Political Theory Midterm

1.) Why does Rousseau think all human beings are equal in the state? 2.) In the State of Nature, what natural group do humans find themselves in? 3.) True or false. According to Rousseau, property rights first arise in the state of nature, before all society. 4.) What is Rousseau's name for the kind of egocentrism that drives human beings into conflict and inequality?

-All are self-sufficient -None. -False. -Amour propre.

1.) After he is found Guilty, Socrates proposes a punishment for himself of: 2.) At the end of his conversation with Crito, Socrates decides to:

-Being treated like an Olympian. (free room and board plus free food) paid for by the state. -Remain in jail and submit to the state.

1.) Locke says that the limits on the accumulation of property are: 2.) True or false: According to Locke, the State of Nature is ALWAYS a state of war. 3.) What is the Supreme power of government according to Locke? 4.) The right of the Executive to act without explicit authorization from the Legislature in times of need is called.

-Leave enough and as good for others -False -Legislative Power -Perogative

1.) Aristotle defines human beings as what kind of animals. 2.) True or False: Aristotle thinks all kind of slavery is unnatural. 3.) A citizen of the state, according to Aristotle is: 4.) What is NOT one of the good regimes according to Aristotle?

-Political animals (Zoon Politikon) -False -Someone who is eligible to hold office in a state. -Democracy.

Gettysburg Address, Second Inaugural Address

Author: Abraham Lincoln What is the cause of the Civil War according to Lincoln in his Second Inaugural Address? Slavery. G.A: Dedicated us to project of self-government. Unfinished project of citizenship; ongoing sacrifice. S.I: Centrality of slavery as cause of Civil War. Original sin -- all the way back to the early colonists. Debt. Need for mutual sacrifice. The American project as a project of self-government. Self-government depends on mutual relationship.

Politics

Author: Aristotle 1.) How does Aristotle define human beings? The essential part of the polis, for which it exists. Zoon politikon: a political animal. Speech and reason for specific purposes, no other animals have this ability. 2.) What distinguishes a citizen from a non-citizen, according to Aristotle? Being a part of the political process. 3.) What is the Constitution of the State, according to Aristotle? Constitutions shows who gets to be a citizen. Should contribute to thriving polis, all have different ends. 4.) What distinguishes a good type of government from a bad type of government in Book III of Politics? Good must be for the people (all of the people) Bad state only ruled for governing class. 5.) In Chapter 9 of Book III, what is the end of the polis(city-state)? When one stops taking part in politics. Method: Studies all that can be known. Breaks world into its components and parts. The scientific method before it was coined the scientific method. Things defined by their function. Must fulfill their function/ their end. Teleology (their end): Human nature points to life in cities. Zoon politikon. Politics maintains link between knowledge and virtue. There is theoretical knowledge (think 2+2=4), practical knowledge (more fuzzy) and craft knowledge (skill think craftsmen). Akrasia: Different parts of the soul/ city. Knowledge previously stated as one thing. Polis has most influence over individuals. Knowledge of politics is key to good life and human flourishing. Origin of Polis: Necessity is the driving force; first relationships: Master-slave which is male over female; not relationship of equals (anti-egalitarian); household is first community; emergence of the city-state. Living well is to discuss justice. Self-sufficiency: ruling the household. Slavery is natural since there is natural inequality in a state, and is essential in politics. Politics require leisure. To focus on inequality serves a function to Aristotle provides leisure to think about the good. Vestigial: Having attained a simple structure and reduced size and function during the evolution of the species. Good states: Kingship, aristocracy (rule by the few), polity (group of people united. Bad states: Tyranny, oligarchy and democracy. Two metaphors of the feast. Potluck or master chef. Notable Quotes: Community that "has the most authority", "Comes to be for the sale of living, but it remains in existence for the sale of living well" citizenship as friendship "living well" "common good"

Anti Federalist B

Author: Brutus I Give three reasons why Brutus favors a Small Republic and fears a large one. States become subordinates, can't trust central government. Large government cannot articulate/ discern the common good -- no such thing as common good on that scale. A common good requires small, homogeneous community. Large society means inevitability of conflicting interest. Trust replaced with force. "Supreme law of the land"

Anti Federalist C

Author: Centennial I Importance of individual liberties. Can't trust central power. Helps uphold self-government. Virtuous citizens are vital to maintaining democracy.

Federalist #51

Author: James Madison, Hamilton, Jay Making powerful government responsive. Separation of powers ambition counters ambition. Using human nature not changing it. Enough power to complete; not conquer when it comes to 3 branches of government.

Federalist #10

Author: James Madison, Hamilton, Jay What is Publius's preferred method for checking the danger of factions in Federalist 10? Replacing virtue with constitutional design. The danger of factions (cannot be eliminated; causes of faction sewn into human nature) Hobbesian account of politics. Government must contend with and mitigate the effect of faction. Representative government (representatives resist factions; virtue insufficient; extend the sphere; multiply interests to prevent the emergence of a major faction)

Second Discourse (Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men)

Author: Jean-Jacques Rousseau 1.) According to Rousseau, are human beings equal in the state of nature? Why or why not? Because all are self-sufficient (amour de-soi) 2.) What is the origin of inequality, according to Rousseau? Society. 3.) In the Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, what does Rousseau think is the main responsibility of currently existing governments? Society. 4.) In Social Contract, what is the General Will? The common good; the true desires of the society. Negative freedom individual freedom from. "What is the origin of inequality among people and is it authorized by natural law?" Anti-Enlightenment. Society is origin of inequality; it's a perversion of nature; government is bad; society is bad; makes us aggressive and violent. Human nature is decline in society; society corrupts our nature. Rethinking enlightenment accounts of human nature and state of nature. Undoing equality. Introducing happiness. Human nature changes it is not fixed. Society makes human beings worse off. Rousseau know the state of nature never really existed, but we must get out of it. Or are we projecting corrupted modern humans backward. Society not natural makes us fearful, appetitive, and violent. Clarifying our moral intuition and beliefs. Human equality is based on self-sufficiency; physical self-sufficiency (powerful, healthy and robust); society weakens us. Mental: Simple intellects, no relationships, no complex thought/language. Amour de-soi: Simple self-preservation. Natural pity; no conflict; no interactions, no obligations, no moral law. Perfect freedom. Perfect match between our desires and our abilities. No such thing as owning the Earth. State of nature is a state of perfect freedom. Harmony between desires and abilities. Resisting desire. Human nature changes us. Property is a sign of mutual enslavement. Isolation cannot and does not last. Origin of society of relationship introduce comparisons. Better and Worse, More and Less. The desire for esteem generates loss of psychological self-sufficiency. Society changes human nature and introduces new needs. Those with more control those with less. Esteem can only come from others. Creates conflict/ relationships of inequality. Want the esteem. Amour-Propre: The desire to be esteemed by others. Communication makes us bad. Desire for esteem drives us to desire more goods to gain more esteem. Accountability of more goods and desire for more introduces new needs. Desire to satisfy new needs develop skills, intelligence, strength. Sources of inequality: Different ability means to satisfy new desires introduce conflict and divergent roles and status. Requires laws of justice and property. Inequality becomes recognized and established by law. Property not reserving natural rights. Property rights are a ruse to legitimize and make permanent the superiority of rich over poor. Stabilizing the conflict that emerges from new human nature. To enter into civil society is to relinquish our freedom. All are enslaved by the origin of property: rich and poor. Rich need others for esteem. Poor depend on rich for goods; middle need both. Loss of freedom is the internal transaction into fearful, appetitive, uncertain, depends on individual. Conflict/ competition comes from internal change generated on external circumstance. Human nature changes you leading you to treat people differently. Unhappiness manifest internally and is shown externally. Social Contract: Complex, paradoxical account of freedom and authority. Paradoxes include to be forced to be free. Direct democracy (not a fan of representative democracy) Also authoritarian. Positive freedom = "forced to be free" Negative freedom - freedom from outside interference or force; other citizens or the government. Positive freedom - Freedom TO participate/ pursue the good. X is free from Y to do or become Z. People (X) are free from internal restraints (Y) to do or become self-sufficient (Z). Freedom from dependency comes through participation in self-government. Freedom is obedience to self-legislated law. Social Contract establishes a self-legislating community. Unconditional/ irrevocable surrender. Freedom is being ruled by the General Will. General Will: The objective common good for all citizens. What we really want; not the false desires given by current society and government. Political community is singular and indivisible. Is private wills vs. will of all. Is perfect cannot be err. Being forced to follow G.W. is being forced to be free. Government must protect G.W; will of all can be unjust. All individuals should submit to the G.W. Sovereignty cannot be delegates/ representatives; cannot be divided. Need for legislator? Laws reshape human nature (again) Virtuous citizens put general will first. Not just laws but also mores (habit of mind, habit of thought). Habits of thought/ mind that work prior to law. Small, equal, self-sufficient political community. Make sure G.W. rules through government, policies, institutions may not be enough. Notable Quotes: "Forced to be free"; "One sovereign will" Rousseau's claim, "The first person who, having enclosed a plot of land, took into his head to say, "This is mine," and found people simple enough to believe hum, was the true founder of civil society", "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains", "petulant activity of our amour propre", "knows how to live only in the opinion of others", "Consuming ambition, the seal for raising the relative level of his fortune, less out of real need than in order to put himself above others", "A wicked tendency to harm on another, a secret jealousy".

Two Treatises on Government

Author: John Locke 1.) According to Locke, how do we know the Law of Nature? Bound only by natural law. Rights and law not in tension. Every individual can and should enforce natural law in state of nature. Natural right of enforcement and repair (must enforce if sees conflict). Reason and God gives us Natural law. Natural law is known by all and thus in effect. 2.) Are there any limits to the right to acquire property? What are they? Leave enough and as good for others. 3.) In line 88, how does Locke describe the purpose of political society? Political society exists to maintain natural law. Majority rule. 4.) According to Locke, what is the supreme power in government? The Legislative Branch. Combined will of all the people. Only source of legislative law. Limited to specific purposes (protecting rights), revocable, represent legislature 5.) Give one example of an act that might cause government to be dissolved. What happens when government is dissolved? Limited, revocable grant of consent. Only agree to obey government if it is legitimate. Legitimate only when: it uses duly delegated powers, for ends explicitly agreed to, otherwise it is illegitimate, no duty to obey an illegitimate government or government agent, broken contract (contract is the ONLY source of political authority. When trust is eroded than government becomes less legitimate. The Right to Revolution vs Actual Revolution. Rejects divine right to rule. Argues for limited government. Human beings have rights prior to government. Offers fully fledged liberal political theory. In liberalism the individual is the primary unit of analysis; the state exists for the sake of individual. Politics is instrumental. State has definite, limited functions. States preserves negative freedoms (should be freedom from). Natural rights: Life, liberty and property. Negative vs. positive freedom (should be freedom to). Human nature is: -Fundamentally rational, reason gives us substantial natural law, equality why? We all are rational and all are creates of God. Natural law exists and is binding in the state of nature. State of Nature is state of freedom. Locke: We are the enforcement mechanism for state of nature. Property is so important to Locke. Property: -The foundation of human happiness and security -Ownership of our bodies -"Mixing labor makes something mine" -Labor multiplies value of property; no spoiling; money allows us to circumvent; property makes possible life, happiness, family, stability and all the other good things in life. -Property allows us other things. State of Nature is naturally a state of peace. State of irrational: Mistaken reason, self-interest causes us to misjudge interest for reason and introduces conflict making the state of war arise. War is likely but a regrettable error. Tasks of gov: End state of war AND preserve (as far as possible) our natural rights (especially our rights to property). Government should minimize constraits on us and maximize freedoms. Origin of Government: Social Contract which is a two stage contract. First civil society and then government. Civil society exists without government and prior to government. One body: Majority rule. Government has orgin in the consent of people. Consent is REVOCABLE. Express vs. tacit consent. Agreements = civil society. Disagreement does not lead to factions. Government makes our rights secure; people with specific problems. Can reverse consent (abuse of powers). Separation of church and state. Want to get things back from the government. Tacit consent: Consented to remain but we are free to leave. If you choose to stay certain benefits make you leave to fight wars. Government chosen by the people. Given clear power. Clear statement of law - legislative. Reliable enforcement mechanism - executive. Neutral arbiter of disputes - judicial. Remedies the "defects" of the state of nature. Leaving the state of nature our rights/powers change. Give up absolute power to act on, interpret and enforce our rights. Relinquish our executive and legislative. First to majority then to government. Got more secure enjoymet of other natural rights in return. Life, property, happiness, estate, etc. Replacing with human law, written law. Gives rights up, but what is given back is much greater. Give up only those powers and rights necessary to make our life, liberty, and property more secure. We consent to give government only certain power and to obey it only when it is using those powers properly. Specific grants of power. Specific ends to which that power may be put (teleology) Executive Power: Separation of powers, subservient to legislative, executive perogative "Appeal to Heaven", executive has power to start violence Notable Quotes: "Writ in the hearts of all Mankind", "Enough and as Good" (property

A Model of Christian Charity

Author: John Winthrop 1.) According to Winthrop in "A Model of Christian Charity", what is the purpose of government and of the colony they are founding? The relationship of citizenship and God. Natural inequality turned to equality by the practice of Christian citizenship. City requires extraordinary virtue. Warning of God's judgement. "A city on a hill". Depend as a source of interconnection and social solidarity (we all need each other). Citizenship as kinship "Brotherhood" Political/religious equality replacing natural inequality. Going beyond what one is required to do. Internalizing the love of others is essential to citizenship. Covenant bond (The Polity matters mare than the individual). Origin of American Exceptionalism: "America is the best!" The Puritan project is exceptionally trying. But it is divinely commanded. God can reward and punish. To be exceptional is to have a special duty. Exceptionalism for Winthrop cannot be assumed it must be constantly demonstrated. Vigilance and sacrifice.

The Last Days of Socrates: Apology and Crito

Author: Plato 1.) What are the formal charges against Socrates? Impiety and corruption of the youth. (not respecting Gods; moral undermining) 2.) Why does Socrates think he has been accused? Since he stands out he must be silenced. 3.) How does Socrates describe his role in the city-state? Thinks his advice is essential for democracy but he is not a member of the democracy. 4.) In Apology, why does Socrates claim he will not give up his life of philosophy? The Gods bestowed upon him this gift he can't waste it. 5.) Give one reason Crito thinks that Socrates should escape. Give Socrates's response to that reason. People will think Socrates's friends don't care about him. He is helping state do an injustice and abandoning his family. He must commit to the state and ignore public opinion to focus on justice. Addressing state as a single entity. 6.) In one sentence each, summarize the Laws' three arguments to Socrates. Elenchus = form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presumptions. One: Obligation based on familial bonds. The state has raised Socrates like a parent raises a child. Is owed the obedience of a child due to the benefits it has provided. If you do not obey the state, you will die. Democratic legitimacy: Persuade or obey. Two: Argument and consent. Socrates voluntary stayed. Implicit contract with the laws. Three: Costs of injustice. Leaving would be unjust and he would be known to be unjust. Unsettling all truths but not replacing them with new ones. Purpose of state is to debate justice. If innocent jeopardizes Athenian democracy and the justice system. He never really apologizes he explains the reasoning behind why he was put on trial. Utilizes aporia which is a state of unsettledness, new definition but not destroying old message. Does not replace moral virtues. He is undermining democracy since no results/ knowledge are revealed. Socratic Paradoxes: Disavowal of knowledge (no human beings have wisdom) virtue is the same as wisdom. Knowledge and evil. No harm can befall a good individual. "I know that I know nothing" (disavowal of knowledge) Human knowledge is worthless but Socrates does discuss moral knowledge. Believes participation in politics. Focus is on the soul: most important things for human beings is to care for the soul (it is your legacy). Importance of virtue; virtue as knowledge. Notable Quotes: "Nothing can harm a good man in life or after death..." HE'S A GADFLY. Socrates higher standard is wisdom. He is the antagonist of trial and democracy.

Antigone

Author: Sophocles 1.) What is the basis of Creon's claim to authority? Who does he think he represents? Nomos which is human law or the law of the state. So he thinks he represents the people of the state. Friendship bonds stronger than familial/ blood ties Must preserve civic duties Justice, laws are juste. Creon wants stability does not matter what the law of God say. 2.) What is the basis of Antigone's claim? Why does she think she has the right to bury her brother? Direct claim of Gods respecting dead family. Must obey even with conflict of laws of state. Family more important than human laws. Antigone is arbiter between Gods and state. Serves as a liaison. Gap between what the Gods desire and the state law. Follows "internal laws" Family and state intertwined. 3.) Why does Haemon think Creon should change course? Creon is being incredibly selfish in his rule and Haemon straight up tells him that. 4.) Why does Creon finally change his mind? He figures out how close-minded he is being and decides to change his ways. The Chorus guides commentary, Sophocles wants Athenians to "reflect and learn". Creon and Antigone is a question of fundamental beliefs. -Notable quotes: when Antigone discusses the difference if it had been a husband or a different family member since they can be replaced; her parents are dead so no way to replace brother. Absolutist stance on politics and lack of communication between Antigone and Creon is demonstrated.

The Leviathan

Author: Thomas Hobbes 1.) In Chapter 11, Hobbes describes his conception of the motivating force, "the general inclination", in human life. What is it? Desire. Desire to avoid pain. Fear is the dominate motive force in human life. The fear or anxiety of not getting what you desire goes along with this. 2.) Why does the State of Warre naturally arise, according to Hobbes? There is no common authority. No one person can rise up because someone will want to stop them. No communication, no trust no relationships. The only rational response is to gain as much power as possible. All about reputation. 3.) Who or what sets the Law of Nature for Hobbes? The Sovereign. 4.) Is the Sovereign part of the Covenant that forms government? Why or why not? Yes since they have absolute power. 5.) Describe the responsibilities of the Sovereign according to Hobbes. Government is called into existence to enforce agreements and uphold the natural law. One will and one desire. Shift towards liberal political theory: Focus on individual, state composed of individual, state exists for individual, state justified to individual. Is an authoritarian because absolute government necessary to give individual what they need/ what they want. Method: Rejection of the scholastic assumption; breaking the world down into smaller parts (Scientific Method think Aristotle) usage of deductive reasoning to unexpected conclusions (broad to the specific) Materialism (matter is what composes the world.) Human beings are matter in motion. All impulses, emotions and actions are explained through matter in motion. Driven by Desire. Individuals ruled by desire and thus conflict arises. Absolute power needed to contain conflict. Once desire ends we don't exist. Government solves the problems we have in the State of Nature. Social Contract is needed to form government (Rousseau) Rational kill the other person before they kill you. Has a realist pessimistic view. Want influence and prestige over others. Human equality (we can all kill each other ,we can all outsmart each other) Fallible, equal, appetitive humans inevitably came into conflict. Self-interested individual in constant conflict. No authority over them. The right of nature is to do whatever is necessary to protect your life. You must preserve your life. Natural law: Conditional: requires cooperation if it is be binding. First Law: Seek peace. Second Law: Be willing to lay down your right of nature if others are also willing to do so. Point toward social contract. Mutual agreement to surrender rights in exchange for mutual security. Natural constrains natural right (all about survival) Natural law must be obeyed for societal stability. Mutual agreement to surrender some rights is limited by the requirement to preserve life. Cannot surrender the right to resist to preserve life. Contract creates idea of justice and injustice. No concept of justice prior to civil society requires an enforcement mechanism. Must have neutral party. Natural law = conditional pretenses to get out of state of nature. Mutual agreement to surrender rights in exchange for mutual security. Natural law is what we must do if we want to have a stable society in which contracts are honored and peace is possible. If you want peace, then you must surrender your rights, so long as others do the same. Contract creates no idea of justice and injustice. Though an absolutist, Hobbes is justifying government in terms of consent/agreement. Not natural/divinely sanctioned. Transforms a multitude of individuals into one persons. One will and one desire. Contract is between individuals not between individuals and governments. Surrender rights and judgement to a third party -- the Sovereign. Sovereign power is unlimited. Contract is irrevocable. Sovereign is the logical solution to the problems of the State of Nature. Only absolute power can be sure the Natural Law is upheld and that conflict (state of warre) does not reture. Citizens retain one right: Right to resist efforts to kill them. No people outside the government can resist. Civil and natural law the same according to Hobbes. Notable Quotes: "solitary, poore, nasty, brutish and short"

U.S. Constitution

Author: Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, etc Preamble: "We the people..." What does the Const. do? Procedural recipe for COLLECTIVE SELF-RULE. Self-government prior to individual liberties. The importance of thee preamble (the people as the main actor; importance of common effort to realize common goods; emphasis on equality) Citizenship as a central political responsibility. Const. means as principle way to carry that out. As opposed to virtue/ ethics of citizenship.

The Declaration of Independence

Author: Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, Roger Sherman, Benjamin Franklin and Robert Livingston Who is the Declaration of Independence addressed to? The 13 colonies, England, "A Candid World" Drafting/writing: Jefferson. Congress as whole. Created in a specific moment for a specific purpose for a specific group of people. Collectively drafted/ edited. Disagreement/compromise. Jefferson lead community. Objectives of the D.O.I: Model of liberal political thought in action, creating a new nation (but out of a people that claimed to already exist), separation and equal people ("The people" as the actor, moral statuses of "the people") Structure of D.O.I: Preamble. Major premise (Statement of general principles; government exists for specific purpose; if it fails to accept these, revolution is justified). Minor premise ("Long train of abuses and usurpation...", specific charges; English failures to satisfy general principles.) Defense of prior Actions (Petition for Redress) Conclusion: Declaring independence. Life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness. Arguments of D.O.I: Self-Evident truths (an appeal to intuition and reason). Instrumental/ individualistic account of government (But recurrence of "the people; Government and Revolution is an ongoing project; the people engaged in ongoing evaluation and direction). Continual revision tempered by realistic expectations. Requirements of Self-Government According to D.O.I: The Charges (undermining self-government) 18 (or 25) grievances almost entirely about self- government. Self-government as the context of liberty. Focus on political equality (equal citizenship) Political equality makes political liberty possible. The full meaning of "no taxation without representation".

Mayflower Compact

Author: William Bradford 11/11, 1620 aboard the Mayflower. 70 years before Locke's Two Treatises. Puritans and strangers; express consent "ideologically imposement", express ends/ means for government. Just Laws "General good of the colony" Covenant vs. contract.