direct contradiction to the values of the larger organization. In most cases, countercultures are undesirable and how employees should act or approach a problem can become confusing. Such behaviors can lead to interpersonal conflict, decreased employee satisfaction, and increased employee turnover. Yet, there may be situations in which a counterculture could be desirable. Sometimes leaders will encourage the development of countercultures in order to drive innovation and change. - When trying to drive a change in organizational culture, a counterculture could be purposely set up by a leader to experiment with and demonstrate how the new culture might work. Apple established a unit to design and build the first MacIntosh computers. To encourage an innovative spirit, this unit had a different culture from the rest of Apple. Steve Jobs also used a counterculture to change the larger culture of Apple when he returned as CEO following Gil Amelio. - Subcultures and countercultures are often present when organizations are acquired or merged. As long as subcultures are compatible with the larger culture, there is usually not a problem. When the merged or acquired culture is not compatible or aligned with the larger organization, then problems are likely to arise. These problems include sending confusing messages to employees about how to behave, which can also be confusing to customers and how they should interact with the organization. Leaders must work to integrate the acquired or merged employees with the desired culture of the organization. 7.) Personal Values Hiring Employees Who Fit the Organization's Culture: - Organizations that maintain a strong culture are very selective in their hiring practices and focus a lot of attention on selecting recruits who demonstrate a good fit with the organizational culture, values, and behaviors. Not only are these recruits assessed on possessing the right skills for the job, they are also assessed on whether they share the same values as the organization. Recruits experience multiple interviews with a variety of employees and managers. Often, recruits are assessed based on their responses to situational questions such as, "How would you act in (a given situation)?" or "Tell me about a time when you faced (a given situation)." - Sometimes, the recruit works with a team of other recruits to solve a problem posed by the interviewer. How the recruits approach solving the problem and how they interact with the each other is assessed for how well it fits with the values and expected behaviors of the organization. Only those that demonstrate a close fit with the organization's culture are hired. Where culture is closely maintained, highly skilled and experienced recruits may be passed over for someone with adequate skills and experience but who is a better fit with the culture. Finding a good fit for Southwest Airlines: - Southwest Airlines spends considerable time looking for candidates who are a good fit to their established corporate culture and this scenario exemplifies Southwest's effort to find those candidates. Another example of hiring at Southwest is when a group of candidates were waiting to interview for pilot positions. All of the candidates, men and women, were professionally dressed in suits or pilot uniforms. They were taken as a group to a back room where they were given a pair of board shorts (long surfing shorts). They were instructed to put the shorts on instead of their pants and leave on their shoes and the rest of their uniform or suit. - Immediately, several of the candidates refused to comply with the request and were dismissed from the interview. The others complied and returned to the waiting area wearing their pilot uniform or suit and board shorts. It must have been a very funny sight. This was one way to determine if these pilots would fit Southwest Airlines' culture because fun is one of the core values. ;If the candidates were not willing to have a bit of fun in the interview process, they would not be a good fit with the company. - Focusing a significant amount of time and effort on assuring a good fit between candidates and the organization's culture increases the likelihood of employee engagement, satisfaction, and retention. It demonstrates the importance of the culture to new hires and further strengthens the culture throughout the organization as the new hires start their positions.

How do cohesiveness and conformity to norms influence team performance?

A basic rule of team dynamics is that members of highly cohesive groups tend to conform to group norms. Thus, when group norms are positive for performance, the conformity is likely to create high-performance outcomes. When the norms are neg- ative, however, the conformity is likely to create low-performance outcomes.

How does the norm of resciprocity work in relationship development?

According to social exchange theory, relationships develop through exchanges, or actions contingent upon rewarding reactions. When exchanges are one-sided or not satisfactory, relationships will not develop effectively. The norm of reciprocity helps us understand that when one party does something for another an obligation is generated, and that party is now indebted to the other until the obligation is repaid. Therefore, effective relationship development means meeting obligations in accordance with expected norms of reciprocity.

Chapter 10 Conflict and Negotiation

Although cooperation and collaboration are ideal conditions, conflict and negotia- tion are ever present in team and organizational dynamics. Everyone has to be able to deal with them in positive ways. The word "yes" can often get things back on track when tensions build and communication falters in teamwork and interper- sonal relationships

Chapter 13 the Leadership Process

Although many people think of leadership as the behavior of leaders, it is actually generated in interactions and relationships between people. Understanding lead- ership as a process opens our eyes to the fact that leadership is co-produced by leaders and followers working together in organizational contexts

What do we mean when we say power is based on dependencies?

An individual's power is directly proportional to the dependence others have on him or her. If a dependency can be easily removed, an individual has power only as long as the other is willing to give it to him or her. If a dependency cannot be easily removed, an individual has little choice but to go along.

Unit 10 Wrap-up

An organization's culture consists of the shared values and beliefs that guide and direct the behaviors of its employees. The culture of an organization can help to generate human and social capital and serves as a shared mental model to reduce employee uncertainty. The organization's culture can also help employees make appropriate decisions when faced with ambiguous situations. As seen in both Southwest Airlines examples, strong organizational culture fosters employee engagement, which improves productivity and performance of the organization, increases employee job satisfaction, and reduces employee turnover. "In order to have a strong and effective organizational culture, leaders must establish, monitor, and maintain the culture." All organizations have cultures; some are strong and clearly defined. Other cultures may be divided into subcultures and countercultures that don't support the organization's stated values. In order to have a strong and effective organizational culture, leaders must establish, monitor, and maintain the culture. Values and expected behaviors must be clearly communicated to all employees on a regular basis. When employees exhibit expected values and behaviors, they must be rewarded. New employees must be hired based on the fit with the organization's culture and the skills necessary for the job. The socialization and onboarding process must include a significant focus on the culture. Leaders at all levels must walk the walk and talk the talk. This means that leaders must exhibit the values through communication and action. If leaders don't live the culture, employees will not live the culture. Organizational cultures can be effectively changed through a systematic process of aligning or realigning the organization's values with any new challenges the organization might be facing. As seen in the NUMMI example, significant changes to a culture can be achieved in a relatively short time frame with dramatic results for the bottom line. Organizational culture can be one of the most powerful tools in a leader's toolbox.

Chapter 15 at a glance

An organization's culture provides meaning, guidance, and a sense of stability to members, but most organizations also contain a number of subcultures and countercultures. We need to understand the types and layers of culture, the impor- tant roles of stories, rites, and rituals, and the links between cultures, performance, andinnovation.

Key Concepts: Principles of Persuasion

By understanding different principles of persuasion, you can still be influential even when you don't have any formal power. There are six different principles of persuasion: 1.) Authority - People defer to experts such as doctors, professors, or senators. Official-looking clothing can trigger compliance; uniforms and well-tailored business suits in particular often create the aura of authority. Cars and expensive jewelry carry an aura of status and position, as does anything that implies status or position. Status, or anything that implies it, increases obedience. 2.) Commitment and Consistency - People align with others who have clear commitments. After a commitment, there is internal pressure to align self-image with action, and interpersonal pressure to align self-image with the way others perceive us. Writing provides a physical proof of commitment, cannot be disbelieved, and can be shown to others. The commitment must be active, public, effortful, and freely chosen. 3.) Social Proof - People tend to follow the lead of other similar people. We view a behavior as correct in a given situation to the degree that we see others performing it. 4.) Liking - A great example of this is Jenny McCarthy spending a great deal of time and resources trying to influence others about potential negative effects of vaccines, particularly around the link between vaccines and autism. She has zero credentials or medical qualifications to make these claims (and in fact has been proven wrong on multiple occasions). Yet, she has been extremely influential because of her familiarity and likeability and attractiveness. 5.) Reciprocity - People repay in kind. We should try to repay to a comparable level what another person has provided us. Uninvited and unwanted favors and gifts works just as well. It also works better if it's termed as a gift. Someone can do a small favor and get a bigger one in return. However, if the first request is seen as too extreme, the whole thing backfires. 6.) Scarcity - A simple rule of human nature is that people want more of what they don't have very much of. The less available something is, the more valuable it seems. We react more strongly to the possibility of losing something rather than gaining something. The same choice, framed as avoiding the loss of money versus saving money, makes us more likely to choose it. Our desire increases when something is available for a limited time, especially if we must decide right now.

What are the challenges associated with learship ethics?

Challenges come primarily from the hierarchical nature of the leader role. Personality characteristics (such as narcissism and achievement orientation) and social biases (prejudices and norms) can also complicate ethical behavior in leadership. Perhaps the greatest challenge, however, comes from the tension between self-interest and collective good.

Why are complexity approaches being developed?

Complexity approaches are being developed to bring our understanding of leadership more in line with today's complex environments. Predominant views are grounded in bureaucratic organizing principles that are more than a hundred years old. Not only are these bureaucratic views less relevant; they may actually be doing harm by stifling adaptive dynamics needed for productive emergence in complex environments.

Unit 7 Wrap-Up

Conflict is an unavoidable part of working with people. The Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument is meant to provide you with a personalized assessment of how you handle conflict. Successful leaders are skilled at applying the appropriate conflict management styles for a given situation. We also examined power, politics, and persuasion. Recall the Thomas Green case and how you analyzed the possible actions that Green and Davis could have taken with respect to the different types of power -- and the potential implications that leveraging types of power to influence others can have; that is, power and influence can be used for good, or, alternately, can have negative impacts. Finally, keep in mind the six principles of persuasion -- authority, commitment and consistency, social proof, liking, reciprocity, and scarcity -- and how you can apply them to your own experiences.

Describe the types of controls that are used in the organization.

Control is the set of mechanisms used to keep action and/or outputs within predetermined limits. Two types of controls are often found in organizations. Output controls focus on desired targets to allow managers discretion in using different methods for reaching these targets. Process controls attempt to specify the manner in which tasks are accomplished. Policies, procedures, and rules as well as formalization and standardization can be seen as types of process controls. Total Quality Management can be seen as a systemic way of managing processes within the firm and thus be viewed as a control mechanism.

Describe the five steps Taylor Cox suggests need to be developed to help generate a multicultural organization or pluralistic company culture.

Cox's theory is designed for organizations that are located in the United States. His ideas may not be easily expanded to multinational corporations headquartered in other cultures. Cox believes that it is important for culturally divergent groups within an organization to communicate and educate one another. This helps subgroups become more tolerant and interactive with other portions of the organization. Second, the organization needs to make sure that one type of cultural group is not segregated into one type of position. When cultural subgroups are spread throughout the organization, the levels of interaction increase as the stereotyping decreases. The company also needs to help restructure many of its informal lines of communication. By encouraging the integration of the informal communication, subgroups become more involved with one another. The organization must also ensure that no one group is associated with the company's outside image. A company that is perceived to be uniform in its culture attracts individuals who are from a similar culture. Finally, Cox states that interpersonal conflict that is based on group identity needs to be controlled.

Compare and contrast distributive and integrative negotiation. Which is more desirable? Why?

Distributive negotiation focuses on staking out positions and claiming portions of the available "pie." It usually takes the form of hard negotiation—the parties maxi- mize their self-interests and hold out to get their own way—or soft negotiation—one party is willing to make concessions in order to reach an agreement. Distributive negotiation can lead to competition, compromise, or accommodation, but it tends to be win-lose oriented in all cases. Integrative negotiation focuses on the merits of an issue and attempts to enlarge the available "pie." It may lead to avoidance, com- promise, or collaboration. It tends to be more win-win oriented and seeks to satisfy the needs and interests of all parties.

How do followers see their role in leadership?

Findings show that some followers hold passive beliefs, viewing their roles in the classic sense of following—that is, passive, deferential, and obedient to authority. These individuals have a power distance orientation. Others hold proactive beliefs, viewing their role as expressing opinions, taking initiative, and constructively questioning and challenging leaders. These individuals have constructive follower orientations. Because social construction is dependent on context, however, individuals are not always able to act according to their beliefs.

List the three aspects that help individuals and groups work together effectively, and illustrate them through practical examples.

Groups first need to define who is in the group and who is not. Criteria forboth formal and informal groups need to be established to provide a framework for membership. Second, the group needs to set standards of behavior. These standards should consist of a series of informal rules that describe proper behavior and activities for the members. Finally, group members need to identify the friends and adversaries of the group. The identification process helps the group build alliances throughout the organization when they attempt to get projects and ideas completed.

Give an example of how cultural rules and roles affect the atmosphere in a college classroom. Provide specific examples from your own perspective.

If you have not had full-time employment, think seriously about this question because it is designed to help you appreciate the importance of organizational rules and roles. Formal rules should be covered to show that they help dictate procedures individuals use. Informal interaction should be discussed as well. Such questions as, "How are subgroups treated?" "Do different instructors have different rules?" and "Are Seniors treated differently from Sophomores in this system?" could all be potential subtopics.

Chapter 8 Teamwork and Team Performance

In order for any virtual or face-to-face team to work well and do great things, its members must get things right. This means paying attention to accomplishments and building strong team processes. Team performance can't be left to chance. For sure teams can be hardwork, but they're also worth the effort.

Unit 9: Wrap-Up

In this unit, we covered the following main points: Organizational structure enables organizations to coordinate their employees' efforts. Structures vary on several dimensions; the principal ones being formalization, standardization, centralization, departmentalization, coordination, and span of control. Choices regarding the dimensions of organizational structure involve tradeoffs. The appropriateness of the basis for departmentalization is determined by assumptions about products and customers. An organization's structure must fit with the complexity and dynamism of its business environment. Virtual structures enable organizations to focus on their core competencies, as long as risks of virtualization are understood and managed.

Unit 8 Wrap-Up

In this unit, we looked at principles of leadership and examined these principles in action. Think back to the first activity in this unit, the Tower-Building exercise. You observed task-oriented and people-oriented leadership styles at work, and thought about which of the leaders' actions were more or less effective than others. We also spent a considerable amount of time dissecting the Merck Sharp & Dohme case, and the options available to Mosquera. Following that case, we discussed some traits of effective leaders across all contexts, and looked in particular at authentic leadership and moral disengagement.

How can inter-team competition be bad and good for organizations?

Inter-team competition can create problems in the way groups work with one another. Ideally, an organization is a cooperative system in which groups are well integrated and help one another out as needed. When groups get competitive, however, there is a potential dysfunctional side. Instead of communicating with one another, they decrease communication. Instead of viewing one another positively, they develop negative stereotypes of one another. Instead of viewing each other as mutual part- ners in the organization, they become hostile and view one another more as enemies. Although inter-team competition can be good by adding creative tension and encouraging more focused efforts, this potential negative side should not be forgotten.

Describe the effect of operations technology on an organization from both- Thompson's and Woodward's points of view.

James Thompson believed that technology could be divided into three categories— intensive, mediating, or long linked. An intensive technology occurs when uncertainty exists as to how to produce the desired outcomes. Teams of specialists are brought together to pool knowledge and resources to solve the problem. An interdependence among specialists develops because all parties need one another to fulfill the project successfully. This technology often occurs in the research and development portion of organizations. A mediating technology allows various parties to become interdependent. For example, the ATM network that most banks utilize allows customers to bank at other institutions and still be tied to their home bank, automatically. Without this technology, the banking industry would not be so well linked. The technology helps determine the nature of the banks' relationships with one another. Finally, Thompson believed that long-linked technologies had a unique effect on organizations as well. Long-linked technology is more commonly known as industrial technology. This type of knowledge allows organizations to produce goods in mass quantities. The assembly line designed by Henry Ford is one of the early examples of long-linked technology. Thompson uses these distinctions to highlight the various impacts that technology has on organizations. His approach differs greatly from Joan Woodward's approach, which focuses more on the mode of production. Woodward divides technology into three areas: small-batch manufacturing, mass production, and continuous process custom goods. Crafts persons are often characterized as small producers who must alter production to fit the needs of each client. Mass production technology deals with production of uniform goods for a mass market. The production design is altered to maximize speed while limiting product styles. The last type of technology deals with continuous-process technology. Oil refineries and chemical plants are classic examples of this type of technology. These industries are intensely automated and produce the same products without variation.

List and discuss three conflict situations faced by managers.

Managers can be faced with the following conflict situations: vertical conflict— conflict that occurs between hierarchical levels; horizontal conflict—conflict that occurs between those at the same hierarchical level; line-staff conflict—conflict that occurs between line and staff representatives; role conflict—conflict that occurs when the communication of task expectations is inadequate or upsetting.

Why do we have politics inorganizations?

Organizational politics involve efforts by organizational members to seek resources and achieve desired goals through informal systems and structures. Most politics involve workarounds, which means working around the system to accomplish a task or goal when the normal process or method isn't producing the desired result. In less political environments, actions are more direct and straightforward (more rational); in more political environments, individuals need to interpret and watch out for behaviors happening behind the scenes.

Chapter 16 at a Glance

Organizations are collections of people working together to achieve common goals. In this chapter, we discuss how organizations design and structure themselves to reach their goals. Effective managers need to know how to establish a hierarchy and control it, and how to organize the work to be done and effectively coordinate withothers.

Compare and contrast output goals with systems goals.

Output goals are designed to help an organization define its overall mission and to help define the kind of business it is in. Output goals can often help define the types of products and the relationships that the company has with its consumers. Output goals often help demonstrate how a company fits into society. The second kind of organizational goal is the systems goal. A systems goal helps the company realize what behaviors it needs to maintain for its survival. The systems goal provides the means for the ends. It is important to recognize the importance of systems goals for day-to-day operations.

What types of formal teams are found in organizations today?

Permanent formal groups appear on organization charts and serve an ongoing purpose. These groups may include departments, divisions, teams, and the like. Temporary groups are created to solve a specific problem or perform a defined task and are then disbanded. Examples are committees, cross-functional task forces, and project teams.

How can you tell if someone's power is positional or personal?

Position power comes from the formal hierarchy or authority vested in a particular role, whereas personal power is generated in relationships with others. You can tell if the power one holds is position or personal because personal power goes with the individual when he or she leaves a position.

Chapter 12 Power and Politics

Power and politics are a fact of life in organizations: To be successful, we must know how to gain power and use influence. But we also know that power and politics are often seen as dirty words. Why do these concepts have such a bad name and how can we overcome their negative connotations?

Why is powerlessness a problem in organizations?

Powerlessness is a problem in organizations because it can create spirals of helplessness and alienation. When people feel powerless, they try to regain some sense of control over themselves and their work environment. The resulting behaviors can be extremely detrimental to organizations (e.g., absenteeism, tardiness, theft, vandalism, grievances, shoddy workmanship, and counterproductive behavior

What are scholars talking about collective leadership?

Scholars are paying more attention to collective leadership to increase understanding that leadership is about more than one person's behaviors. It is a social phenom- enon constructed in interaction. Therefore, collective leadership helps us to consider not only individuals' traits and characteristics but, also, the shared activi- ties and collective processes that more accurately describe how leadership works in practice.

What are members of self-managing teams typically expected to do?

Self-managing teams take different forms. A common pattern, however, involves empowering team members to make decisions about the division of labor and scheduling, to develop and maintain the skills needed to perform several different jobs for the team, to help train one another to learn those jobs, and to help select new team members.

What does it mean when we say leadership is socially constructed?

Social construction describes leadership as generated in relational interactions among people and in context. As a result leadership is dynamic, developing, and changing over time. This means there is no one-size-fits-all solution in leadership, and leaders need to be flexible and adaptive to be able to adjust to the needs of the context and the actors.

Describe the steps in a typical team-building process.

Team building usually begins when someone notices that a problem exists or may develop in the group. Members then work collaboratively to gather data, analyze the situation, plan for improvements, and implement the plan. Everyone is expected to participate in each step, and the group as a whole is expected to benefit from continuous improvement.

In what ways are teams good for organizations?

Teams are potentially good for organizations for several reasons: They are good for people, they can improve creativity, they sometimes make the best decisions, they gain commitment to decisions, they help control the behavior of their members, and they can help to counterbalance the effects of large organization size.

What is the diversity-consensus dilemma?

The diversity-consensus dilemma occurs when a team with high membership diversity gets caught between diversity advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, the team has the potential advantages of many viewpoints, perspectives, and enriched information. On the other hand, it suffers the potential pitfalls of members having a hard time learning how to work well with one another; this can make it hard to reach consensus.

Why did the early trait approaches fallout of favor?

The early trait approaches fell out of favor because researchers failed to find any traits that were significantly associated with leadership. A primary reason was the failure to consider mediating variables. Researchers looked instead for significant correlations between traits and leadership outcomes, which were not found.

What are the major elements of a strong corporate culture?

The first element is the need for a widely shared philosophy. Although this first element seems vague, an effective company philosophy is anything but abstract. An organization member needs to be exposed to what the firm stands for. The firm's mission needs to be articulated often and throughout the organization. Organiza- tions should put people ahead of rules and general policy mandates. When staffers feel included and important in a system they feel more loyal and accepting of the culture. Every company has heroes or individuals who have succeeded beyond expectations. Companies with strong company cultures allow the stories of these individuals to become well known throughout the organization. Through these

List and discuss the major indirect conflict management approaches.

The major indirect conflict management approaches include the following: appeals to common goals—involves focusing the attention of potentially conflicting parties on one mutually desirable conclusion; hierarchical referral—using the chain of command for conflict resolution; organizational redesign—including decoupling, buffering, linking pins, and liaison groups; use of myths and scripts—managing superficially through behavioral routines (scripts) or to hide conflict by denying the necessity to make a trade-off in conflict resolution.

What are the problems with contingency approaches?

The problems with contingency approaches is that they can't tell us much beyond common sense because so many variables are involved in leadership that it is practically impossible to construct models that accurately reflect leadership practice.

Explain why a large firm could not use a simple structure.

There are a number of ways to answer this question. Actually, a very large firm could use a simple structure but its chances of reaching its goals and surviving would be small. As the firm grows so does the complexity inside and individuals become overwhelmed if the firm does not evolve into a bureaucracy. Recall that a bureaucracy involved labor that is divided so that each worker was specialized. Every worker would have well-defined responsibilities and authorities. To comple- ment this specialization, the organization should be arranged hierarchically. Authority should be arranged from the bottom up. A worker should be promoted only on the basis of merit and technical competence. Most importantly, employees are to work under rules and guidelines that were impersonal and applied to all staffers equally.

Unit 11: Key Concepts - Why do organizations change?

There are numerous reasons why organizations initiate change, and there are many types of change. while change has historically been discouraged and that changing an organization is difficult, it is vital for an organization's survival. different types of changes: - proactive or reactive, - internally- or externally-driven, - incremental or radical, and - planned or unplanned. Kurt Lewin's model of change. This includes: driving and restraining forces; unfreezing the organization; making the change; and refreezing the organization.

Unit 10: Introduction and Learning Objectives

Throughout this course, you have watched videos of Southwest Airlines executives discuss such things as employee empowerment and its contribution to a strong corporate culture. Please watch this Southwest Airlines produced video illustrating what that culture looks likes from a customer's perspective. - Recognize key concepts associated with organizational cultures. - Identify the origins of organizational culture. - Compare the different elements of culture. - Prioritize the multiple purposes an organization's culture serves. - Evaluate the effectiveness of an organization's culture. - Apply cultural influences to effective operation of an organization's structure and systems.

How can a team leader build positive group norms?

To help build positive norms, a team leader must first act as a positive role model. She or he should carefully select members for the team and be sure to reinforce and reward members for performing as desired. She or he should also hold meetings to review performance, provide feedback, and discuss and agree on goals.

Chapter 14 Leader Traits and behavioral Styles

When leaders are effective, the people who are influenced by them tend to feel good and are most often productive. But when leaders are ineffective, people and performance suffer. This chapter explores why some leaders can be more successful than others, and identifies challenges facing leaders in today's changing organizational contexts.

Chapter 7 The Nature of Teams

When teams achieve synergy they unlock member talents and rally enthusiasm for creativity and high performance. But, we all know that teamwork isn't always easy and that teams sometimes underperform. It takes special skills and commitment—from leaders and team members alike—to bring out the best that teams have to offer.

Under what conditions might a manager use avoidance or accommodation?

You should acknowledge that different styles may be appropriate under different conditions. Avoidance is the extreme form of nonattention and is most commonly used when the issue is trivial, when more important issues are pressing, or when individuals need to cool off. An accommodation strategy is used when an issue is more important to the other party than it is to you, or to build social credits.

Unit 6 Wrap-Up

ways to maximize the effectiveness of teams. -motivate, -keep them accountable, -access and utilize their unique knowledge.

■ How Do Individuals Navigate Politics in Organizations?

• A moderate amount of prudent political behavior is a survival tool; it involves understanding how to establish power bases, develop political skills, and build strong and effective networks. •Power bases are the sources of power individuals and subunits develop in organiza- tions; they help individuals advance important initiatives and gain access to key resources as well as protect themselves when threatened by powerful others. • Two main ways to build power bases in organizations include establishing competence and building networks. • Individuals who are high in political skill have the ability to read and understand people, and then act on that knowledge in influential ways.

What Are Teams, and How Are They Used in Organizations?

• A team is a group of people working together to achieve a common purpose for which they hold themselves collectively accountable. • Teams help organizations by improving task performance; teams help members expe- rience satisfaction from their work. • Teams in organizations serve different purposes—some teams run things, some teams recommend things, and some teams make or do things. • Organizations consist of formal teams that are designated by the organization to serve an official purpose, as well as informal groups that emerge from special relationships but are not part of the formal structure. •Organizations can be viewed as interlocking networks of permanent teams such as project teams and cross-functional teams, as well as temporary teams such as committees and task forces. •Members of self-managing teams typically plan, complete, and evaluate their own work, train and evaluate one another in job tasks, and share tasks and responsibilities. • Virtual teams, whose members meet and work together through computer mediation, are increasingly common and pose special management challen

■ When Is a Team Effective?

• An effective team achieves high levels of task accomplishment, member satisfaction, and viability to perform successfully over the long term. • Teams help organizations through synergy in task performance, the creation of a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. • Teams help satisfy important needs for their members by providing them with things like job support and social interactions. • Team performance can suffer from social loafing when a member slacks off and lets others do the work. • Social facilitation occurs when the behavior of individuals is influenced positively or negatively by the presence of others on a team.

■ What Do We Mean by Leadership as a Collective Process?

• Collective leadership advocates a shift in focus from traits and characteristics of leaders to a focus on the shared activities and interactive processes of leadership. • Distributed leadership sees leadership as drawing from the variety of expertise across the many, rather than relying on the limited expertise of one or a few leaders. • Co-leadership is when top leadership roles are structured in ways that no single individual is vested with the power to unilaterally lead. • Shared leadership defines leadership as a dynamic, interactive influence process among individuals in groups for which the objective is to lead one another to the achievement of group or organizational goals, or both. • Shared leadership occurs both laterally, among team members, and vertically, with the team leader. The main objective is to understand and find alternate sources of leadership that will impact positively on organizational performance.

■ What Are Complexity Leadership Views?

• Complexity leadership views are grounded in complexity science and describe leadership in the context of complex adaptive systems. • Complexity leadership views offer an alternative to traditional leadership approaches, grounded in bureaucratic organizing principles; instead of hierarchy and control, they focus on emergence and adaptability. •A key contribution of complexity is emergence; emergence describes processes in which higher-level order emanates out of interactions of agents operating within the system. •Complexity leadership theory describes three types of leadership in organizations: administrative leadership, entrepreneurial leadership, and adaptive leadership. These forms of leadership need to function together effectively to create productive emergence and adaptability in organizations.

■ What Is the Nature of Conflict in Organizations?

• Conflict appears as a disagreement over issues of substance or emotional antagonisms that create friction between individuals or teams. • Conflict situations in organizations occur at intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup, and interorganizational levels. • Moderate levels of conflict can be functional for performance, stimulating effort and creativity. •Too little conflict is dysfunctional when it leads to complacency; too much conflict is dysfunctional when it overwhelms us.

■ How Can Conflict Be Managed?

• Conflict typically develops through a series of stages, beginning with antecedent conditions and progressing into manifest conflict. •Indirect conflict management strategies include appeals to common goals, upward referral, managed interdependence, and the use of mythology and scripts. •Direct conflict management strategies of avoidance, accommodation, compromise, competition, and collaboration show different tendencies toward cooperativeness and assertiveness. • Lose-lose conflict results from avoidance, smoothing or accommodation, and compromise; win-lose conflict is associated with competition and authoritative command; win-win conflict is achieved through collaboration and problem solving.

■ How Can We Manage Organizational Culture and Innovation?

• Executives may manage many aspects of the observable culture directly. • Nurturing shared values among the membership is a major challenge for executives. • Adjusting actions to common understandings limits the decision scope of even the CEO.

■ What Are the Stages of Team Development?

• In the forming stage, team members come together and form initial impressions; it is a time of task orientation and interpersonal testing. • In the storming stage, team members struggle to deal with expectations and status; it is a time when conflicts over tasks and how the team works are likely. •In the norming or initial integration stage, team members start to come together around rules of behavior and what needs to be accomplished; it is a time of growing cooperation. • In the performing or total integration stage, team members are well organized and well functioning; it is a time of team maturity when performance of even complex tasks becomes possible. • In the adjourning stage, team members achieve closure on task performance and their personal relationships; it is a time of managing task completion and the process of disbanding.

■ What Is Innovation, and Why Is It Important?

• Innovation is the process of creating new ideas and then implementing them in practical applications. • Steps in the innovation process normally include idea generation, initial experimentation, feasibility determination, and final application. •Common features of highly innovative organizations include supportive strategies, cultures, structures, staffing, and senior leadership. • Product innovations result in improved goods or services; process innovations result in improved work methods and operations. • Process innovations introduce into operations new and better ways of doing things. • Although it is necessary to balance exploration and exploitation, it is difficult to accomplish. • There are tensions between need to innovate.

■ What Do We Know about Leader-Follower Relationships?

• Leader-member exchange theory shows that managers have differentiated relationships with subordinates depending on the amount of trust, respect, and loyalty in the relationship. • These relationships are important because they are differentially related to leadership and work outcomes. When relationship quality is high, performance is better, subordinates are more satisfied and supported, commitment and citizenship are higher, and turnover is reduced. • Relationships develop through processes of social exchange based on the norm of reciprocity (i.e., when one party does something for another, an obligation is generated until it is repaid). • Reciprocity is determined based on three components: equivalence (whether the amount given back is same as what was received), immediacy (how quickly the repayment is made), and interest (the motive behind the exchange). • Idiosyncrasy credits mean that when we have enough credits built up in relationships with others, we can get away with idiosyncrasies (i.e., deviations from expected norms) as long as the violation does not exceed the amount of credits.

■ How Do We Address Leadership Ethics?

• Leadership ethics is the study of ethical problems and challenges that are distinctive to and inherent in the processes, practices, and outcomes of leading and following. • In organizations, the greatest challenge to ethics comes from pressures for results (e.g., profits) at all cost (e.g., individual or societal harm) and the tension between self-interest and the "greater good." • Servant leaders use power not for self-interest but for the growth of employees, survival of the organization, and responsibility to the community. •Empowering leadership focuses on valuing and developing people by allowing autonomy and removing bureaucratic constraints. • Ethical leadership theory is a normative theory that says leaders should be role models for ethics and create ethical climates that enforce high ethical standards.

■ What Is Leadership?

• Leadership occurs in acts of leading and following as individuals work together to attain mutual goals. • Formal leadership is found in positions of authority in organizations, whereas informal leadership is found in individuals who become influential due to special skills or abilities. •Leadership involves an identity construction process in which individuals negotiate identities as leaders and followers through claiming and granting. • Implicit leadership theories are beliefs or understanding about the attributes associated with leaders and leadership.

■ What Is the Nature of Negotiation in Organizations?

• Negotiation is the process of making decisions and reaching agreement in situations where participants have different preferences. •Managers may find themselves involved in various types of negotiation situations, including two-party, group, intergroup, and constituency negotiation. •Effective negotiation occurs when both substance goals (dealing with outcomes) and relationship goals (dealing with processes) are achieved. • Ethical problems in negotiation can arise when people become manipulative and dishonest in trying to satisfy their self-interests at any cost.

■ What Is Organizational Culture?

• Organizational culture or corporate culture is the system of shared actions, values, and beliefs that develops within an organization and guides the behavior of its members. • The functions of the corporate culture include responding to both external adaptation and internal integration issues. •Most organizations contain a variety of subcultures, and a few have countercultures that can sometimes become the source of potentially harmful conflicts. •The corporate culture also reflects the values and implicit assumptions of the larger national culture.

■ How Do You Understand an Organizational Culture?

• Organizational cultures may be analyzed in terms of observable actions, shared values, and common assumptions (the taken-for-granted truths). •Observable aspects of culture include the stories, rites, rituals, and symbols that are shared by organization members. •Cultural rules and roles specify when various types of actions are appropriate and where individual members stand in the social system. •Shared meanings and understandings help everyone know how to act and expect others to act in various circumstances. • Common assumptions are the taken-for-granted truths that are shared by collections of corporate members.

■ What Is Organizational Design?

• Organizational design is the process of choosing and implementing a structural configuration for an organization. • The design of a large organization is far more complex than that of a small firm. Smaller firms often adopt a simple structure because it works, is cheap, and emphasizes the influence of the leader. • Operations technology and organizational design should be interrelated to ensure that the firm produces the desired goods and/or services. Adhocracy is an organizational design used in technology-intense settings. • Information technology is the combination of machines, artifacts, procedures, and systems used to gather, store, analyze, and disseminate information for translating it into knowledge and forms the basis for the virtual organization. •The environment is more complex when it is richer and more interdependent with higher volatility and greater uncertainty. Firms need not stand alone but can develop network relationships and alliances to cope with greater environmental complexity.

■ What Are Organizational Politics?

• Organizational politics represent efforts by organizational members to seek resources and achieve desired goals through informal systems and structures. • Politics represent how people get ahead, how they gain and use power, and how they get things done ( for good and bad) in organizations. • Political behaviors are positive when they advance the interests of the organization and do not intentionally harm individuals; they are negative when they involve selfinterested behaviors of individuals and groups who work to benefit themselves in ways that disadvantage others and the organization. • An organization's political climate represents the shared perceptions about the political nature of the organization; when individuals hold negative perceptions of the political climate they experience greater job stress, lower job satisfaction, and increased turnover.

■ What Are the Sources of Power and Influence?

• Position power comes from the formal hierarchy or authority vested in a particular role; sources include legitimate power, reward power, and coercive power. • Personal power is generated in relationships with others; sources include expert power and referent power. •Information power can be either positional or personal, and comes from access to information that is valuable to others. • Connection power is the ability to call on connections and networks both inside and outside the organization for support in getting things done and meeting one's goals; sources include association power and reciprocal alliances.

■ How Can We Understand Teams at Work?

• Teams are open systems that interact with their environments to obtain resources that are transformed into outputs. • The equation summarizing the open systems model for team performance is this: Team effectiveness - Quality of inputs x (Process gains - Process losses) •Input factors such as resources and setting, nature of the task, team size, and team composition, establish the core performance foundations of a team. •Team processes include basic group or team dynamics that show up as the ways members work together to use inputs and complete tasks.

■ How Can Team Decisions Be Improved?

• Teams can make decisions by lack of response, authority rule, minority rule, majority rule, consensus, and unanimity. • Although team decisions often make more information available for problem solving and generate more understanding and commitment, their potential liabilities include social pressures to conform and greater time requirements. •Groupthink is a tendency of members of highly cohesive teams to lose their critical evaluative capabilities and make poor decisions. • Special techniques for team decision making include brainstorming, the nominal group technique, and the Delphi technique.

■ What Are Bureaucracies and Their Alternatives?

• The bureaucracy is an ideal form based on legal authority, logic, and order that provides superior efficiency and effectiveness. • Mechanistic, organic, and hybrid are common types of bureaucracies. •Hybrid types include the divisionalized firm and the conglomerate. No one type is always superior to the others.

■ What Are Alternative Strategies for Negotiation?

• The distributive approach to negotiation emphasizes win-lose outcomes; the integrative or principled approach to negotiation emphasizes win-win outcomes. •In distributive negotiation, the focus of each party is on staking out positions in the attempt to claim desired portions of a fixed "pie." •In integrative negotiation, sometimes called principled negotiation, the focus is on determining the merits of the issues and finding ways to satisfy one another's needs. •The success of negotiations often depends on avoiding common pitfalls such as the myth of the fixed pie, escalating commitment, overconfidence, and both the telling and hearing problems. • When negotiations are at an impasse, third-party approaches such as mediation and arbitration offer alternative and structured ways for dispute resolution.

■ What Is the Formal Structure of the Organization?

• The formal structure is also known as the firm's division of labor. • The formal structure defines the intended configuration of positions, job duties, and lines of authority among different parts of the enterprise often as depicted in an organizational chart. • Typically, a chain of command exists to link lower-level workers with senior managers. • The distinction between line and staff units also indicates how authority is distributed, with line units conducting the major business of the firm and staff providing support. • Control is the set of mechanisms the organization uses to keep action or outputs within predetermined levels. • Output controls focus on desired targets and allow managers to use their own methods for reaching these targets. •Process controls specify the manner in which tasks are to be accomplished through policies, rules, and procedures; formalization and standardization; and total quality management processes.

■ What Do We Know About Leader Traits and Behaviors?

• Trait approaches investigate the personal qualities and characteristics associated with leader emergence and effectiveness. • Trait approaches find significant but small relationships between leadership and four of the Big Five traits, including extraversion, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience. • Behavioral approaches identify categories of managerial leadership behavior to examine their relationships with outcomes. • The majority of leader behaviors represent two meta-categories: relations-oriented and task-oriented behavior.

■ How Do People Respond to Power and Influence?

• When individuals go along with power and authority, they are conforming. Three levels of conformity include compliance, identification, and internalization. • Individuals can also resist power. Research has distinguished two types of resistance strategies used by individuals when they perceive an impractical request from their supervisor: constructive resistance and dysfunctional resistance. • Individuals who hold power can be corrupted by it; the Bathsheba syndrome describes a situation in which individuals who become successful abuse power. • A key to responding to power is managing oneself in the face of it, both in terms of being a responsible power holder and in reacting responsibly to others' power.

■ What Are Charismatic and Transformational Theories of Leadership?

•Charismatic leaders are seen as exceptional people endowed with extraordinary characteristic and abilities that set them apart from ordinary people. •Research on charismatic leadership in organizations suggests that charisma is not a beneficial attribute for most chief executives, and it is particularly dangerous in cases of personalized charismatics who use their skills primarily for personal benefit. • Burns's transforming leadership theory says that leadership is a transforming process that ultimately becomes a moral achievement when it raises human conduct and the aspirations of both leaders and followers, having a "transforming" effect on both. • Bass adapted Burns's theory to focus on organizational performance; in his theory, the transformation is getting people to set aside self-interest for organizational interest.

■ What Do Contingency Approaches Tell Us About leadership?

•Contingency approaches say that whether a leader style or behavior is positively associated with leadership effectiveness depends on (i.e., is contingent upon) the situation. • In situations that require more direction and structure, task-oriented behavior will be more effective and desired; in situations requiring more support and consideration, relations-oriented behavior will be more effective. •Fiedler's LPC model differs from other contingency approaches in that it argues that leaders cannot change their style, and therefore must match the situation to their style.

■ How Can Team Communications Be Improved?

•Effective teams vary their use of alternative communication networks and deci- sion-making methods to best meet task and situation demands. • Interacting groups with decentralized networks tend to perform well on complex tasks; co-acting groups with centralized networks may do well at simple tasks. •Restricted communication networks are common in counteracting groups where subgroups form around disagreements. • Wise choices on proxemics, or the use of space, can help teams improve communication among members. • Information technology ranging from instant messaging, video chats, video conferencing, and more, can improve communication in teams, but it must be well used.

■ What Is Followership?

•Followership represents a process through which individuals choose how they will engage with leaders to coproduce leadership and its outcomes. •Romance of leadership is the tendency to attribute organizational outcomes (both good and bad) to the acts and doings of leaders; its corollary is the "subordination of followership." •The social construction of followership shows that followers hold beliefs about how they should act in relation to leaders, but whether they can act on these beliefs depends on context. • Those with power distance orientation accept that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally, whereas those with proactive follower orientations believe followers should act in ways that are helpful and productive to leadership outcomes. • Implicit followership theories show managers' views of characteristics associated with effective and ineffective followership.

■ How Is Work Organized and Coordinated?

•Horizontal specialization results in various work units and departments in the organization. • Three main types or patterns of departmentation are observed: functional, divisional, and matrix. Each pattern has a mix of advantages and disadvantages. • Organizations may successfully use any type, or a mixture, as long as the strengths of the structure match the needs of the organization. • Coordination is the set of mechanisms an organization uses to link the actions of separate units into a consistent pattern. • Personal methods of coordination produce synergy by promoting dialogue, discussion, innovation, creativity, and learning. • Impersonal methods of control produce synergy by stressing consistency and standardization so that individual pieces fit together.

■ How Can Team Processes Be Improved?

•Individual entry problems are common when new teams are formed and when new members join existing teams. • Task leadership involves initiating, summarizing, and making direct contributions to the group's task agenda; maintenance leadership involves gate-keeping, encouraging, and supporting the social fabric of the group over time. • Distributed leadership occurs when team members step in to provide helpful task and maintenance activities and discourage disruptive activities. • Role difficulties occur when expectations for group members are unclear, overwhelming, underwhelming, or conflicting. • Norms are the standards or rules of conduct that influence the behavior of team members; cohesiveness is the attractiveness of the team to its members. • Members of highly cohesive groups value their membership and are very loyal to the group; they also tend to conform to group norms. • The best situation is a team with positive performance norms and high cohesiveness; the worst is a team with negative performance norms and high cohesiveness. •Inter-team dynamics are forces that operate between two or more groups as they cooperate and compete with one another.

■ What Is Power, and How Does It Operate in Organizations?

•Power is the ability to get things done in organizations; it comes from being able to influence or control things that are important to another person or group. • A key to managing power is managing dependencies, or the reliance we have on another person or group to get what we want or need. •When people have strong dependencies on others, they often experience powerlessness; it is not power but powerlessness that has debilitating effects in relationships and organizations. •Empowerment approaches move away from powerlessness by focusing on "power with" rather than "power over."

■ What Are High-Performance Teams?

•Team building is a collaborative approach to improving group process and performance. • High-performance teams have core values, clear performance objectives, the right mix of skills, and creativity. • Team building is a data-based approach to analyzing group performance and taking steps to improve performance in the future. • Team building is participative and engages all group members in collaborative problem solving and actio