Phonetics Chapter 8 - Continued

Affricates [pf, bv, ts, dz, kx, ɡɣ]

Some individuals with phonological disorders may produce non-English affricates such as /pf/, /bv/ (bilabial); /ts/, /dz/ (alveolar); and /kx/, /ɡɣ/ (velar) (Louko & Edwards, 2001; Powell, 2001). The affricates /ts/ and /dz/ often replace /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ as in "watch" [wɑts] and "Jim" /dzɪm/. Other examples of non-English affricates include "fun" [pfʌn], "van" [bvæn], "ski" [kxi], and "go" [ɡɣo].

2 years-2 years 6 months

awareness of rhyme emerges

devoicing examples

bad -> /bæt/ hose -> /hoʊs/

omission examples

big -> /bɪ/ /g/ fish -> /fɪ/ /ʃ/ pool -> /ul/ /p/

labial assimilation examples

book -> /bʊp/ mad -> /mæb/ cap -> /pæp/ boat -> /boʊp/

6 months-1 year

canonical, reduplicated babbling CV

final consonant deletion example

cat -> /kæ/ /t/ bake -> /beɪ/ /k/ nice -> /naɪ/ /s/ lots -> /la/ /ts/

addition examples

cat -> /kætə/ milk -> /mɪlək/ fishing -> /fɪʃəɪŋ/

substitution examples

cat -> /tæt/ shoe -> /su/ balloon -> /bəwun/ gun -> /dʌn/

fronting examples

cat -> /tæt/ /k/->/t/ get -> /dɛt/ /g/->/d/ wash -> /was/ /ʃ/->/s/ cookie -> /tʊtɪ/ /k/->/t/

deaffrication example

chip -> /ʃɪp/ /tʃ/-> /ʃ/ matches -> /mæʃəz/ /tʃ/-> /ʃ/ juice -> /ʒus/ /dʒ/ -> /ʒ/ ridge -> /rɪʒ/ /dʒ/ -> /ʒ/

prevocalic voicing examples

cup -> /gʌp/ shake -> /dʒek/

velar assimilation examples

cup -> /kʌk/ gone -> /gɔŋ/ take -> /keɪk/ doggy -> /gagɪ/

initial consonant deletion examples

cut -> /ʌt/ game -> /eɪm/

cluster reduction

deletion of a consonant from a consonant cluster

devoicing

devoicing of a syllable-final voiced phonemes that either precede a pause or silence between words or occur at the end of an utterance

1 year-1 year 6 months

first 50 words. most have CV, tend to select words with sounds they can produce

idiopsyncratic processes

glottal replacement, initial consonant deletion, backing, stops replacing a glide, fricatives replacing a stop

misarticulations

involve making phonemic errors that affects the individual's speech intelligibility. - can be analyzed on a phoneme-by-phoneme basis. (substitution, omission, distortion, addition)

assimilatory processes

involves an alteration in phoneme production due to the phonetic environment. -labial assimilation, alveolar assimilation, velar assimilation, voicing assimilation

phonological process disorder

involves difficulty with the sound system of a language or the phonological rules

distortion

involves the production of an allophone for a given phoneme. lisp

reduplication

involves the repetition of a syllable of a word

manner

nasals and stops are acquired first, followed in order by the glides, fricatives, liquids, and affricates

alveolar assimilation

occurs when a non-alveolar phoneme is produced with an alveolar place of articulation due to the presence of an alveolar phoneme elsewhere in the word

labial assimilation

occurs when a non-labial phoneme is produced in the labial place of articulation due to the presence of a labial phoneme within the same word

velar assimilation

occurs when a non-velar phoneme is produced with a velar place of articulation due to the presence of a velar phoneme elsewhere in the word

initial consonant deletion

omitting a single consonant at the beginning of a word

glottal replacement examples

pick -> /pɪʔ/ butter -> /bʌʔɚ/ lip -> /lɪʔ/

gliding example

red -> /wɛd/ /r/->/w/ look -> /wʊk/ /l/->/w/ green -> /gwin/ /r/->/w/ like -> /waɪk/ /l/->/w/

syllable structure processes

reduplication, final consonant deletion, weak syllable deletion, cluster reduction

partial reduplication

repetition of just a consonant or a vowel bottle -> /bada/

total reduplication

repetition of the entire syllable mommy -> /mama/ kitty -> /kiki/ daddy -> /dædæ/

stopping examples

sake -> /teɪk/ zoo -> /du/ fat -> /pæt/ those -> /doʊs/ ship -> /tɪp/

fricatives replacing a stop examples

sit -> /sɪs/ doll -> /zɔl/ king -> /sɪŋ/

cluster reduction examples

snow -> /noʊ/ (/sn/ -> /n/) play -> /peɪ/ (/pl/ -> /p/) stripe -> staɪp/ (/str/ -> /st/) boxes -> basɪz/ (/ks/ -> /s/)

place

sounds produced in the anterior oral cavity are usually developed first, followed by velar and palatal sounds

by 4 years

speech is 100% intelligible to strangers. errors may persist

backing

substituting a velar stop consonant for consonants usually produced more anteriorly in the mouth

fricatives replacing a stop

substitution of a fricative for a stop

deaffrication

substitution of a fricative for an affricate

gliding

substitution of a glide for a liquid

glottal replacement

substitution of a glottal stop for another consonant

vocalization

substitution of a vowel for a postvocalic or syllabic /l/ or /r/ including ɝ and ɚ

fronting

substitution of an alveolar sound for a velar or a palatal sound

distortion example

sun /sʌn/ -> /θʌn/

weak syllable deletion examples

telephone -> /tɛfon/ /lə/ banana -> /nænɚ/ /bə/ tomato -> /medoʊ/ /toʊ/ elephant -> /ɛfənt/ /lə/

weak syllable deletion

the omission of unstressed (weak) syllable either preceding or following a stressed syllable

substitution

the replacement of one phoneme for another

stops replacing a glide

the substitution of a stop for a glide

stopping

the substitution of a stop sound for a fricative or affricate

final consonant deletion

this process results in the deletion of the word-final syllable

vocalization examples

tiger -> /taɪgʊ/ /ɚ/->/ʊ/ turn -> /tɔn/ /ɝ/->/ɔ/ bear -> /bɛʊ/ /r/->/ʊ/ help -> /hɛʊp/ /l/->/ʊ/ fell -> /fɛo/ /l/->/o/

backing examples

time -> /kaɪm/ zoom -> /gum/ push -> /pʊk/ love -> /lʌk/

alveolar assimilation examples

time -> /taɪn/ neck -> /nɛt/ shut -> /sʌt/ bat -> /dæt/

lisp

unable to produce sibilants

birth-6 months

vegetative sounds, cooing, vocal play

prevocalic voicing

voicing of a normally unvoiced consonant

earlier

vowels are acquired _________ than consonants

by 3 years

vowels are mastered (except rhotic vowels)

stops replacing a glide examples

yes -> /dɛs/ wait -> /beɪt/ why -> /baɪ/ you -> /du/

left-hand edge

50% of children master the target sound in speech

3

90% mastery of several phonemes occurs by ___

right-hand edge

90% of children master the target sound in speech

Labialized [ʷ ]

A consonant that is not normally produced with lip rounding may become rounded in the presence of certain phonemes, for example, /u/, /ʊ/, or /w/. This phenomenon can be seen in the initial consonantal phoneme of "quick," "good," "zoo," and "rude." The additional articulation of lip rounding, associated with consonant production, is called labialization. The diacritic commonly used for a labialized phoneme is a "w" placed to the right of the normally unrounded phoneme as in [kʷwɪk], [ɡʷʊd], [zʷu], and [ɹʷud]. These transcriptions all represent regressive, or right-to-left, assimilation because the normally rounded phoneme follows the phoneme undergoing assimilation. Labialization may also occur in some cases of speech sound disorder when it is not expected to occur (not due to phonetic context).

Dentalization [t̪]

Alveolar consonants sometimes may be produced with a dental, instead of an alveolar, articulation. The tongue tip makes contact with the upper front teeth (central incisors) during production. This process is termed dentalization. In the word "ninth," /n/ becomes dentalized in typical speech production. The alveolar /n/ has a dental articulation brought about by the final phoneme /θ/ in "ninth." It would be possible to transcribe this word as [naɪn̟θ], given that the articulation is more forward than usual. However, when an alveolar phoneme is produced with a dental articulation, the dentalization symbol [̪] is preferred. Other words with dentalized alveolar consonants include "filth" [fɪl̪θ] and "month" [mʌn̪θ]. These examples show regressive or right-to-left assimilation. The effect of dentalization crosses word boundaries as well. For instance, in the phrase "with Terry," the /t/ becomes dentalized, that is, [wɪθt̪ɛɹɪ]. Notice that the plosive /t/ is released between the teeth. This is an example of progressive or left-to-right assimilation. Dentalization occurs in some instances of disordered speech. Some young children produce dentalized /s/ and /z/ in words such as "shoe" [s̪u] and "zoo" [z̪u] with the tongue tip touching the upper incisors during production of /s/. This is sometimes referred to as a frontal lisp. Some individuals transcribe this particular speech production as a /θ/ for /s/, or a /ð/ for /z/ substitution, as in "suit" /θut/ or "zebra" /ðibɹə/. It is suggested that the correct transcription for this particular production should be [s̪] or [z̪], not /θ/ or /ð/, as long as the articulation retains a sibilant quality (Hodson & Paden, 1991). Some children with phonological disorders also produce the affricates /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ as [t̪θ] and [d̪ð], respectively, as in "rich" [ɹɪt̪θ] and "jam" [d̪ðæm] (Powell, 2001). In this case, the articulation for the plosive portion of the affricate is no longer alveolar, but rather dental, with the tongue tip between the front teeth. Also, note the substitution of the dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ for the palatal fricatives /ʃ/ and /ʒ/. Some hearing-impaired children who wear cochlear implants may produce interdental fricatives as dentalized alveolar stops, as in "thumb" [t̪ʰʌm] and "mother" [mʌd̪ɚ], and labiodental stops may be produced in place of labiodental fricatives, as in "vase" [b̪eɪs] (Teoh & Chin, 2009). (Try producing /b/ with a labiodental articulation [instead of bilabial] by bringing your lower lip and upper incisors together.)

Implosives [ɓ, ɗ, ɠ] and Ejectives [p', t', k']

An interesting phenomenon observed in the speech of some hearing-impaired speakers is the use of non-pulmonic ejective and implosive stop consonants. Both ejectives and implosive consonants rely on a glottalic airstream, as opposed to a pulmonic airstream. Both implosive and ejective consonants occur in some African and Native American languages. An ejective is produced in a manner similar to a pulmonic stop consonant. However, during its production, the vocal folds close and then are raised, causing a decrease in the area between the closed vocal folds and the constriction in the oral cavity formed by the tongue. This results in a greater amount of intraoral pressure than would be typical of a pulmonic stop. Then, when the stop is released, there is a large burst of air due to the increased intraoral pressure. Conversely, implosives are produced by lowering the vocal folds, thereby increasing the area of the vocal tract and decreasing the intraoral pressure between the vocal folds and the constriction in the oral cavity. When the stop is released, air flows intothe vocal tract (an ingressive airstream). It is not completely clear why hearing-impaired individuals produce ejectives and implosives. It is believed that these behaviors develop either due to the provision of increased tactile/kinesthetic feedback (Higgins, Carney, McCleary, & Rogers, 1996) or as a result of faulty learning while developing the ability to produce voiced and voiceless stops (Monsen, 1983). The IPA symbols for the implosive and ejective stops (at the bilabial, alveolar, and velar places of articulation) are given below. The remaining implosive and ejective IPA symbols are presented in Figure 2.1.

Unreleased Stops [p̚]

An unreleased stop consonant is one that has no audible release burst associated with it. Unreleased stops occur quite often in English at the ends of words, as in "leak," "put," "map," "hog," and "red." Contrast the production of the word "stop" first by releasing the final /p/ and then by not releasing it. The transcription of the unreleased production would be [stɑp̚]. Likewise, contrast the two productions of the word "bid," that is, [bɪd̚] and [bɪd]. When two voiceless stop consonants occur one after the other in the same syllable, the first one is not released, as in the words "stacked" [stæk̚t] and "reaped" [ɹip̚t].

Denasality [ ͊]

Another condition related to nasality is denasality, also known as hyponasality. Denasality results when the nasal phonemes /m, n, and ŋ/ are produced withoutnasalization. Denasality is most often associated with the speech patterns of a person with a cold or upper respiratory tract infection. The utterance "My name is Matt" would sound like "By dabe is Batt" when spoken denasalized. Using the denasality diacritic, this utterance would be transcribed as [m͊aɪ n͊eɪm͊ɪz m͊æt]. Children who do not have a cold but consistently sound like they do should probably be evaluated by a physician to determine whether a structural abnormality exists that may interfere with the production of nasal phonemes.

Glottal Stop [ʔ]

By now you should be familiar with the use of the glottal stop in English, as in production of the word "button" /bʌʔn̩/. The glottal stop also appears in the speech of some children with phonological disorders, including those with hearing impairment (Levitt & Stromberg, 1983; Stoel-Gammon, 1983; Teoh & Chin, 2009). For instance, glottal stops may replace other stops or fricatives, as in "puppy" [ʔʌʔɪ], "sister" [ʔɪʔʊ], or "maybe" [meʔɪ]. The glottal stop also may occur at the ends of words, as in "cat" [kʰæʔ] or "caught" [kʰɔʔ]. You must learn to listen carefully to determine whether a glottal stop is being produced. For instance, in the word "cat," you would need to determine whether the final sound is /ʔ/, an omitted /t/ as in [kæ], or is being produced as an unreleased consonant, as in [kæt̚]. It should be noted that the presence of a glottal stop at the end of a word does not always signal the presence of a speech sound disorder. Glottal stops do occur naturally at the ends of words in some dialects of spoken English. Cleft palate speakers also may produce glottal stops as substitutes for obstruents. In addition to possible problems with nasal emission and hypernasal resonance, cleft palate speakers may have difficulty producing stops due to decreased intraoral pressure in the oral cavity caused by the cleft. Substitution of a glottal stop assists in proper plosion with a place of articulation posterior to the cleft (so that no air escapes). Some examples include "top" [ʔɑ̃ʔʰ], "guess" [ʔɛ̃ʔ], and "comb" [ʔõm] (Trost-Cardamone, 2009). Glottal stop substitution may occur, even following surgery for the cleft, due to learned speaking habits.

1 year 6 months-2 years

CVC and two-syllable words emerge

articulation and phonological

Categories of sound production disorders

Approximant [ʋ]

Earlier in this chapter we discussed the fact that some children substitute /w/ for /ɹ/ in a process commonly known as gliding. In some instances, however, the production is not truly a /w/, but somewhere between an /ɹ/ and a /w/. What may occur in this case is the substitution of the voiced labiodental approximant [ʋ] for /ɹ/ (Ball, 2008; Bauman-Waengler, 2012). This approximant is similar to /w/, but it is labiodental, not labiovelar; there is no constriction of the tongue in the velar region. Instead, the lower lip and teeth are used in production of this sound. Because this phoneme is an approximant, the lower lip and teeth do not touch as would be the case for the labiodental fricative /v/.

Devoicing [ɹ̥]/[ʒ̊]

In certain phonetic environments, phonemes that are normally voiced become less voiced. This phenomenon is known as devoicing. Phonemes that become devoiced still have some voicing associated with them; they are not completely voiceless. The concept of devoicing is not really new to you. Recall that a word such as "ladder" is transcribed with the tap /ɾ/, indicating devoicing of the /d/ phoneme. You may recall that this assimilation results when /t/ or /d/ is intervocalic. Devoicing also occurs when one of the approximants /w, l, ɹ, or j/ follows a voiceless consonant. Examples include "fray" [f ɹ̥eɪ], "pew" [pj̊u], "slip" [sl̥ɪp], and "queen" [kw̥in]. Devoicing also may occur across word boundaries as in "thank you" [θæŋkj̊u]. (Note that the devoicing diacritic is placed above descending IPA symbols such as /j̊/ and /ʒ̊/.) Words ending with a voiced fricative or affricate may become devoiced if silence follows the word, that is, if they are at the end of an utterance (Cruttenden, 2008). Examples include [bædʒ̊], [wʌz̥], and [lʌv̥]. In connected speech, when a word that ends with a voiced fricative is followed by a word that begins with a voiceless consonant, the fricative also may become devoiced (Cruttenden, 2008). For instance, the phrase "has seen" may be pronounced as [həz̥sin]. Other examples include "of course" [əv̥kɔɹs], "she's sorry" [ʃiz̥sɑɹɪ], and "I've passed" [aɪv̥pæst]. If a client is devoicing phonemes in contexts that are not expected, make sure to indicate that in your transcription using the [ ̥] diacritic. For example, in cleft palate speech, voiceless plosives and fricatives may be produced as voiceless nasals (Grunwell & Harding, 1996) such as "sun" [n̥ə̃n] or "pan" [m̥æ̃n].

Labiodental [ɱ]

In words in which the nasal consonants /m/ or /n/ are followed by /f/, the place of articulation is altered due to the influence of the labiodental place of articulation for /f/ (regressive assimilation). Although English does not have a labiodental nasal phoneme, other languages do. The IPA symbol for this phoneme is /ɱ/. Because English does not make use of /ɱ/ phonemically, this assimilation may be considered an allophonic variant, not a phonemic change. Words in which this labiodental nasal occurs (depending on an individual speaker's pronunciation) include "comfort" /kʌɱfɚt/, "conference" /kɑɱfɹəns/, "unfair" /əɱfɛɹ/, "emphasis" /ɛɱfəsəs/, and "symphony" /sɪɱfənɪ/. The diacritic for dentalization also may be used to transcribe labiodental assimilation—"comfort" /kʌm̪fɚt/.

Lateral Fricatives [ɬ, ɮ]

Lateralization of the fricatives /s/ or /z/ occurs when the constricted airflow is diverted over the sides of the tongue, instead of being able to flow centrally. To produce a lateralized /s/, place your tongue in position for the initial phoneme in the word "let." Now, holding your tongue in place, try to produce an /s/ phoneme. Notice how the air flows over the sides of the tongue because it cannot escape anteriorly. This lateral production of /s/ or /z/ is sometimes referred to as a lateral lisp and is seen in some children with phonological disorders. The IPA diacritic for a lateralized phoneme is a raised /l/, placed to the right of the indicated phoneme, as in [jɛsl]. There are other IPA symbols specifically used for transcription of a lateral fricative. The symbol [ɬ] represents a lateralized /s/, and [ɮ] represents a lateralized /z/. Examples include "yes" [jɛɬ] and "zoo" [ɮu]. Sometimes lateral fricatives are substituted for an affricate (deaffrication), as in "witch" [wɪɬ] and "jelly" [ɮɛlɪ]. The extIPA also lists two symbols for lateralized fricatives, [ls] (voiceless) and [lz] (voiced). These symbols are to be used when a fricative is produced with both a lateral and a central airstream.

Nasal Emission [ ͋]

Nasal emission is the audible escape of air through the nares due to improper velopharyngeal closure. Airflow may escape through the velopharyngeal port itself or may escape through a cleft in the palate or velum. Individuals with cleft palate may exhibit nasal emission especially during the production of stops and fricatives (which require greater intraoral pressure) even if the cleft has been repaired. This is usually due to speaking habits learned prior to the surgery (Trost-Cardamone, 2009). The diacritic [ ͋] is used when nasal emission accompanies a phoneme that is not normally nasalized. Examples include "snail" [s͋neɪl], "nice" [naɪs͋], "zoo" [z͋u], and "pie" [p͋ aɪ]. Keep in mind that nasal emission is not the same as nasalization. Nasalization of speech occurs when the velum is lowered in production of oral sounds, resulting in nasal resonance. Nasal emission is a process in which air escapes through the nares.

More Rounded/Less Rounded [i̹]/[u̜]

One variation in vowel production, sometimes seen in disordered speech, is the production of unrounded vowels as "more rounded" and the production of rounded vowels as "less rounded." The IPA symbol for an unrounded vowel produced with "more rounding" is [i ̹]. In the case where a normally rounded vowel becomes "less rounded," the appropriate IPA symbol (i.e., [u̜]) would be used. Ball and Müller (2005) recommend the use of existing IPA vowel symbols when transcribing vowel rounding errors. For instance, if a child produces a rounded version of /i/, it would be appropriate to use the IPA symbol /y/, which is the symbol for a rounded, high front vowel (refer to Figure 2.1). This phoneme is not found in English but can be found in other languages such as German and French. Similarly, the IPA symbol for an unrounded version of the high back vowel /u/ would be /ɯ/, a vowel common in Korean. Because these IPA symbols are not common in English, you will need to refer to the IPA vowel chart in order to determine the rounded/unrounded counterparts of the English vowels.

Aspiration of Stops [pʰ]

Recall from Chapter 6 that aspiration is a frictional noise burst associated with the release of voiceless plosives. Aspiration occurs only in stops in the initial position of stressed syllables. Examples of aspiration occur in the words "pass" [pʰæs], "torn" [tʰɔɹn], "kiss" [kʰɪs], "atone" [ətʰoʊn], and "repay" [ɹəpʰeɪ]. Released voiceless stops at the ends of words may be aspirated as well, as in "leap" [lipʰ], "snake" [sneɪkʰ], and "right" [ɹaɪtʰ]. Aspiration does notnormally occur when a voiceless stop follows the fricative /s/, as in "spoon," "scat," or "stood." If an aspirated stop does occur in this phonetic environment due to a speech sound disorder, it should be marked appropriately, as in "spoon" [spʰun].

Nasalization [æ̃]

Recall from Chapter 6 that vowels may become nasalized in the presence of nasal consonants. For example, in the word "mean," the vowel /i/ is surrounded by two nasal phonemes. The velum lowers during the production of the initial consonant /m/ and remains lowered throughout the word (for articulatory efficiency) because the final phoneme /n/ also is a nasal. The result is a nasalized vowel, as in [mı̃n]. The following words also have nasalized vowels due to the nasal environment provided by /m/, /n/, or /ŋ/: "hang" [hæ̃ŋ], "in" [ ɪ̃n], "mom" [mɑ̃m], and both vowels in "roomy" [rũmɪ̃] and "any" [ɛ̃nɪ̃ ]. The effects of nasalization can also be seen across word boundaries as in "I can eat" [aɪ kæn ı̃t]. Note that nasalization can be regressive, progressive, or a combination of both (as in the word "mom"). Some children with cochlear implants show vowel nasalization preceding a nasal consonant, as predicted, but delete the consonant, as in "comb" [kʰo͠ʊ] (Teoh & Chin, 2009). In the transcription of disordered speech, this diacritic is also used to indicate the presence of excessive nasality associated with the production of non-nasal phonemes. This condition is known as hypernasal resonance or hypernasality. Hypernasality may be due to improper velopharyngeal closure. The presence of hypernasality may be evident throughout an entire production of a word or an utterance.

addition

an extra sound is added to the intended word. less common in general

substitution processes

The replacement of one class of phonemes for another. - stopping, fronting, deaffrication, gliding, vocalization

Unaspirated Stops [p=]

The symbol [ = ] is placed above and to the right of unaspirated voiceless stops. Unaspirated stops are most common when they occur immediately following the fricative /s/, as in the words "spin" [sp=ɪn] or "escape" [əsk=eɪp̚]. Although stops may be unaspirated, they may still be released. Both of the unaspirated stops in "spin" and "escape" are released. Young children and children with phonological disorders may not aspirate initial stop consonants at the beginning of words as expected. When an aspirated stop is produced without aspiration, it may sound to a listener as a voiced stop. For instance, "pan" [p=æn] might sound like "ban" /bæn/. Therefore, it is important to listen carefully to make sure your transcription is adequate. This is a misperception quite prone to transcription error (Louko & Edwards, 2001). Additionally, unaspirated voiceless stops are typically seen in the initial position of words in some Asian languages such as Vietnamese and Filipino. This will be discussed further in Chapter 9.

Fricatives [ɸ, β, x, ɣ, ħ, ʢ, ʕ]

There are several IPA symbols for non-English fricatives that may be used in transcription of speech sound disorders. For example, bilabial and velar fricatives may be produced by some children with phonological disorders, including children with hearing loss (Louko & Edwards, 2001; Stoel-Gammon, 1983; Teoh & Chin, 2009). The bilabial fricatives [ɸ] (voiceless) and [β] (voiced) may be substituted for the labiodental fricatives /f/ and /v/, respectively. Similar to the labiodental fricatives, /f/ and /v/, the bilabial fricatives are non-strident (low intensity) and have a similar acoustic structure. Examples of bilabial fricative substitutions include "giraffe" [dəwæɸ] and "shovel" [dʌβoʊ] (Louko & Edwards, 2001). Similarly, the velar fricatives /x/ (voiceless) and /ɣ/ (voiced) may be produced as a substitute for the velar stops /k/ and /g/. This is a substitution also seen in cleft palate speech. The velar fricatives are produced when full closure for the stops does not occur (Louko & Edwards, 2001). Some examples of velar fricative substitutions include "cat" /xæt/ or /ɣæt/, "game" /ɣem/, and "lecture" [lɛɣʒu]. In some cleft palate speakers, the fricatives /s, z, ʃ, or ʒ/ are backed and produced as pharyngeal fricatives (Trost-Cardamone & Bernthal, 1993). The IPA symbols for the pharyngeal fricatives are [ħ] (voiceless) and [ʕ] (voiced). Trust-Cardamone (2009)recommends the use of the symbol [ʢ] instead of [ħ] for the voiceless pharyngeal fricative. Some examples include "sheep" [ʢı̃p] (or [ħı̃p]) and "measure" [mɛ̃ʕɚ].

Raised, Lowered [ ̝, ̞ ]

These diacritics can be placed beneath a vowel when there is a change in the height dimension associated with that vowel. The change in tongue height may be the result of a particular dialectal pronunciation of a vowel or as a result of a speech disorder. The symbol [ ̝] indicates that a vowel is produced with the body of the tongue raised more than expected for that particular vowel. For instance, if an adult attempts to produce the vowel /ɛ/, but raises the tongue higher than expected (but not so high as to produce /ɪ/), the transcription would be [ɛ̝]. Likewise, production of /ʊ/ with a lowered tongue position would be transcribed as [ʊ̞], as long as the production does not result in articulation of the vowel /o/.

Advanced/Retracted [k̟]/[t̠]

These two symbols are used to indicate a variation in tongue position associated with phoneme production. For example, when a consonant is produced with the tongue more forward in the oral cavity than normal (advanced), the symbol [̟] is used. Narrow transcription of the word "key" would be [k̟i] because the /k/ (normally produced with the body of the tongue in the velar region) is produced closer to the palate due to the environment provided by the front vowel /i/ (regressive assimilation). When a consonant is produced with the tongue farther back than normal (retracted), the symbol [̠] is used. When the alveolar stops /t/ or /d/ precede /ɹ/, their place of articulation becomes postalveolar (closer to the palate) because /ɹ/ is a palatal phoneme. Some examples include "true" [t̠ɹu] and "dry" [d̠ɹaɪ] (regressive assimilation). Because of the backed articulation of these consonants, the words "true" and "dry" may appear to sound like /tʃɹu/ and /dʒɹaɪ/, respectively. These two symbols may also be used to indicate a variation in tongue advancement associated with vowel production. The change in articulation may be due to dialectal variation or a speech sound disorder. The change would involve the front/back dimension. For example, a retracted production of /æ/ would be transcribed as [æ̠], indicating that the vowel is farther back than would be expected, but not so far back as to result in the production of the vowel /ɑ/. Similarly, an advanced production of /ɑ/, that is [ɑ̟], would be farther forward than normal, but not enough to result in production of /æ/.

Voicing [t̬]

This diacritic is used when a voiceless phoneme is produced with partial voicing. A good example of voicing occurs when using the tap [ɾ] in the transcription of words such as "better" [bɛɾɚ] and "kitty" [kɪɾɪ]. In these words, the voiceless /t/ becomes partially voiced due to the voiced environment provided by the surrounding phonemes. However, the assimilation does not result in production of the voiced phoneme /d/. Some people use the diacritic for voicing instead of a tap when transcribing words such as "better" [bɛt̬ɚ] or "kitty" [kɪt̬ɪ]. Another example of partial voicing may occur in some pronunciations of the words "pester" [pɛs̬tɚ], "mister" [mɪs̬tɚ], and "Leslie" [lɛs̬lɪ].

Velarized [ɫ]

Velarization occurs when the alveolar consonant /l/ is produced in the velar region of the vocal tract. This production of /l/ is said to be velarized or "dark." /l/ becomes velarized in the postvocalic position of most words, as in "ball" and "eagle." The diacritic commonly used for velarization is a tilde through the middle of the phoneme, as in [bɑɫ] and [igɫ̩]. The velarized [ɫ] is found in all occurrences of syllabic [l̩], as in "little" [lɪɾɫ̩] and "bagel" [beɪɡɫ̩]. Keep in mind that [ɫ] and [l̩] are separate allophones of /l/. Velarized [ɫ] is sometimes found to occur at the beginning of words. This may occur as a matter of speaking style, or it may be associated with a speech sound disorder. Some hearing-impaired children produce [ɫ] at word onset as in "leave" [ɫiv] or "leg" [ɫɛɡ]. Word-initial [ɫ] may sound as if it is preceded by /ɡ/ due to the velarized /l/, as in "love" [ɡɫʌv]

omission

a sound is left out from the production of a word

6-7 years

adult standard speech; sibilants perfected