P211 Final Exam

What does it mean that "reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity"?

If a measure is valid, it is also reliable

A researcher's attempt to control sounds, smells, and even temperature in a testing environment is meant to reduce which of the following?

Situation noise

The phrase "especially for" would be used to describe which of the following results?

Spreading interactions

Establishing construct validity is most important for which of the following?

an abstract concept

Which of the following statements is an operational definition of "fear of snakes" that could be assessed as a structured question?

asking, "On a scale of 1 to 10, how afraid of snakes are you?"

Research articles that use terms such as unbiased sample, random samples, or representative sample allow for readers to

be confident in a study's external validity

Two biases of intuition discussed in the text are

being swayed by a good story and being persuaded by what comes easily to mind

An independent-groups design is also known as a design __________.

between-subjects

Ceiling effects can affect

both independent and dependent variables

Science journalists have argued that cigarette smoking leads to a variety of health problems. What type of claim are they making?

causal

What is the term for a researcher's definition of the variable in question at a theoretical level?

conceptual definition

Dr. Alfonse, a developmental psychologist, conducts a study to determine whether children prefer books with drawn illustrations or with photographs. A group of 30 preschoolers are shown two copies of a book (Ferdinand the Bull) at the same time. Although the story is the same, one book is illustrated with drawings and the other is illustrated with photos. Students are then asked to indicate which book they prefer. This is an example of which of the following designs?

concurrent-measures design

Having a representative sample is most important in which of the following example claims?

"Forty-three percent of psychology majors report being frustrated by people asking them if they are psychoanalyzing them."

Which of the following phrases describes a manipulated variable?

"Participants were placed in the high tempo music condition, the low tempo music condition, or the no music condition based on which color card they randomly drew from a deck."

Dr. Jewell is interested in measuring people's attitudes toward proposed tax cuts. One of his items reads, "People who support cutting taxes are not well informed about how the government works." Which of the following items should Dr. Jewell use instead to improve construct validity?

"Please rate your opinions about tax cuts on a 1 (I strongly disagree with tax cuts) to 7 (I strongly agree with tax cuts) scale."

Dr. Yared is interested in memorization techniques and motivation. He splits his participants into four equal groups of 20 people each and gave each participant a list of 30 words to try to memorize in three minutes. Two groups were told to repeat the words silently to themselves and two groups were told to make up a story using the words. Two groups were offered 10 cents per word they recalled and two were offered $1 per word. The table shows how many words each group was able to recall. Memory Technique (Repetition): 11, 17 Memory Technique (Make up a story) 10, 19 Monetary reward: 10 cents per word recalled Monetary reward: 1 dollar per word recalled What are the marginal means for monetary reward?

14 and 14.5

If a study describes the "difference in differences," what is the minimum number of variables the researchers were studying?

2

Dr. Green is interested in conducting a 2 × 2 × 3 within-group factorial design, with 20 participants in each cell. How many participants does she need overall?

20

Which of the following graph formats is the best way to examine an association claim between a categorical variable and a quantitative variable?

A bar graph

Sariyah is studying subliminal messages and weight loss. She is curious whether people will lose more weight if they hear subliminal messages that encourage weight loss ("don't eat that food," "you want to be thin," etc.) in the music compared to people who do not have subliminal messages in their music. She studies 40 people and finds the following results: A change to which of the following cells will result in a different interpretation of the results of subliminal messages?

A change in any cell will result in a different interpretation.

Which of the following is NOT possible?

A measure is valid but not reliable

Which of the following is an example of translational research?

A sports psychologist who uses information on how we emotionally process victory to design an intervention for improving mental stamina during athletic performance

Dr. Kushner is planning on conducting a study next semester. He is curious as to whether sleep deprivation is associated with poorer cognitive performance. For example, if you sleep poorly the night before a big exam, will you do worse? Dr. Kushner is especially curious about selective sleep deprivation, where people are kept from entering REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Using an electroencephalograph (EEG) to monitor brain waves, he plans to let participants sleep until they enter REM sleep and then wake them. After the participants are awake for one minute, Dr. Kushner plans to let them return to sleep. As they enter REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Imagine that Dr. Kushner is a clinical psychologist who volunteers his time at a local prison counseling several inmates. Because of his connections there, he is considering using prisoners as his participants. Why is this choice potentially problematic?

According to the Belmont Report, prisoners are entitled to special protection

Students who are interested in being consumers of, but not producers of, research might choose which of the following professions?

An advertising executive

Which of the following is an example of applied research?

An educational psychologist who looks for a way to increase math skills in eight-year-olds

In which of the following ways are content and face validity similar?

Both involve subjective judgments.

Dr. Ramon makes the following claim: "Watching television leads people to spend less time communicating with their spouses, study says." Dr. LaSalle makes the claim: "Research shows that making more money correlates with spending less time talking with your spouse." Which type of claim is Dr. Ramon making?

Causal claim

You read a news article about a recent scientific study titled, "New Drug Reduces OCD Symptoms in Mice." To evaluate whether the title's claim is supported, you should do which of the following?

Check whether the authors established the three criteria for a causal claim.

A study finds a correlation coefficient of r =.52 and reports 95% CI [.37, .67]. The 95% CI is a

Confidence interval

Dr. Sheffield is a clinical psychologist who specializes in treating pathological gambling. Pathological gambling is defined as being unable to resist impulses to gamble. Bothered by not having a good measure that he can give to clients to determine whether they are suffering from this condition, he creates a new measure of pathological gambling. The measure has 15 questions, and it takes 20 minutes to complete. Dr. Sheffield gives his measure to his supervisor, who is also an expert in pathological gambling. His supervisor says that his measure appears to test all the components of pathological gambling, including feeling restless when attempting to stop gambling, jeopardizing jobs in order to keep gambling, and using gambling to escape from problems and a bad mood. Given this information, Dr. Sheffield's measure has evidence of which of the following?

Content validity

Jiyun has just conducted a study examining the association between a child's level of impulsivity and the amount of corporal punishment used by their parents. She used a questionnaire about discipline strategies to assess corporal punishment. She calculated the scale's internal reliability as .85 and concluded that her scale had good internal reliability. Jiyun most likely calculated reliability using what statistic?

Cronbach's alpha

Dr. Kushner is planning on conducting a study next semester. He is curious as to whether sleep deprivation is associated with poorer cognitive performance. For example, if you sleep poorly the night before a big exam, will you do worse? Dr. Kushner is especially curious about selective sleep deprivation, where people are kept from entering REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Using an electroencephalograph (EEG) to monitor brain waves, he plans to let participants sleep until they enter REM sleep and then wake them. After the participants are awake for one minute, Dr. Kushner plans to let them return to sleep. As they enter REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Upon receiving institutional review board (IRB) approval, Dr. Kushner trusts that his graduate student will conduct the study. However, his graduate student does not conduct the study and instead provides Dr. Kushner with invented results that support his hypotheses. This is known as which of the following?

Data fabrication

Which of the following sections comes last in an empirical journal article?

Discussion

Dr. Singh was interested in the way people recognize objects as members of categories. For example, what makes us recognize a dog as being a dog and not a cat? More specifically, she was curious as to whether people think about categories in a more complex way if they contemplate an "opposite" category first. For example, does a person think differently about the category of "southern" if they first think about the category of "northern"? She was also curious as to whether people categorize differently if they are shown examples of those categories (e.g., looking at pictures of different animals) compared with generating those examples themselves (e.g., drawing pictures of different animals). Dr. Singh has four groups of participants (with 30 people in each group). In Group A, participants were told to cut out pictures of dogs and cats from magazines. In Group B, participants were told to cut out pictures of just dogs from magazines. In Group C, participants were told to draw pictures of cats and dogs. In Group D, participants were told to draw pictures of just dogs. After doing this for 30 minutes, participants in all groups were asked to list the attributes that define the "dog" category. Having a higher number of attributes listed was considered to be an indication of thinking about the category in a more complex way. The results of her study are below. Type of Activity: Cutting out Pictures Type of Activity: Drawing Pictures Focus of the Activity: Dogs and cats-- 15, 9 Focus of the Activity: Dogs only-- 7, 6 In graphing the results of her study, which of the following would be true for Dr. Singh?

Dr. Singh would see a difference in differences for one variable but not the other variable.

Dr. Kang, a cognitive psychologist, conducts an experiment examining the effect of emotion on memory. He provides lists of 15 words to two groups of participants at his university. He puts the names of all the participants in a hat. The first 20 names he assigns to Group A and the last 20 he assigns to Group B. Group A is given a list of words that are very emotional in content (e.g., passion, murder). Group B is given a list of words that are neutral in content (e.g., houseplant, desk). He then measures how many words each group is able to remember after being distracted for 5 minutes by watching a video about the history of the university. He finds that Group A remembers 15% more words than Group B. Based on this study, Dr. Kang can make which of the following claims?

Emotion enhances memory

Which of the following involves using evidence from the senses or from instruments that assist the senses as the basis for conclusions?

Empiricism

All of the following are true of institutional review boards (IRBs) in the United States EXCEPT that

IRBs must have a psychologist as a member.

Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a 5-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy ("Happy" by Pharrell). Group B listened to a 5-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Home Is Such a Lonely Place" by Blink-182). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for 5 minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask them to roll a six-sided die. Participants who rolled a 1 or 2 were assigned to Group A. Participants who rolled a 3 or 4 were assigned to Group B. Participants who rolled a 5 or 6 were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or 5 minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 common words to remember (e.g., desk, gray, plane, car, mask). When 5 minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given 3 minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered: Group A (Happy): 16, Group B (Sad): 14, Group C (Neutral): 9 Dr. Lonsbary is considering doing a follow-up study in which instead of asking participants to listen to music to induce mood, she has them write either a story about a character who just won the lottery or a story about a character who just experienced the death of their spouse. This change in the mood variable is designed to enhance the study's ________ validity.

External

Fatima is trying to measure gender role stereotypes using a gender role survey. She believes that her participants will be able to tell that she is measuring gender role stereotypes because the survey looks like it is measuring stereotypes. Fatima believes that her scale has what type of validity?

Face

Which of the following is a reason that researchers typically choose to prioritize internal over external validity?

Having a confound-free setting allows them to make causal claims.

For his research methods class project, Hiro is studying the effect of pet ownership on stress levels. Although a lot of research has been done on dog and cat owners, not much is known about other pets, so Hiro decides to study bird owners. Which of the following would demonstrate a snowball sampling technique?

He asks bird owners to give him the names of other bird owners

Dr. Guidry conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57, 95% CI [-.77, -.37] Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [-.27, .45] Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] In evaluating Dr. Guidry's study, you question the construct validity of the study. Which of the following questions would you be asking?

How reliable is the measure of daily stress?

Dr. White reads about a new theory that states that depression is caused by increased levels of estrogen in the womb. To test this theory, she conducted a study comparing the level of estrogen in amniotic fluid in individuals who were later diagnosed with depression with the level of those who did not develop depression. Dr. White found no differences between the groups in estrogen levels in the amniotic fluid. In this study, "depressed individuals will have higher estrogen levels" was the

Hypothesis

When interrogating experiments, on which of the big validities should a person focus?

Internal validity

Which of the following can be said of the interaction in a study?

It can exist even if the main effects are not significant.

In what way does high within-groups variance obscure between-groups variance?

It causes more overlap in scores between experimental/comparison groups.

Which of the following is true of 95% CIs?

It deals with precision estimates about the population.

In his measure of "need for cognition" (the degree to which people like thinking and problem-solving), Dr. Jonason asks his participants to rate their agreement with the following statement: "I have never not enjoyed thinking." What is the problem with this question?

It has a double negative

Which of the following is a reason why it is important to be a knowledgeable consumer of research?

It is important to understand whether the information you read is accurate.

Dr. Knepp studies Extrasensory Perception (ESP) which is the ability to perceive things through telepathy or clairvoyance. She theorizes that ESP exists but only in people who believe it exists and who are not skeptical of ESP. She surveys a large number of adults about their beliefs in ESP and, as expected, only adults who believe in ESP report having those abilities. What is true about Dr. Knepp's theory?

It is not falsifiable

Which of the following is true of probability sampling?

It is the best way to obtain a representative sample.

Why is plagiarism a violation of ethics?

It violates an APA standard

Martin has found a correlation of r =.18 between the two variables of using prescription stimulants (e.g., Adderall) and frontal lobe activity. This correlation is more likely to be statistically significant if

Martin used a larger number of subjects

Before she administers the independent variable to her two test groups, Dr. Mackintosh gives all participants an IQ test. She then pairs up each participant with another who had a similar IQ score. Based on the flip of a coin, one member of the pair is assigned to test Group A and one is assigned to test Group B. What technique is Dr. Mackintosh using?

Matched groups

Spontaneous remission in clinical studies is an example of which of the following threats to internal validity?

Maturation

Dr. Guidry conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57, 95% CI [-.77, -.37] Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [-.27, .45] Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] According to the guidelines for interpreting effect sizes, what type of effect size has Dr. Guidry found for the association between number of friends and life satisfaction?

Moderate

A study by Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) involved telling teachers that some of their students were "bloomers" and would achieve rapid academic success within the next year. In fact, these students were no different than any of the other students in the class. At the end of the year, the "bloomers" showed more gains in IQ than the other students. It appeared that the teacher had unintentionally treated the "bloomers" in special ways. This is an example of which of the following?

Observer effects

Professor Singh creates a survey to measure how happy his students are with his teaching this semester. He is teaching two classes: Psychology and Law and Introduction to Neuroscience. He writes the following questions for his survey: A. What was your favorite part of this class? B. Please rate how much you agree with the following statement using the scale below: This was one of my favorite classes all semester. 1-Strongly agree, 2-Agree, 3-Neither agree nor disagree, 4-Disagree, 5-Strongly disagree C. Which of the following is most true of you? a. I am a very serious student. b. I try only as hard as I have to. D. How easy did you feel this class was? 1-Easy.....5-Hard Which of the questions above is an example of a question that uses a Likert scale?

Question B

Professor Singh creates a survey to measure how happy his students are with his teaching this semester. He is teaching two classes: Psychology and Law and Introduction to Neuroscience. He writes the following questions for his survey: A. What was your favorite part of this class? B. Please rate how much you agree with the following statement using the scale below: This was one of my favorite classes all semester. 1-Strongly agree, 2-Agree, 3-Neither agree nor disagree, 4-Disagree, 5-Strongly disagree C. Which of the following is most true of you? a. I am a very serious student. b. I try only as hard as I have to. D. How easy did you feel this class was? 1-Easy ... 5-Hard Which of the questions above is an example of a question that uses a semantic differential scale?

Question D

When conducting animal research, which guideline states that alternatives to animal research should be considered?

Replacement

Your professor says that researchers do not make ethical decisions alone. What does this mean?

Researchers must consider the opinions of others, including institutional review board (IRB) members and peers.

Which of the following is a benefit of the peer-review process?

Reviewers' names are kept anonymous so they can be open in their critiques of an article.

Angel reads about a study in which smartphone use is associated with migraine headaches. He says, "Well, that study is not valid because I use a smartphone more than anyone I know, and I never get migraines." Based on his comment, Angel may be forgetting which of the following?

Science is probabilistic

What can researchers do to reduce the risk of measurement error?

Select measures that have high reliability and validity

Sariyah is studying subliminal messages and weight loss. She is curious whether people will lose more weight if they hear subliminal messages that encourage weight loss ("don't eat that food," "you want to be thin," etc.) in the music compared to people who do not have subliminal messages in their music. She studies 40 people and finds the following results: Number Who Lost Weight (Exposed to subliminal messages (Cell A): 15 people Number Who Did Not Lose Weight (Exposed to subliminal messages (Cell C): 5 people Number who lost weight (Not exposed to subliminal messages) (Cell B): 10 people Number who did not lose weight (Not exposed to subliminal messages) (Cell D): 10 people To understand whether the subliminal messages have an effect, Sariyah needs to consider which of the following cells in the chart?

She must consider all of the cells

Which of the following is true regarding interrogating frequency claims?

The chief concern is to evaluate the sampling technique

Dr. Rhodes notices an interaction in his factorial study. In describing this, which statement might he use to explain the link between Independent Variable A and Independent Variable B in predicting the dependent variable?

The effect of Variable A depends on Variable B

Shoppers often leave reviews for products that they purchased online. Which of the following best describes the external validity of product reviews on an online shopping site?

The external validity is low because this is a self-selected sample of online shoppers.

What is a confidence interval constructed around?

The margin of error

What was the primary ethical concern in the Milgram study?

The potential risks to participants outweighed the value of knowledge we can gain.

The belief that the participants in a research study should be representative of the type of people who would also benefit from the findings of the research stems from which principle of the Belmont Report?

The principle of justice

For a third variable to be plausible as the explanation in an established association, which of the following must also be true?

The third variable must be related to both of the measured variables in the original association.

Which of the following is an advantage of within-groups designs?

These designs rely on fewer participants

Why are techniques like cluster sampling and multistage sampling just as externally valid as simple random sampling?

They all contain elements of random selection

Which of the following is true of ceiling and floor effects?

They can be caused by poorly designed dependent variables

Professor Kramer has decided to measure how happy his students are with his teaching this semester. He is teaching two classes this semester—Psychology and Law and Introduction to Neuroscience. He gives his students a survey. Dr. Kramer plans to give his survey only to his Psychology and Law students because he sees them on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, and he can spare the class time (unlike in his Introduction to Neuroscience class, which only meets on Tuesdays and Thursdays). Which of the following is true?

This will lead to a biased sample because the type of students who take Psychology and Law may be different from the type of students who take Introduction to Neuroscience.

Dr. Kushner is planning on conducting a study next semester. He is curious as to whether sleep deprivation is associated with poorer cognitive performance. For example, if you sleep poorly the night before a big exam, will you do worse? Dr. Kushner is especially curious about selective sleep deprivation, where people are kept from entering REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. Using an electroencephalograph (EEG) to monitor brain waves, he plans to let participants sleep until they enter REM sleep and then wake them. After the participants are awake for one minute, Dr. Kushner plans to let them return to sleep. As they enter REM sleep again, he will wake them again and follow the same procedure. He plans to do this through the entire eight-hour sleep session. The following morning, participants will be asked to take a sample SAT test. Dr. Kushner is deciding whether he needs to give participants a reason for waking them up several times during the night. He knows that he cannot tell them the real reason, but he is unsure whether he should deceive them (give them a false reason why he is waking them up) or provide them with no cover story at all. Which of the following issues should be considered most heavily when deciding whether to use deception?

Whether he can conduct the study just as well without deception

Dr. Ewell, a developmental psychologist, is planning on conducting a study that involves watching children play together to determine how sharing behavior occurs in same-sex friend pairs compared to opposite-sex friend pairs. Which of the following is Dr. Ewell likely to give to his research assistants to prevent observer bias?

a codebook

In previous studies, Dr. Hamid has established that finding meaning in one's everyday work activities can lead to greater success in the workplace (e.g., productivity, creativity). He is curious as to whether this can happen in the college classroom. Specifically, he is curious whether finding meaning in one's classroom experience can lead to greater academic performance. In the spring semester, he has his teaching assistant randomly assign half the class to write a paragraph each class period about how the material has meaning for their lives (meaning group). The other half writes a paragraph about what they did to prepare for class (preparation group). He does not know which of his students are writing which paragraph, and the students are not aware they are responding to different writing assignments. To measure academic performance, he gives the students a midterm essay exam and a final exam. The study described above is an example of which of the following?

a double-blind study

Dr. Lonsbary is a cognitive psychologist who is curious about how mood affects memory. She recruited 60 high school students and divided them into three groups. Group A listened to a 5-minute piece of music intended to make them feel happy ("Happy" by Pharrell). Group B listened to a 5-minute piece of music intended to make them feel sad (a song titled "Home Is Such a Lonely Place" by Blink-182). Group C listened to no music and instead was asked to sit quietly for 5 minutes (thought to make them feel neutral). When a participant would come to her laboratory, Dr. Lonsbary would greet the participant and then ask them to roll a six-sided die. Participants who rolled a 1 or 2 were assigned to Group A. Participants who rolled a 3 or 4 were assigned to Group B. Participants who rolled a 5 or 6 were assigned to Group C. The participants were then given an unlabeled CD to listen to based on their group assignment. The CD contained either the song selection or 5 minutes of silence. They were then escorted into a different room, where they were greeted by a research assistant who conducted the experiment. The research assistant sat the participants in front of a computer screen and told them that a list of 25 words would be displayed on the screen. They were instructed to listen to the CD with headphones while trying to memorize the list of words. All participants were given the same list of 25 common words to remember (e.g., desk, gray, plane, car, mask). When 5 minutes had passed, the screen displayed a question asking them whether they felt happy, sad, or neutral. After the participant responded, a new screen was displayed asking them to type in all the words they could remember from the list of 25 words. All participants were given 3 minutes to type the words they remembered. Afterward, the participant was thanked and dismissed. In response to the mood question, a majority of Group A participants said they were happy, a majority of Group B participants said they were sad, and a majority of Group C participants said they were neutral in their mood. Dr. Lonsbary found the following results in response to the number of words remembered: Dr. Lonsbary's study contains which of the following techniques designed to address a threat to construct validity?

a manipulation check

Which of the following is a poll likely to measure?

a person's opinions about a healthcare law

A local committee that reviews research that is conducted on animals is known as

an IACUC

Another word for discriminant validity is ________ validity.

divergent

How can you ensure that a popular media article accurately reflects the original research of a scientific study?

find and read the original scientific article

Masked or blind study designs are designed to deal with

observer bias

Which of the following is a dependent variable?

one that is measured

A researcher most likely prepared two versions of a survey with different question sequencing to address the issue of

question order

Which of the following does NOT depict a statistically significant association?

r = .26, 95% CI [-.08, .60]

Observer bias relates mainly to ________ whereas observer effects stem from ________.

researchers; participants

If you wanted to know exactly which statistical analyses were used in a particular study, you should consult the

results section of a journal article

Which of the following threats to internal validity would result in group differences prior to the start of the study?

selection effect

Dr. Chandler is a personality psychologist who is interested in studying the characteristics of people who report being abducted by UFOs. She finds several people in an online support group for UFO abductees to participate and asks them if they can provide the names and contact information of other people who have also been abducted. Upon contacting these new participants, she asks them to refer her to even more people they may know who have been abducted. This is an example of what kind of sampling?

snowball sampling

If Jamal wanted to test the consistency of participants' responses on a survey at two different times, what would he use?

test-retest reliability

Edward believes that there are a lot of differences between men and women on a variety of different dimensions. He believes this because when he thinks about books that have been written on men and women, he can quickly recall only books that say men and women are different (e.g., Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus) and cannot recall any that say men and women are the same. His reliance on what comes to mind is an example of which of the following?

the availability heuristic

Hannah just finished reading an empirical journal article for a class project. What information might she get out of reading the references section of her article?

the name of an article that researched a similar topic

One of the reasons that research studies are superior to personal experience is that

they include at least one comparison group

Which of the following is a reason that a researcher might choose a pretest/posttest design?

to ensure that random assignment made the treatment/comparison groups equal

Dr. Guidry conducts a study examining the relationship between the number of friends one has and the experience of daily stress and life satisfaction. She randomly samples 1,500 elderly men and women in Nashville, Tennessee (the state capital), located in the southern United States. Below are her findings: • Life satisfaction and experience of daily stress: r = -.57, 95% CI [-.77, -.37] • Number of friends one has and experience of daily stress: r = .09, 95% CI [-.27, .45] • Number of friends one has and life satisfaction: r = .36, 95% CI [.12, .60] Dr. Guidry finds that the relationship between the number of friends one has and life satisfaction is stronger for men than for women. Why might Dr. Guidry have looked for this difference?

to examine her study's external validity

A study finds a correlation coefficient of r = .52. According to the guidelines for interpreting effect sizes, the magnitude of this effect is

unusually large in psychology

Dr. Carter is curious about how self-esteem changes as a result of a new counseling program. She is concerned about testing threats in her study. Which of the following would you recommend to her as a way to address this type of threat?

using a different measure of self-esteem at pretest than at posttest