NUTRITION EXAM 2

Scientific names of vitamins

-Vitamin A: retinol, retinal, retinoic acid -Vitamin E: tocopherols, primary form = alpha-tocopherol -Vitamin D: cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol -Vitamin K: "umbrella" includes phylloquinone and menaquinone

Scientific names of vitamins 2

-Vitamin C: ascorbic acid -Vitamin B-12: cobalamin -Vitamin B-6: "umbrella" includes pyridoxal, pyridoxine, pyridoxamine -Vitamin B-1: thiamin

Saturated vs. unsaturated fatty acids

Animal-based foods are usually high in saturated fats. Plant foods tend to be high in unsaturated fats. -Saturated fats generally have a DETRIMENTAL effect on our health whereas unsaturated fats are PROTECTIVE. -Diets high in plant foods (low in saturated fats) are more healthy than diets high in animal products (high in sat. fats).

Monosaccharides

Simple carbs (called sugars) that consist of a single sugar molecule -4 sugars: most common = GLUCOSE; other 3 = fructose, galactose, ribose

Disaccharides

Simple carbs (called sugars) that consists of two sugar molecules joined together -3 sugars: lactose, maltose, sucrose

Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid

The fat molecule has MORE THAN ONE (think: many) carbon double bond, it contains much less hydrogen and is referred to as [THIS]. -Liquid at room temp. -Cottonseed, canola, corn, safflower oil

Fiber

Like starch, [IT] is composed of long polyssacharide chains, yet our body does not easily break down the bonds that connect fiber molecules. Thus, most fibers pass through digestive system without being digested and absorbed, so they contribute NO energy to our diet. Classifications -Dietary fiber -Functional fiber -Total AND -Soluble and insoluble

Fiber Classifications

-Dietary fiber: nondigestible parts of plants that form the support structures of leaves, stems, and seeds. The plant's "skeleton" -Functional fiber: consists of nondigestible forms of carbs that are extracted from plants or manufactured in a lab and have known health benefits. Functional fiber is added to foods and is the form used in fiber supplements. -Total fiber: sum of dietary and functional fiber

Triglycerides as the primary lipid found in foods

-Fats are a type of lipid! This lipid and molecule consists of 3 fatty acids attached to a 3-carbon glycerol backbone. About 95% of fat we eat is in [THIS] form. -Not only the most common form of fat in the diet, but also the form in which most of our body fat is stored.

Over-supplementation

-Most common cause of vitamin toxicity -Much easier to develop a toxic overload of nutrients due to [THIS] than it is from eating food. Nearly impossible to develop vitamin or mineral toxicity from food alone. -Some vitamins and minerals consumed as supplements appear harmful to the health of certain subgroups of consumers. -Most minerals better absorb from animal food sources than supplements

How DNA directs protein manufacture in cells 2

-Once the tRNA molecules TRANSFER out to search the cytoplasm to bind with specific amino acids that match their genetic info and is successful in doing so, they TRANSFER their amino acid to the ribosome where it canbe assembled into proteins.

Diabetes and its effect on carbohydrate metabolism 2

-Type 1: body cannot produce enough insulin. -Body's immune system attacks and destroys its own tissues--the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas. When person eats and blood glucose levels rise, pancreas unable to secrete insulin in response. -So, glucose cannot move into body cells and remains in bloodstream. So the kidneys try to expel excess blood glucose through excreting in urine. Thus, frequent urination. -Can lead to ketoacidosis, which can ultimately lead to death.

Vitamins vs. minerals

-[THESE] are organic compounds that regulate a wide variety of body processes. Human can synthesize a small amount of D and K, so we must consume virtually all of [THESE] in our diet -[THESE] are **naturally occurring inorganic substances** like calcium, iron and zinc, also they are solid, crystalline substances that do not contain carbon. They are elements--in the simplest chemical form possible and unlike vitamins, they cannot be destroyed by light, heat or any other natural exposure. Thus, they remain intact during storage and cooking. Also **unlike vitamins, they cannot be synthesized in a lab or by any plant or animal, including humans.** The minerals in food come from the environment.

Role of the stomach hydrochloric acid and pepsin in protein digestion

-[THESE] assist only in the digestion phase of protein digestion, not absorption. -[ONE] denatures (uncoils the strand to cause it to lose shape and function) protein strands that have entered the stomach and converts dormant pepsinogen into [TWO]. -Then [TWO] breaking proteins into single amino acids and shorter polypeptides. The amino acids and polypeptides then travel to small intestine for further digestion and absorption.

Calculate carbohydrate contribution to the caloric content of a food or diet

1. 4kcal/gram = total calorie contribution of carbs 2. Calories from carbs/total calories x 100 = Percentage of calories from carbs

Role of inadequate protein on edema

1. Electrolytes (electrically charged atoms that assist in maintaining fluid balance) and fluids must be maintained at healthy levels inside and outside cells and w/in blood vessels. Proteins attract fluids and they are in the bloodstream, cells, and spaces surrounding cells working together to keep fluids moving across the spaces in proper quantities (and not settling in) to maintain fluid balance and blood pressure. 2. When protein intake is deficient, concentration of proteins in bloodstream is not enough to draw out fluids from the tissues and send them across blood vessel walls. 3. The fluids then collect in the tissues causing edema (swelling)

Essential amino acids vs. non-essential amino acids

1. Essential: Our bodies cannot produce these at all or cannot produce them in sufficient quantities to meet our physiologic needs. So, we must obtain [THEM] from food. Without an adequate supply of [THEM], we lose the ability to make the proteins and other nitrogen-containing compounds we need. 2. Non-essential: our bodies can synthesize [THEM] in sufficient quantities, so we do not need to eat them in our diet. We make [THEM] by transanimation: transferring the amine group from other amino acids to a different acid group and side chain to create another amino acid. -List of all of these: 192-193

Levels of protein organization

1. Primary structure: sequential order of the amino acids in a protein. 2. Secondary structure: The different amino acids in a polypeptide chain have unique chemical characteristics that cause the chain to twist and turn into a characteristic spiral shape or fold into a pleated sheet. The shapes are called secondary structure. The stability of the secondary structure is achieved by hydrogen bonds that make a bridge between two protein strands or two parts of the same strand of protein. 3. Tertiary structure: the spiral or pleated sheet of the 2ndary structure further folds into a unique 3-D shape called the tertiary structure. Bonds between hydrogen atoms and between sulfur atoms (if any) maintain the tertiary shape, which is critical b/c it determines each protein's function in the body 4. Quaternary structure: forms when two or more identical or different polypeptides bond. Resulting larger protein may be globular or fibrous. -Important because the shape of a protein determines its function!!!!

Characteristics and actions of soluable and insoluable fiber

1. Soluble: they dissolve in water. Also viscous (thick), and form a gel when wet and fermentable (easily digested by bacteria in the colon). Reduce risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes, by lowering blood cholesterol and blood glucose levels. 2. Insoluble: Typically do not dissolve in water. Nonviscous and typically cannot be fermented by bacteria in the colon. Known for promoting regular bowel movements, alleviating constipation, reducing risk of diverticulosis

How glucagon functions to regulate carbohydrate metabolism

1. When you have NOT eaten for awhile, blood glucose levels decline. -The decrease stimulates the pancreas to secrete [THIS], which acts oppositely from insulin. 2. [IT] triggers glycogenolysis: the liver converts stored glycogen into glucose, which is then secreted into the bloodstream and transported to cells for energy. 3. [THIS] also assists in the breakdown of body proteins to amino acids, so that the liver can stimulate gluconeogenesis (production of new glucose from amino acids).

How insulin functions to regulate carbohydrate metabolism

1.When we eat, blood glucose levels rise. -But the glucose in our blood cannot help nerves, muscles, and other organs function unless it can cross into their cells. Glucose molecules are too large to cross [into] cell membranes independently. 2. To get in, glucose needs assistance from [THIS], which is secreted by the pancreas. [THIS] is transported in the blood throughout the body, where it stimulates glucose transporters (located in cells) to travel to cell membrane and transport glucose into the cell. -[THIS] is like a key that opens the gates of the cell membrane, allowing transport of glucose into cell interior to be used for energy -Also stimulates liver and muscles to take up glucose and store it as glycogen

Vitamins and their deficiency diseases

226!!

Minerals and their deficiency diseases

229!!!

Protein digestion from the stomach to absorption 2

5. Cells in the wall of the small intestine then absorb the single amino acids, dipeptides, and tripeptides. 6. Peptidases (enzymes located in intestinal cells) break the dipeptides and tripeptides into single amino acids. 7. ALL of these amino acids are then transported by the portal vein into the liver. 8. In the liver, the amino acids can be converted to glucose or fat, combined to build new proteins, used for energy, or released into bloodstream and transported to other cells as needed.

Incomplete protein

A protein that does not contain all of the essential amino acids in sufficient quantities to support growth and health. -Complete proteins have all 9 essential amino acids.

Maltose

Called malt sugar; Consists of two molecules of glucose. It does not occur independently in foods (usually bound together with other molecules). As our bodies break down the larger molecules that it is bound with, [IT] results as a by-product. -Fermented during production of beer and liquor products

Lactose

Called milk sugar; consists of one glucose and one galactose molecule

Fats as a source of energy during rest

Cells need oxygen to burn fat for energy. At rest, we deliver oxygen to the cells and approx. 30-70% of the energy we use comes from fat. The percentage is based on level of physical activity, how much fat you consume, and whether you are gaining or losing weight. -Dieting = more fat used for energy than when gaining weight. -Gaining weight = more fat that is consumed in the diet is stored in adipose tissue and body uses more dietary protein and carbs as fuel sources when at rest (leaving you with the fat).

Diabetes and its effect on carbohydrate metabolism

Chronic disease where the body can no longer regulate glucose normally -Impairs carbohydrate metabolism and the body can begin breaking down stored fat, producing ketones for fuel. Build up of excessive ketones can lead to ketoacidosis (brain cells do not get enough glucose to function properly). Person will become confused and lethargic and have trouble breathing. If left unchecked, ketoacidosis may result in coma and death. -Type 1 and Type 2

Polysaccharides

Complex carbs that consists of long/many (i.e. "poly") chains of glucose molecules; include starch, glycogen, and most fibers

Phospholipid

Consist of two fatty acids and a glycerol backbone with another compound that contains phosphate. The addition of a phosphate compound makes [THIS] soluble in water, enabling it to assist in transporting fats in our bloodstream. -Also [THESE] in the cell membrane regulate transport of substances into and out of the cell. -Help with digestion of dietary fats. -Liver uses [THESE] called lecithins to make bile. -Body makes them

Sucrose

Consists of one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule. Since it contains fructose it is sweeter than lactose or maltose -refine sugarcane or sugar beets to get [THIS] for: table sugar, brown sugar, powdered sugar, honey, maple syrup, fruits, veggies

Mega-dosing

Consuming nutrients in amounts that are 10 or more times higher than recommended levels

The role of lipids in transport of fat-soluble vitamins

Dietary fats enable the transport of the fat-soluble vitamins, A, D, E, and K, our bodies need for essential metabolic functions. -A: essential for vision -D: important for regulating blood calcium and phosphorus concentrations within normal ranges, indirectly helping maintain bone health. -E: protects cell membranes from potentially harmful by-products of metabolism -K: important for proteins involved in blood clotting and bone health

Effects of saturated and trans fats on blood-cholesterol

Diets high in sat. and trans fatty acids negatively influence blood lipid levels, change cell membrane function and alter the way cholesterol is removed from the blood. Diets high in these can increase risk of cardiovascular disease. -Sat. fats can influence cholesterol metabolism in the liver as well as cholesterol uptake by body cells. So, keeping intake of sat. fat low, we can avoid excessive levels of cholesterol in the blood.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)

Disorder where the body cannot metabolize phenylalanine (an essential amino acid --> one our body requires but can only be received from food we eat). Thus, left undiagnosed, phenylalanine builds up in the blood to toxic levels that can cause irreversible brain damage. Also, since body normally breaks down phenylalanine to produce the nonessential amino acid tyrosine, an inability to metabolize phenylalanine results in failure to make tyrosine, which then becomes a conditionally essential amino acid that must be consumed in the diet. A domino effect.

Insulin

Eat --> Blood Glucose levels go UP and needs to get into cells to provide energy, but they are too big! --> Pancreas secretes [THIS] and it travels in blood over entire body and stimulates glucose transporters to travel to and transport glucose into the cell --> [THIS] is a key, opening up the floodgates so glucose can get out of the blood and into the cells where it is needed!

Omega-6 Fatty Acids

Essential fatty acids with a double bond of six carbons from the omega end. One example: Linoleic acid is essential to human health and is found in veggie and nut oils like sunflower, safflower, corn, soy, peanut oil.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Essential fatty acids with a double bond of three carbons from the omega end. Most common: alpha-linoleic acid. Derived primarily from plants, especially dark green leafy veggies, flaxseeds and flaxseed oil, soybeans and soybean oil, walnuts and walnut oil, canola oil.

Differentiate between vitamins based on solubility in water

Fat-solubles: A, D, E, K. PG. 225 Vitamins: C (ascorbic acid) and the B-vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B-6, vitamin B-12, folate, pantothenic acid, and biotin) -Easily absorbed through intestinal tract directly into bloodstream where they travel to target cells -Besides B-12, the body does not store large amounts of [THESE]. Instead, the kidneys filter out any excess amounts from bloodstream and sent it out through urine. B/c we do not maintain stores of the vitamins in our tissues, toxicity is rare. -Since they are not stored in large amounts, they need to be consumed on daily or weekly basis.

The relationship between dietary fats and meal satisfaction

Fats in food contribute to taste and flavor of food as well as help us feel satiated (full) so we stop eating sooner. They also contribute to satiety AFTER a meal, reducing the amount we eat at the next meal. -One reason: fat has higher energy density than carbs or proteins (9kcal/gram). -Second reason: fat takes longer to digest than protein or carbs b/c more steps involved in digestion process. So, this may make you feel fuller longer as energy is being slowly released into the body.

How DNA directs protein manufacture in cells

Gene is a segment of DNA that serves as a template for the synthesis (expression) of a particular protein. Gene expression is the process where cells use genes to make proteins -Proteins manufactured at the site of ribosomes w/in the cytoplasm. Since DNA never leaves the nucleus, gene's DNA must replicate (exact copy) itself for gene expression to occur. -DNA Replication: DNA provides instructions for building every protein in the body. -Cells use a special molecule, messenger RNA, to "copy down" (transcribe) the info/instructions from DNA and carry it (the message) to the ribosomes. -When the message gets to the ribosomes, the mRNA message is translated into the language of the amino acid sequences. mRNA binds with ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and the genetic info is distributed to molecules of transfer RNA (tRNA).

Saturated Fats

If a fatty acid has no carbons bonded together with a double bond, it is referred to as [THIS]. -Each carbon atom is SATURATED with hydrogen and has max amount of hydrogen bound to it. -Solid at room temperature: coconut oil, lard, butter, palm kernel oil, cream, whole milk, beef

Body derives carbs from amino acids

If the diet does not provide enough carbs, the body will make its own glucose from protein, which involves gluconeogenesis: the break down of proteins in blood and tissues into amino acids, then converting the proteins into glucose. -When our bodies use proteins for energy, the amino acids from these proteins cannot be used to make new cells, repair tissue damage, support our immune system, or perform any other function. During starvation or eating a diet low in carbs, our bodies take amino acids from blood first, then from other tissues (like muscles and heart, liver, kidneys). Over a prolonged period this can cause serious and possibly irreversible damage to the organs.

End products of lipid digestion

Monoglycerides and two fatty acids

Unsaturated fats

Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats. -These contain less hydrogen

Cholesterol and its composition

Most commonly occurring sterol in the diet. Found only in fatty part of animal products like butter, egg yolk, whole milk, meats and poultry. -Do not need to consume cholesterol as our body continually synthesizes it mostly in the liver and intestines. -Its continuous production is essential as it is part of every cell membrane and works with fatty acids to help maintain cell membrane integrity. -Plentiful in neural cells that make up the brain, spinal cord, nerves. Body uses it to synthesize important compounds, including sex hormones (estrogen, androgen, progesterone), bile, adrenal hormones, and vitamin D. -MULTIPLE-RING STRUCTURE quite different from triglycerides

Glucagon

Not eat for a long time --> Blood Glucose levels decline --> Pancreas secretes [THIS]. --> Triggers glycogenolysis: liver converts stored glycogen into needed glucose --> glucose secreted/travels in bloodstream to cells for energy.

Carbohydrates

One of the three macronutrients. Important energy source for the entire body and is the preferred energy source for nerve cells including the brain. -Obtained primarily from plant foods like fruits, veggies, and grains and plants make the most abundant form of [THIS] called glucose. -Broken down into simple (one or two molecules) and complex (hundreds to thousands of molecules) based on # of molecules

Starch

Plants store glucose as polysaccharides in the form of [THIS]. Two forms: amylose and amylopectin. -Excellent food sources: grains (wheat, rice, corn, oats, and barley), legumes (peas, beans, and lentils) and tubers (potatoes and yams). -Our cells cannot use [THIS] in its natural state in plants. Thus, it's a storage form of glucose and our bodies break it down into glucose to fuel our energy needs

Glucose

Preferred source of energy for the brain; very important source of energy for all cells -Most abundant sugar molecule in our diets and bodies since plants make it

Relationship between binding agents in foods and mineral absorption

Presence of other factors within the same food influences [THIS]. Example: 30-45% of calcium in milk and dairy products is absorbed but calcium in Spinach, Swiss chard, seeds, and nuts is absorbed at a significantly lower rate because factors/binding agents in the foods bind the calcium and prevent its absorption. These binding agents work to inhibit the calcium absorption.

Long-term storage form/location for protein

Since the body's primary energy sources are carbs and fats, they have specialized [THESE]. Proteins do NOT have [THESE]. So when proteins need to be used for energy, they are taken directly from blood and body tissues, like the liver or skeletal muscle. Since the amino acids cannot be used again once this happens, overtime this can lead to irreversible damage. HEALTHY people do not have to worry about this.

Protein digestion from the stomach to absorption

Starting at the Stomach: 1. Hydrochloric acid denatures the protein strands (uncoils the protein so it loses its shape and function) when they reach the stomach. 2. Hydrochloric acid also converts inactive enzyme pepsinogen to the active form, pepsin, which is a protein-digesting enzyme. 3. Pepsin then begins breaking proteins into single amino acids and shorter polypeptides. The amino acids and polypeptides then travel to the small intestine for further digestion and absorption. 4. As polypeptides reach small intestine, pancreas and small intestine secrete enzymes (proteases in the small intestine) that continue the breakdown/digestion of polypeptides into oligopeptides, tripeptides, dipeptides, and single amino acids.

Glycogen

Storage form of glucose in ANIMALS including humans (starch is the storage form of glucose in PLANTS) -Not a dietary source of carbohydrates. -We store [THIS] in our muscles and liver; then our bodies can metabolize the stored [THIS] to glucose when we need energy

Relationship between mineral form and absorption

The absorption of many [THESE] depends on their chemical [THIS]. Example: Dietary iron comes in the form heme iron (found in meats, fish and poultry) and non-heme iron (found in plant and animal foods, as well as iron-fortified foods and supplements). Healthy adults can absorb about 25% of heme iron and only 3-5% of non-heme iron.

The essential fatty acids

The body cannot make [THESE], yet they are REQUIRED for healthy functioning -Two groups: Omega-6 Fatty Acids and Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Mutual supplementation

The process of combining two or more incomplete protein sources to make a complete protein.

Fructose

The sweetest natural sugar and is found in fruits and veggies. Also found in many processed foods like soda, desserts, candy

Minerals are inorganic substances not made by plants or animals

These are NATURALLY OCCURRING inorganic substances that are crystalline and do not contain carbon. -They are elements--in the simplest chemical form possible and the body does not need to break them down or digest them prior to absorption. -Cannot be synthesized (created) in the lab or by any plant or animal. They come from the environment

Hydrogenation

This process is how trans fats are formed. Pressurized hydrogen molecules are added directly to unsaturated fatty acids like those found in corn and safflower oils. This causes double [carbon] bonds of the unsat. fatty acids in the oil to be partially or totally removed. Thus, the fatty acid becomes more saturated and straighter (less unsat. and kinky...almost like a relaxer to the hair!)

Galactose

This simple carb does not occur alone in food. It joins with glucose to create lactose (dissacharide).

How protein is broken down to produce glucose

To use proteins for energy, the liver completes deanimation: where it removes the amine group from the amino acids. After the liver turns ammonia (combo of nitrogen and hydrogen) into urea and it leaves the body through urine, the remaining fragments of the amino acid are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The body can use the fragments to generate energy or build carbs. Certain amino acids can be converted to glucose through gluconeogenesis (the break down of proteins in blood and tissues into amino acids, then converting the proteins into glucose). -This happens in times of protein deficiency and starvation.

Diabetes and its effect on carbohydrate metabolism 3

Type 2: Body cells become resistant to insulin (the key that lets in blood glucose). -Pancreas attempts to compensate for the resistance by secreting more insulin to get rid of all of the built up blood glucose. At first, the increased secretion of insulin is enough to maintain normal blood glucose levels. -Over time, person will have to circulate very high levels of insulin to be able to let glucose pass through cells to be used for energy. The excessive production of insulin becomes insufficient to keep the blood glucose levels down. -Prediabetes happens--where blood glucose levels are higher than normal, but not high enough for [THIS]. Eventually, pancreas becomes incapable of secreting excessive amounts of insulin and just stops producing it altogether.

Lipid vs. carb. vs. protein

Unlike carbs and lipids (fats), [THESE] are made according to instructions provided by our genetic material, our DNA. -In addition to the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that is also found in carbs and lipids, [THESE] contain a special form of nitrogen that our bodies can readily use. Our bodies can break down [THESE] in foods and use the nitrogen for many processes. -Carbs and lipids do not provide nitrogen

How trans fats are formed

Unsaturated fats can occur in either a cis (same side) shape or trans (across from, opposite) shape in terms of the position of the hydrogen atoms around the double carbon bond. -[HERE], hydrogen atoms are attached on diagonally opposite sides of double carbon bond. This makes the trans fatty acid straighter and more rigid, like sat. fats (unsaturated fats are kinky...even though this is supposed to be unsat. it is transformed such that it acts like sat. fats!). -Usually produced by manipulating fatty acids during food processing [by manufacturers]. -HYDROGENATION

How carbohydrate is displayed on a Nutrition Facts Label

Usually displayed as Total Carbohydrates, dietary fiber, soluable fiber/insoluable fiber (saw this on the whole grain cereal), sugars, other carbs (like starches)

Ribose

Very little of this molecule is found in diet. Our bodies produce it from other carbs we eat and it is contained in genetic material of our cells: DNA and RNA.

How protein denaturation changes a protein molecule

When proteins uncoil and lose their shape by exposure to heat, acids, bases, heavy metals, alcohol, and other damaging substances. -This does not affect the primary structure of proteins (the sequential order of amino acids) but when [THIS] happens, proteins lose their function. Tertiary structure/shape is lost!

Monounsaturated Fatty Acid

Within a chain of carbon atoms, two carbons are bound to each other with a double bond. This double bond excludes hydrogen. The lack of hydrogen at ONE part of the molecule results in [THIS]. -It is usually liquid at room temp. -Olive oil, canola oil, cashew nuts

Carbs as a source of fuel for body cells, muscles, and organs

[THESE] provide 4kcal of energy per gram. Our red blood cells can use only glucose, and our brain and other nervous tissues primarily rely on glucose. -We rely on mostly [THESE] and fat for energy. Fat is the predominant energy source used at rest and during low-intensity activities (sitting, standing, walking). However, even during rest our brain cells and red blood cells need glucose from [THESE]. -When we exercise we use more glucose than fat. When exercising [THESE] provide almost 100% of the energy your body requires. -If physically active, it's vital to eat enough [THESE] to provide energy to brain, RBCs, and muscles.

Vitamins undergo post absorption transformation

[THESE] undergo one or more chemical transformations after they are eaten and absorbed into the body. Example: before B-vitamins can go to work for the body, it must combine with other substances. -Transformations activate the vitamin, because they don't occur randomly, but only when the active vitamin is needed, they help the body maintain control over its metabolic pathways.

~~~~~~READINGS ON VITAMINS AND MINERALS~~~

~~~~~~READINGS ON VITAMINS AND MINERALS~~~ 225-233

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~CHAPTER 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~CHAPTER 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 110-132

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~CHAPTER 5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~CHAPTER 5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 148-173

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~CHAPTER 6~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~CHAPTER 6~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 192-220