Project Management - Masterset

What suggestions are made to address essential difficulties of a software construction task? (Brooks)

1. Buy instead of build 2. Rapid prototyping in establishing software requirements 3. Growing software organically/incrementally 4. Identify/develop great conceptual designers

How can you compare alternatives in projects using NPV?

1. Calculate net cash flow per year = total cash inflow - total cash outflow 2. Calculate discounted cash flow = net cash flow/(1+discount rate)^year 3. Sum up discounted cash flow of all years = NPV. Only a project with a positive NPV should be considered.

What are the 5 general conditions that foster and support self-managing software teams? (Hackman)

1. Clear, engaging direction 2. Enabling performing unit structure 3. Supportive org. context 4. Available, expert coaching 5. Adequate resources To succeed in self-managing agile team, project manager must enable all conditions.

What are the 4 properties of a software problem? (Brooks)

1. Complexity = function of the of number components (volume), the number of types of components (variety), the number of attributes (depth), and number of relations (dependencies). 2. Conformity = conform to external expectations and norms, which differ between contexts 3. Changeability = software can and must be changed post-production 4. Invisibility = software is abstract, not embedded in space and time. No 1 natural representation of structure.

Why are requirements challenges seen as inherent and risky for any system design effort? (Jarke)

1. Complexity of design task 2. Limits to human information processing 3. Intricate interaction between designers and intended users

What are the 8 steps of developing a business case?

1. Define Measurable Organizational Value 2. Form cross-functional business case team 3. Identify alternatives 4. Define feasibility and assess risk 5. Define total cost of ownership 6. Define total benefits of ownership 7. Analyze alternatives 8. Propose and support recommendation

What are 3 recommendations to improve IT projects for governments? (Elias Committee)

1. Demonstrate added value for end-users and society 2. Create support among all stakeholders and test org./tech. feasibility 3. Use transparent bid-for-tender in PID. Make func. req. compulsory. PID = project initiation documentation

What are the 4 attributes of a good business case?

1. Details all possible impacts, costs, and benefits 2. Clear and logical in comparing cost/benefit impact of each alternative 3. Objectively includes all pertinent information 4. Systematic in terms of summarizing findings

What are the 5 principles of the Lean Startups approach? (Ries)

1. Entrepreneurs are everywhere 2. Entrepreneurship is management 3. Validated learning 4. Build-measure-learn 5. Innovation accountability

What are the 10 project success factors (Standish Group Chaos Report)?

1. Executive sponsorship 2. Emotional maturity 3. User involvement 4. Optimization 5. Skilled staff 6. SAME 7. Agile proficiency 8. Modest execution 9. Project mgt expertise 10. Clear business objectives

What 3 point of criticism have been made on estimating software development cost using FP?

1. FPA not universally applicable to all software. 2. FP metrics derived from a set of steps, rules, and formulas. 3. Largely manual proces.

Why is developing IT for government hard?

1. Gvt not in control of IT projects 2. Politicians don't realize IT is everywhere 3. Gvt does not fulfill IT objectives (!) 4. Lack of accountability and decision making structure (!) 5. Insufficient insight in costs and benefits (high complexity) (!) 6. Lack of IT knowledge 7. IT project management is weak 8. Perverse bid-for-tender procedures 9. Non-professional contract management (hard to monitor outsourcing) 10. Lack of learning ability (!) are factors showing the main reason why IT dev for government is hard = the customer doesn't know what they want, which requires a dialogue.

What are the 5 benefits of agile?

1. Increased team productivity and satisfaction 2. Less waste 3. Increased customer engagement and satisfaction, less risk 4. Broadens org. experience and mutual trust and respect 5. Allows senior managers to devote themselves to higher-value work

What 4 items are now perceived as more valuable thanks to Agile over bureaucratic software dev?

1. Individuals and interactions 2. Working software 3. Customer collaboration 4. Responding to change

What are the 4 new principles that will underlie succesful design and RE? (Jarke)

1. Intertwine requirements with organizational/business contexts 2. Evolve designs and ecologies = designs are evolving elements in an ecology 3. Manage through architectures 4. Recognize and mitigate against design complexity

What are the characteristics of a design cycle?

1. Iterative: learn from mistakes 2. Activities are Analyze, Design, Implement, Test 3. All activities affect each other.

How do you address complexity? What does not work?

1. Little by little 2. Loosely coupled architecture: limited number of interconnections 3. Centralization 4. Standardization: hub-and-spoke 5. Reuse systems Brooks law: Adding manpower to a late software project makes it later because (1) new members need to learn, and existing resources are taken away from development to teach new members & (2) increase in communication overhead.

What 3 challenges characterize the effectiveness of software teams? (Dyba)

1. Must find effective ways of collaboration, knowledge sharing, and problem solving. 2. Requires expertise to exercise appropriate combinations of control strategies during project execution. 3. Must be capable dealing with ambiguous, uncertain project tasks.

What are the 12 Agile principles? (manifesto)

1. Satisfy consumer 2. Welcome changing requirements 3. Deliver working software frequently 4. Business people and developers work together 5. Give the team support they need 6. Face-to-face 7. Working software is the primary measure of progress 8. Team members should maintain a constant pace 9. Attention to technical excellence and good design enhances agility 10. Simplicity is essential 11. Self organizing teams produce the best architectures, requirements and designs 12. Team reflection at regular intervals

Why does scrum work?

1. Specific roles and responsibilities, clear definition of done. 2. Handles change and uncertainty: product backlog is continuously prioritized. 3. Handles complexity: decomposes larger product into sprints + excellent team

What are the 8 performance indicators for a scrum team?

1. Sprint goal success 2. Escaped defects 3. Team velocity 4. Scope change 5. Customer satisfaction 6. Team satisfaction 7. Team member turnover 8. Software quality

What are the 6 crucial practices that leaders should adopt for success with agile?

1. learn how agile really works 2. Understand where agile does or does not work 3. Start small and let the word spread 4. allow master teams to customize their practices 5. practice agile at the top, e.g. catching up with troops, speeding corporate transition, aligning departments and functions on a common vision 6. Destroy barriers to agile behaviours

What is the spiral model? (Boehm)

A systems development lifecycle model that breaks up the project into timeboxes that address one or more risks until all risks have been addressed. 4 quadrants: 1. Objectives determination and identify alternative solutions 2. Identify and resolve risk 3. Develop next version of product 4. Review and plan for next phase Each loop of the spiral is a software dev phase. Enables gradual releases and refinement. Able to manage unknown risks by creating prototypes. Completion of each iterations brings project closer to functional system

How does Agile help with addressing accidental and inherent complexity?

Accidental: e.g. removes communication issues by visualizing process Inherent: - Complexity: aim for software simplicity - Conformance: faster response - Changeability: prioritizing of product backlog - Invisibility: makes things visible via prototypes

What is software project management?

Activities that ensure that software is delivered on time, within budget, and according to requirements of the organization developing and procuring software.

What are the 5 advantages and 4 disadvantages of the Waterfall method?

Advantages: 1. Clean 2. Easy to implement, because it's step by step 3. Stable 4. Easy to point into contract 5. Suitable for large complex systems Disadvantages: 1. Takes too long to develop systems 2. Doesn't like requirements change 3. Project value can only be attained at end of project 4. No process for changing the design

What are the 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages of the spiral model?

Advantages: 1. Early attention on options involving reusing existing software 2. Eliminate errors early 3. Viable framework for integrated IS development Disadvantages: 1. Matching to contract software 2. Relying on risk-assessment expertise 3. Risk-driven specification is people-dependent

What are the 4 advantages and 3 disadvantages of the spiral model? (Boehm)

Advantages: 1. Risk handling 2. Good for large projects 3. Flexibility in requirements 4. Customer satisfaction Disadvantages: 1. Complex 2. Expensive 3. Too dependent on risk analysis, which requires experienced expertise

Why should we do Agile now? (Rigby)

Agile makes you more innovative, because it allows teams to churn out innovations faster. Companies need innovative product/services AND functional processes. Agile accelerates both.

What is XP Extreme Programming? (Beck)

Agile method where the system is transferred to the users in releases. Goal: improve software quality and responsiveness to change. Release may be developed using several iterations. Each release is a working system. XP principles: continuous feedback, simplicity, embrace change 4 activities: coding, testing, listening, designing. Based on pair programming and test-driven development.

How do you estimate software development cost using analogy estimates?

Analogy estimation = developing estimates based on one's opnion that there is a significant similarity between current and other projects, thus information for estimation is similar. 1. Based on project with most similar data 2. Average based on data from multiple projects 3. Weighted average based on data and similarity % from multiple projects

What is a business case?

Analysis of organizational value, feasibility, costs, benefits and risks of the project plan. Must provide management with the information needed to make an information decision whether a project should receive funding or go to the next phase.

What is a stakeholder?

Any person, group or organization that can place a claim on the organization's attention, resources, or output, or is affected by that output.

Why are software entities more complex than any other human construct?

Because no two parts are alike. Large number of states, which makes creation/describing/testing hard. Software complexity is an essential property rather than an accidental one. System is selection of C components which R relate to each other. This forms an E environment.

How can you compare alternatives in projects using the breakeven point?

Breakeven point = investment/net profit margin Net profit margin = selling price - cost of sale E.g. you spent 100000 on website. Product is 30, but cost of sale is 25. Profit margin is therefore 5. Breakeven point = 100000/5 = 20000 units. Useful if a certain number of transactions allow the original investment to be recovered.

What is a sprint burn-down chart and a release burn-up chart?

Burn-down chart = shows remaining work in sprint backlog, updated in daily scrum. Burn-up chart = shows progress towards scheduled release.

What is the most favourable degree of customer involvement for agile?

Close collaboration and rapid feedback are feasible. Customer know better what they want as the process progresses.

What is a use case?

Collection of related scenarios or user stories for one stakeholder. The purpose is: 1. Generate new requirements as design takes shape 2. Communicate with stakeholders 3. Generate test cases Characteristics: declarative (what) and not procedural (how), helps record hidden requirements, goal-based approach.

What types of innovations are most favourable when working with agile?

Complex problems where the solutions are unknown and the scope isn't clear. Product specs may change. Creative breakthrough and time to market are important. Cross-functional collaboration is vital.

What makes software development so hard?

Complexity - There are too many expectations and that causes unmanageable complexity. Uncertainty - The hardest single part of building a software system is deciding precisely what to build. You have to figure it out through trial and error, which means uncertainty.

What is a barrier for DevOps?

Compliance. IT auditors demand DTAP = development, test, acceptance, production practices. In DevOps you want 1 dev team, but auditors don't allow this. This means 2 things: 1. There needs to be formal roles in deployment process (segregation of duties). 2. There needs to be an environment that support these stages. Develop & test environment > Accept test environment > Production environment

What is the difference between configuration and design?

Confguration = problem closed, principles known, parts standard. Design = problem open, principles unknown, parts to be developed.

Explain COCOMO-II. (Boehm)

Constructive Cost Model. Interactive cost estimation software package that models the cost, effort and schedule for a new software development activity. Basic model = used for early rough estimates of project cost, performance, and schedule. Intermediate model = uses effort adjustment factor based on cost drivers. Calculate = FP or LOC * EAF. Detailed model = uses different effort multipliers for each phase of the project.

How do costs differ from price?

Costs = cost of developing system Price = price the system is sold for

What 3 things do you gain by forming cross-functional teams to create a business case? What are the advantages?

Cross-functional team: technical skills, business knowledge, interpersonal skills 1. Credibility 2. Alignment with organizational goals 3. Access to real costs Advantages: 1. Ownership 2. Agreement 3. Bridge buidling.

What are the 3 categories to doing Agile? (Cram and Newell)

Crusaders = adopt agile in pure form Tailors = integrate agile to fit specific circumstances Dabblers = only ceremonial agile activities along traditional approach

What is lean?

Data-driven process improvement that focuses on the removal of wastage (anything not necessary to produce product, e.g. overproduction, waiting, moving) to shorten time between order and delivery of order. 5 essential steps: 1. Identify value = what is valuable 2. Identify value stream = sequence of activities 3. Make activities flow = connected set of value-creating actions 4. Let customer pull product through process 5. Learn and improve until perfect process

How do you identify and compare alternatives when creating a business case?

Decision theory, scenario planning, AHP.

What is iterative development?

Delivering business value incrementally in time-boxed cross-discipline iterations. You test at the end of each phase.

Explain the waterfall method.

Design method that stresses a sequential and logical flow of software development activities. A lot of time and effort is spent on early requirement and design phases, because changes of additions are expensive. Phases: (1) Analysis, (2) Design, (3) Implement, (4) Test, (5) Adoption, (6) Maintenance and usage

What is the total benefit of ownership?

Direct, ongoing, and indirect benefits associated with each proposed alternative over the course of its useful life. Can arise from: - more high-value work - more accuracy and efficiency - more decision-making - more customer service Intangible benefits can be quantified by linkin g them to tangible benefits. E.g. messaging system improves communication and reduces paper-use.

What is requirements engineering? How does traceability fit in RE? (Jarke)

Discipline to capture, share, represent, analyze, negotiate, and prioritize requirements as a basis for design decisions and interventions. First what, then how. Design follows requirements. Traceability = given all features in the design, you should be able to trace from which requirement they originated. For every requirement, you should check what part of the design makes that true.

What are the 3 categories of the requirements process? (Jarke)

Discovery = what are the requirements Specification = make requirements concise/measurable Validation (correspond to real needs) and verification (software meets requirements)

What is scheduling?

Distributing time and resources over tasks. Manage dependencies using critical path. Reduce false dependencies.

What are the 7 dimensions in which agile should scale for enterprise agility?

Enterprise agility = ability of firms to sense environmental change and respond appropriately. 1. Intentional architecture 2. Lean requirements at scale 3. Systems of systems and agile release train 4. Managing highly distributed development 5. Impact on customers and operations. 6. Changing the organization 7. Measuring business performance

What are the 2 types of software technology complexity? (Brooks)

Essence = difficulties inherent in nature of the problem to be solved. Accidents = difficulties we have created and can be simplified to reduce complexity.

Explain design as a dialogue.

Exchange of ideas to balance information asymmetry. In dev project, the dev knows the domain but doesn't know the customer needs. Customer has needs, but doesn't know what system they want. Design as a dialogue enables sense-making, information seeking, deliberation (solve problem together), negotiation, and rapid prototyping. All requirements need to be satisfied by components. Components trigger new requirements. Repeat until stable and feasible.

Explain the problem that accompanies the spread of agile across functions.

Executives support and execute agile, but haven't gotten enough training to understand the approach. As such, they manage agile strategies without having the real effects that agile can deliver.

How do you analyze alternatives in business cases in terms of feasibility and potential risk?

Feasibility = is it doable/worth doing? E.g. economic, technical, organizational. Risk = what can go wrong? Likelihood * impact. Risk types: people, organizational, requirements, estimation, technology.

How do you use COCOMO for Agile?

Formula: E = a*KLOC^b(EAF) E = effort in person-months a and b = constant numbers per mode of development: - organic = small size - semi-detached = medium size - embedded = large size KLOC = estimated number of LOC * 1000 EAF = effort adjustment factor

What are functional requirements, non-functional requirements, constraints, and project issues?

Functional Req. = actions the system should perform E.g. system must have feature Non-functional req. = general properties the system should have. E.g. system should have feature Constraints = necessary conditions on the context. E.g. feature will be used by X Project issues = task assignment, resources, planning, budget. E.g. system is operational by X

Explain the following development cost estimation techniques: guestimating, delphi techniques, time boxing, top down, bottom up, planning poker.

Guestimating = estimation by guessing Delphi = let multiple experts make an estimate and show results. Let them make new estimates based on the results. Continue until a consensus is reached. Time boxing = determine how much time each task needs. Top down = estimate based on how long the project should take/cost Bottom up = estimate project cost/schedule based on how long each task takes/costs. Planning poker = people who do the work and bid the time/cost needed on each feature. Outliers need to explain their bids.

How do you address accidental difficulties?

High-level programming, time-sharing, unified programming, object-oriented programming, expert systems, graphical programming, program verification, tools, workstations.

What is Continuous *? (Fitzgerald & Stol)

Holistic endeavor, where * implies that other continuous activities may every over time which could also be positioned within the holistic view. Considers the entire software life-cycle, with 3 sub-phases: (1) business strategy & planning, (2) development, (3) operations.

Where wouldn't agile work?

Hospital and military. No room for errors.

How can you compare alternatives in projects using IRR? (Bacon)

IRR estimates profitability of potential investments by making NPV = 0 in formula. 1. Set NPV to 0 2. Determine net cash inflows 3. Determine total initial investment costs 4. Fill in formula: 0 = sum(net cash inflow for period t/(1+IRR)^period) - total initial investment costs Higher IRR is better.

What degree of work modularity is most favourable when working with agile?

Incremental developments are valuable and useable. Work can be broken into parts and conducted in rapid, iterative cycles. Late changes are manageable.

Why is spiral model called a meta model? (Boehm)

It subsumes all other SDLC models. Single loop = iterative waterfall model. stepwise approach = classic waterfall model prototyping = prototyping model evolving prototypes = evolutionary model

What is scrum? Describe the characteristics and process. (Schwaber & Beedle)

Iterative and incremental agile software development framework for managing product development. Recognizes that customers change their minds and challenges are unpredictable. Characteristics: - Split project into brief manageable sprints (2-4w, timebox) - Utilize teams better. - Develop/test software before delivery. - Handle requirements change by prioritizing backlog. - Daily meeting Process: 1. Decompose requirements (user stories) 2. Product owner prioritizes product backlog 3. Planning sprint backlog 4. Process sprint backlog 5. Test and set as done when tested and adhering to standards 6. Product increment is merged with previous results = potentially shippable product increment 7. Review and retrospective

What is measurable organizational value? What are the 6 steps of defining measurable organizational value of a project?

MOV = long-term strategic project goal for the entire organization. Must be (1) measurable, (2) valuable, (3) agreed upon, (4) verifiable. Supported by scope, schedule, budget, quality. 1. Identify area of impact: customer, strategic, financial, operational, social 2. Identify organizational value 3. Develop metric 4. Set time frame for achieving MOV 5. Verify and get agreement from project stakeholders 6. Summarize MOV clearly and concisely E.g. within 3 months, 65% of customers will visit restaurant at least once a week.

What are the 5 characteristics of Agile being a potential management fashion? (Cram and Newell)

Management fashion = jump on a bandwagon. 1. Norm of progress 2. Norm of rationality 3. Socio-psychological forces 4. Techno-economic forces 5. Innovation devolution

What is agile project management? (Dyba)

Managing the impact of complexity and uncertainty on a project, recognizing: 1. Need for shorter time frame between planning and execution 2. Planning and action does not provide all details of its implementation 3. Creativity and learning are necessary to make sense of the environment Principles: - minimum critical specification = no more should be specified than necessary, team identifies what is critical to success - autonomous teams - no redundancy = member should have more than 1 skill - feedback and learning

What is the most favourable market environment for agile?

Market environment where customer preferences and solution options change frequently.

What are function points? How is a function point analysis used in software development cost estimation?

Metric for assess complexity of specification befroe building. It predicts effort, duration and errors. FPA breaks system into smaller components, so they can be better understood and analysed. Steps to calculate FP: 1. Per component, determine the weight for each level of complexity 2. Per component, determine the number of functional per level of complexity 3. Per functional, calculate total score = functional * weight 4. Sum up all total scores = unadjusted function points. Adjusted FP = UAF * complexity adjustment factor

How are interim mistakes viewed when working with agile?

Mistakes provide valuable learning.

Explain the devil's triangle for project success.

Once the MOV and scope, schedule and budget are agreed upon by stakeholders, the project is in balance. The project is out of balance if one of the 3 sides of the triangle (scope, schedule, budget) becomes larger than the other sides. The project manager must protect the agreed upon scope, schedule and budget.

What is the project life cycle? How does the system development life cycle fit in the PLC?

PLC focuses on activities and skills for managing a project. SDLC is a part of PLC and focuses on creating and implementing the project's deliverable (execution phase). Phases: 1. System analysis 2. Conceptual design 3. Physical design 4. Implementation and conversions 5. Operation and maintenance

How can you compare alternatives in projects using the payback method?

Payback period = initial investment/cash flow Cash flow = benefits - costs E.g. company spends 100000 and receives net cash return of 20000/year. Payback period = 100000/20000=5 years Does not consider time value of money or cash flows beyond payback period.

Explain shared decision making. (Dyba)

Product- and project-level decisions can be considered at the strategic, tactical, and operational level. Traditional decision making is governed by management across all levels, but dev team only makes decisions on operational level. In Agile, decision making for both management and dev team spans across all levels.

How can you compare alternatives in projects using scoring models?

Provide a method for comparing alternatives based on weighted scores. 1. Determine criterions 2. For each criterion, calculate the relative scoe (0-10) for each alternative 3. Assign weights to each criterion 4. For each alternative project, calculate the total score = weight criterion * score criterion

How can you compare alternatives in projects using ROI?

ROI = (expected benefits - expected costs) / expected costs E.g. project expected to cost 100000, but expected to give 115000 in benefits, ROI = (115000-100000)/100000

What is revolutionary innovation in business process reengineering? What are the 7 characterics of BPR?

Re-engineering from first principles. 1. Organize around outcomes, not tasks 2. Have those who use the output, perform the process 3. Subsume information-processing into the real work that produces the information 4. Treat geographically dispersed resources as though centralized 5. Link parallel activities instead of later integrating their results 6. Put the decision point where the work is performed, and build control into process 7. Capture information once at the source

How are risks handled in the Spiral model? (Boehm)

Risk = any adverse situation that might afect successful project completion. Most important feature of spiral model is handling unknown risks after the project has started. Risk resolutions are easier done by analyzing product and creating prototypes in each phase of the model. Thus, this model is more flexible compared to other SDLC models.

What are the 3 roles of scrum? What are the 4 communications characteristics in scrum?

Roles: 1. Scrum master = organized work, budget. Facilitator that acts as a buffer. 2. Product owner = prioritizes crucial features and represents business interest. 3. Development team = autonomous team that delivers quality product Communication: 1. Daily scrum 2. Face-to-face 3. Visualizing project (Kanban) 4. Not much written documentation

What are the 3 popular models for Scaled Agile?

SAFE = formal roles and responsibilities, uses epics to organize business ideas before they become user stories, formal budgeting, agile release train LeSS = lightweight framework that is pro-experimentation becfore settling on a method Spotify model = hybrid model

What is the difference between scope grope, creep, and leap?

Scope grope = inability to define project's scope Scope creep = tendency to increase features Scope leap = fundamental change in project scope

What are the 3 main Agile practices?

Scrum, emphasizes creative/adaptive teamwork in solving complex problems. Lean developmen, which focuses on continual elimination of waste. Kanban, which concentrates on reducing lead times and WIP, showing flow.

What is Beyond Budgeting? (Fitzgerald & Stol)

Seeking improvements over traditional budgeting approaches, which tend to be annual time-consuming activities, resulting in rigid budget plans that reinforce departmental barries. 12 principles are made to address traditional budgeting issues: 1. Focus on improving customer outcomes 2. Organize as a network of lean, accountable teams 3. Enable everyone to act/think like a leader 4. Give teams freedom and capability to act 5. Govern through few clear values, goals and boundaries 6. Promote open information for self-management 7. Set relative goals for continuous improvement 8. Reward shared success based on relative performance 9. Make planning continuous and inclusive 10. Base controls on relative indicators and trends 11. Make resources available as needed 12. Coordinate interactions dynamically

What is DevOps?

Set of practices intended to reduce the time between committing a change to a system and the change being placed into normal production, while ensuring high quality. Aims to establish a culture and environment where building, testing and releasing software can happen rapidly, frequently and more reliably. Governance: well defined roles/responsibilities Technical infrastructure: delivery pipeline, ensure right software Someone from operations is already in development team - better delivery. 4 principles: 1. Requires cultural change towards join responsibility 2. Full automation of build, deploy, and test 3. Measuring to test coverage and time to deploy 4. Sharing knowledge, tools, and infrastructure

Explain the 3 programs for business process improvement: six sigma, lean thinking, theory of constraints.

Six Sigma = reduce variation. Problem focused. Steps: (1) Define, (2) Measure, (3) Analyze, (4) Improve, (5) Control. DMAIC. Lean = remove waste. Flow focused. Steps: (1) identify value, (2) identify value stream, (3) makes activities flow, (4) let customers pull product through process, (5) improve until perfection. Theory of constraints = manage constraints. Systems constraints focused. Steps: (1) Identify constraint, (2) exploit constraint, (3) subordinate processes, (4) elevate constraint, (5) repeat cycle.

How does estimating software complexity help estimation? What is the difference between complicated and complex?

Software development costs are proportional to the complexity of the software. Software metrics are (1) lines of code and (2) function points. Complicated = difficult to understand at first Complex = interactions between a number of entities

What is the starting point of Agile?

Software development is a social process, thus social mechanisms are used to improve software quality. Working with business in multi disciplinary teams enable early feedback and support from users and sponsors. Makes it easier and less expensive to incorporate changes. Two challenges: complexity and uncertainty.

How do you deal with multi-speed IT developments? (Mohlmann)

Step 1: Product management team - epics sort business ideas and can be prioritized. Epics determine features to be built in the backlog, which are further developed into stories Step 2: scrum Step 3: Release management, DevOps Step 4: Systems teams - maintain system stability, quality of standards. Each stages has specified roles.

What are the 4 critical issues with the changing nature of the object of RE and the 5 critical issues with the changing nature of the process of RE? (Jarke)

Target platform: 1. Business process focus 2. Systems transparency = seamless user experience across apps 3. Integration focus 4. Packaged software Development process: 1. Distributed requirements 2. Centrality of architecture = architecture drives evolutionary path 3. Layers of requirements 4. Interdependent complexity 5. Fluidity of design

What is a project? How does a project differ from a process?

Temporary endeavour undertaken to create a unique product, service or result. Project is temporary with clear start- and end-point and limited temporary resources. Process is a series of actions taken in order to achieve a results, with standing operations, stable budget and roles.

What is the total cost of ownership?

Total cost of acquiring, developing, maintaining, and supporting the product or application system over its useful life. Includes: 1. Direct/up-front cost 2. Ongoing cost 3. Indirect cost

What is the tradeoff in Agility? (Brous & Janssen)

Tradeoff between: 1. Stability: hard to change objectives and commitment of resources 2. Flexibility: easy to change commitments You should be stable on infrastructure, but flexible on outcomes. Whatever you want to built, it will fit. This builds resilience (ability to respond and recover from threats) and robustness (ability to withstand changes).

What is the difference between verification and validation of requirements?

Verification = test if the system was built right according to requirements. Validation = test if the right system was built by determining if deliverable meets customer's expectations and performs as specified. Done towards end of project.

What is a Work Breakdown Structure?

WBS provides hierarchical structure that outlines activities or work that needs to be done in order to complete project scope. Total scope is divided into deliverables and work packages that are more manageable

How can you compare alternatives in projects using Analytical Hierarchical Processing?

You start with a stiuation and determine the alternative scenarios. You then assign a weight to each condition of each alternative scenario. Then you calculate the score per condition for a scenario.