PSY1022 ultimate

Systematic empiricism

Making observations in a systematic manner to test hypotheses and develop or refute a theory (in other words, using empiricism and rationalism).

Skeptic

A person who questions the validity, authenticity, or truth of something purporting to be factual.

Hypothesis

A prediction regarding the outcome of a study involving the potential relationship between at least two variables.

Double-barrelled question

A question that asks more than one thing

Loaded question

A question that includes non-neutral or emotionally laden terms

Leading questions

A question that sways the respondent to answer in a desired manner

Positive relationship

A relationship between two variable in which an increase in one variable is accompanied by an increase in the other variable

Negative relationship

A relationship between two variables in which an increase in one variable is accompanied by a decrease in the other variable

Experimental method

A research method that allows a researcher to establish a cause-and-effect relationship through manipulation of a variable and control of the situation (the goal is explanation; manipulation, measurement, comparison and control are all necessary)

Descriptive research strategy

A research strategy that seeks to measure individual variables and provide a description of the variables in relation to a certain group. The aim is not to provide any explanations for variables, but rather describe (i.e summarise) a variable in relation to a particular group of individuals.

Random sample

A sample achieved through random selection in which each member of the population is equally likely to be chosen

Representative sample

A sample that is like the population (the characteristics of the sample approximate that of the population). A sample in which the individuals and scores accurately reflect the individuals and scores in the population.

Proportionate stratified random sampling

A sampling method similar to stratified random sampling except that the sample size proportions for each subgroup correspond to each subgroup's proportion in the population.

Stratified random sample

A sampling technique designed to ensure that subgroups or strata are fairly represented (where the population is broken down into subgroups, and then your randomly select equal-sized sample from each subgroup).

Cluster sampling

A sampling technique in which clusters of participants that represent the population are used.

Probability sampling

A sampling technique in which each member of the population has a known probability of being selected to be part of the sample.

Convenience sampling (a type of non-probability sampling)

A sampling technique in which participants are obtained wherever they can be found and typically wherever is convenient for the researcher.

Non-probability sampling

A sampling technique in which the individual members of the population do not have an equal or known likelihood of being selected to be a member of the sample.

Pseudoscience

Claims that appear to be scientific but that actually violate the criteria of science.

Partially open-ended questions

Closed-ended questions with an open-ended "other" option

Ecological validity

The extent to which research can be generalised to real-life situations

Interview

A method that typically involves asking questions in a face-to-face manner, and it may be conducted anywhere

Rating scale

A numerical scale on which survey respondents indicate the direction and strength of their response

Subject (participant) variable

A characteristic inherent in the subjects that cannot be changed

Experimenter (researcher) variable

A characteristic of the experimenter conducting the research. The experimenter is not a passive observer and so can introduce extraneous variable. Even passively observing can have an effect

Situation (environmental) variable

A characteristic of the situation/environment which is specific to the research context (e.g. time of day, temperature, lighting, noise, etc.)

Secondary source

A description or summary of another person's work. A secondary source is written by someone who did not participate in the research or observations being discussed.

Archival method

A descriptive research method that involves describing data that existed before the time of the study

Primary source

A firsthand report of observations or research results written by the individual(s) who actually conducted the research and made the observations.

Research strategy

A general approach to research determined by the kind of question that the research study hopes to answer

Testable hypothesis

A hypothesis for which all of the variable, events, and individuals can be define and observed.

Refutable hypothesis

A hypothesis that can be demonstrated to be false. That is, it is possible for the outcome to be different from the prediction.

Action research

A method in which research is conducted by a group of people to identify a problem, attempt to resolve it, and then assess how successful their efforts were

Random sampling

A method of generating a random sample in which each member of the population is equally likely to be chosen as part of the sample (can be with or without replacement; without means the probability changes after each selection)

Systematic random sampling

A method of sampling where everyone in the population is listed, and every nth individual on the list is selected.

Correlational method

A method that assesses the degree of relationship between two variables (no attempt to manipulate or control variable through the study design)

Field studies

A method that involves everyday activities as they happen in a natural setting

Focus group interview

A method that involves interviewing six to ten individuals at the same time

Quota sampling (a type of non-probability sampling)

A sampling technique that involves ensuring that the sample is like the population on certain characteristics but uses convenience sampling to obtain the participants (a subset of convenience sampling which utilises subgroups in much the way as stratified random sampling quotas are set for each subgroup)

Checklist

A tally sheet on which the researcher records attributes of the subjects and whether particular behaviours were observed

Sampling bias

A tendency for one group to be overrepresented in a sample

Static item

A type of item used on a checklist on which attributes that will not change are recorder (for example gender, race and age)

Action item

A type of item used on a checklist to note the presence or absence of behaviours

Likely rating scale

A type of numerical rating scale developed by Renis Likert in 1932

Qualitative research

A type of social research based on field observations that is analysed without statistics

Mail survey

A written survey that is self-administered

Population

All of the people about whom a study is meant to generalise

Variable

An event or behaviour that has at least two values.

Case study method

An in-depth study of one or more individuals

Semistandardised interview

An interview that has some structure to it, but the wording of the questions is flexible, the level of the language may be modified, and the interviewer may choose to answer questions and provide further explanation of requested (this is seen to be the better form of interview)

Unstandardised interview

An interview that is completely unstructured in that there is no set order to the questions nor a set wording to the questions

Standardised interview

An interview that is somewhat formal in structure, where the questions are typically asked in a specific order

Theory

An organised system of assumptions and principles that attempts to explain certain phenomena and how they are related.

Random assignment

Assigning subjects to conditions in such a way that every participant has an equal probability of being placed in any condition

Qualitative research

Based on making observations that are summarised and interpreted in an narrative report

Quantitative research

Based on measuring variables for individual participants to obtain scores, usually numerical values, that are submitted to statistical analysis for summary and interpretation (usually involves larger samples)

Description

Carefully observing behaviour in order to describe it.

The third variable problem

Establishing that there is a relationship between two variables from a correlation, does not mean that there is a direct relationship, a third variable may be responsible for the relationship.

The directionality problem

From a correlation, It is not possible to determine which variable is the cause and which is the effect (we can not assume causation based on correlation)

Narrative records

Full narrative descriptions of a subject's behaviour

Explanation

Identifying the causes that determine when and why a behaviour occurs.

Prediction

Identifying the factors that indicate when an event or events will occur.

Knowledge via tenacity

Knowledge gained from repeated ideas that are stubbornly clung to despite evidence to the contrary.

Knowledge via authority

Knowledge gained from those viewed as authority figures.

Knowledge via science

Knowledge gained through a combination of empirical methods and logical reasoning (empiricism + rationalism).

Knowledge via rationalism

Knowledge gained through logical thinking.

Knowledge via empiricism

Knowledge gained through objective observations of organisms and events in the real world.

Knowledge via intuition

Knowledge grained without being consciously aware if its source.

Knowledge via superstition

Knowledge that is based on subjective feelings, interpreting random events as nonrandom events, or believing in magical events.

Observational method

Making observations of human or animal behaviour, collects qualitative and/or quantitative data (observations can be made in naturalistic or laboratory settings and the observer can be either an active participant or non-participant; disguised or undisguised)

Control

Manipulating the independent variable in an experiment and controlling any other extraneous variable that could affect the results of a study

Laboratory observation

Observing the behaviour of humans or animals in a more contrived and controlled situation, usually the laboratory

Naturalistic observation

Observing the behaviour of humans or animals in their natural habitat

Publicly verifiable knowledge

Presenting research to the public so that it can be observed, replicated, criticised, and tested.

Survey method

Questioning individuals on a topic or topics and then describing their responses

Closed-ended questions

Questions for which subjects choose from a limited number of alternatives

Open-ended questions

Questions for which subjects formulate their own responses

Empirically solvable problems

Questions that are potentially answerable by means of currently available research techniques.

Demographic questions

Questions that ask for basic information, such as age, gender, ethnicity, or income.

Quasi-experimental method

Research that compares naturally occurring groups of individuals; the variable of interest cannot be manipulated (similar to the experimental method but without random assignment)

Participant observation

Studies in which the researcher actively participates in the situation in which the research subjects are involved

Nonparticipant observation

Studies in which the researcher does not participate in the situation in which the research subjects are involved

Undisguised observation

Studies in which the subjects are aware that the researcher is observing their behaviour

Disguised observation

Studies in which the subjects are unaware that the researcher is observing their behaviour

Sample

The group of people who participate in a study

Control group

The group of subjects that does not receive any level of the independent variable and serves as the baseline in a study

Experimental group

The group of subjects that receives some level of the independent variable

Principle of falsifiability

The idea that a scientific theory must be stated in such a way that it is possible to refute or disconfirm it.

Alternative explanation

The idea that it is possible that some other, uncontrolled, extraneous variable may be responsible for the observed relationship

Expectancy effects

The influence of the researcher's expectations on the outcome of the study

Illusionary correlation

The perception of a relationship that does not exist.

Applied research

The study of psychological issues that have practical significance and potential solutions.

Basic research

The study of psychological issues to seek knowledge for its own sake.

Response bias

The tendency to consistently give the same answer to almost all of the items of a survey (not really answering the questions at all)

Independent variable

The variable in a study that is manipulated by the researcher

Dependent variable

The variable in a study that is measured by the researcher