PSY3341 FINAL Snyder

Reflex Activity (Birth - 1 month)?

Active exercise and refinement of inborn reflexes (e.g., accommodate sucking to fit the shapes of different objects)

What is nature?

- The influence of heredity, universal maturational processes guided by the genes, biologically based predispositions produced by evolution, and biological influences such as hormones and brain growth spurts

What is continuous reinforcement?

- reinforcing every response - increases numbers of response (rapid acquisition) - used when first learning new behavior

What is partial reinforcement?

- reinforcing only some responses - prevents extinction (used to maintain behavior) - ratio or interval

What is a variable interval reinforcement schedule?

- unannounced pop-quiz - slow steady responding

What is the Premack principle?

- uses activity as a reinforcement - one activity... (something you like doing) ... can act as a reinforcement for another activity Example: boy plays baseball when he cleans his room

Quality of attachment

1. secure 2. resistant 3. avoidant 4. disorganized

Four Phases of forming attachments

1. secure (positive (low) model of self (anxious) and positive model of others (avoidance)) 2. preoccupied (negative anxious positive avoidance) 3. dismissing (positive anxious negative avoidance) 4. fearful (negative anxious negative avoidance)

When do babies perceive the visual cliff?

2 months (Joseph Campus)

When does color detection mature?

2-3 months

Motor milestones?

2-3 months: Lefts head 90 degrees while lying on stomach 3-4 months: Rolls over 4-6 months: Ulnar grasp 6-8 months: sits without support, stands holding on, crawling 9 months: Has pincher grasp (cheerios), walks holding on 12-14 months: walks well 16 months: scribble with crayon 17-22 months: walks up steps 20-24 months: kicks ball forward

What is the visual acuity of a 1 month baby?

20/120 vision on the standard eye chart

How many pairs of chromosomes do humans have? And how many total?

23 pairs; 46 total

Around what age do toddlers/children become surprised by gender inconsistencies?

24 months/2 years

What age does a child achieve babbling

3-4 months

stages of conventional morality

3. good boy morality 4. authority and social order maintaining

By which age do infants show preferences towards gender related toys?

5-6

When is gender consistency established?

5-7

stages of post conventional morality

5. morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically accepted law 6. morality of individual principles of conscience

What percent of a newborn's sleep is spent in REM?

50% of sleep is REM - Sleep 70% of the day 6 months old: 25-30% of sleep is REM Children & adults spend 20% of sleep in REM

When do babies fear the visual cliff?

6-7 months

What age does a child achieve cooing?

6-8 weeks

What is incomplete dominance?

A condition in which a stronger gene fails to mask all the effect of a weaker partner gene - A phenotype results that is similar but not identical to the effect of the stronger gene - Sickle cell anemia

What is ADHD and its symptoms?

A disorder characterized by attentional difficulties, impulsive behavior, and overactive of fidgety behavior - Inattention, impulsivity, hyperactivity

Living will

A document that indicates what medical intervention an individual wants if he or she becomes incapable of expressing those wishes.

What is DNA?

A double helix molecule whose chemical code makes up chromosomes and serves as our genetic endowment - It is made up of sequences of the chemicals adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine

What is crossing over?

A process in which genetic material is exchanged between pairs of chromosomes during meiosis

What is learning?

A relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavior potential) that results from a person's experiences or practice - allows us to adapt to our environment

What is a dominant gene?

A relatively powerful gene that is expressed phenotypically and masks the effect of a less-powerful recessive gene - Huntington's chorea - Brown eyes

What are rites of passage?

A ritual that makes a person's "passage" from one status to another, usually in reference to the transition from childhood to adulthood

What best describes the aspect of personality known as characteristic adaptations?

A self-definition or sense of who one is, where one is going, and how one fits into society

What best describes ethnic/racial identity?

A sense of personal identification with one's ethnic of racial gourp and its values and cultural traditions

What is correlation?

A statistic Measure of how closely two things co-vary Used for continuous traits (like height)

What is concordance?

A statistic, like correlation A number (or %) For discontinuous traits (either/or) - Schizophrenia, diabetes The number of pairs per one hundred in which the second number of the pair also has trait found in the first member

What is an unconditioned stimulus?

A stimulus that elicits a particular response without prior learning/naturally triggers a response

What is plasticity?

An openness of the brain cells (or of the organism as a whole) to positive and negative environmental influence; a capacity to change in response to experience

PNS?

Peripheral Nervous System - Voluntary/Skeletal - Automatic - Motor - Somatic sensory - Autonomic (ANS)

Cognitive-development theoty

Piaget anf Kohlberg

When does memory consolidation occur?

REM sleep

Dynamic systems approach?

Rebuttal to nature vs. nurture. Development directed by genetics, hormones, maturation, experiences, learning. Experience + gene expression

What are theta waves, what do they do, and where are they seen?

Regular repeating waves @ 6 cycles per second Produced by areas of the hippocampus & surrounding cortex During REM

What happens to "sensory thresholds" as you get older?

Rise of the threshold with age = sensitivity to low levels of stimulation is lost

What was the conditioned response in Pavlov's experiment?

Salivation after bell is rung

How is self-esteem different from self-concept?

Self-esteem involves evaluation of the self, whereas self-concept involves perceptions of the self

Vygotsky's ideas were?

Sociocultural perspective, higher mental functions, memes, mediation, scaffolding, zone of proximal development

child effects model

a model of family influence in which children are believed to influence their parents rather than vice versa

Parent Effects Model

a model of parenting effects that assumes that parents cause the characteristics that we see in their children

Spirituality

a quest for ultimate meaning and for a connection with something greater than oneself

4 key components to an understanding of death

Finality Irreversibility Universality Biological causality (hardest to understand)

What is synaptogenesis?

Forming functional connections. Increases rapidly after birth. Young children have many more synapses than adults

Psychoanalytic theory

Freud

What nicotine's effect on a pregnant woman?

Increases chance of miscarriage, premature birth, respiratory problems

The course of self-esteem across the lifespan is best described as

Increases during childhood, levels off in early adolescence, increases strongly during later adolescence and early adulthood, increases at a slower pace between age 30-60 then holds steady until age 70 before declining in people's 80-90s

Agency is characterized by

Individual action and achievement, traits of dominance, independence,assertiveness, and competetiveness

Which of Hoffman's approaches is best for socializing morality?

Induction, it breeds empathy

gender

all features that a society associates with or considers appropriate for men and women

Evolutionary theory of moral development

all three aspects of morality - moral thought, moral emotion, and moral behavior - have become part of our human nature because they helped humans adapt to their environments over the course of evolution

What makes up the PNS?

Motor, sensory & autonomic nerves

Emotion during adolescence

contra-hedonic: rather than seeking to optimize their good moods, they often want to maintain or enhance their bad ones

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

According to James Marcia, adolescent identity can be classified into one of four statuses that are based on the two key issues of

crisis and commitment

2 key issues that Marcia's statuses are based on

exploration and commitment

Socioeconomic status influence on parenting styles

family stress model - the negative effects of financial stressors on parents' mental health, parenting, and child development (nonnurturant/uninvolved parenting)

non-binary

gender identities that are not exclusively masculine or feminine

Temperament

genetically based but also environmentally influenced tendencies to respond in predictable ways to events that serve as the foundation for later personality

Adolescence is a period of significant ___ in moral reasoning

growth

Delirium

mental disorder marked by confusion; uncontrolled excitement; ADJ. delirious

sociometric techniques

methods for determining who is well liked and popular and who is disliked or neglected in a group

Theory of mind

understanding that 1. people have mental states such as desires, beliefs, and intentions that 2. these mental states guide their behavior

Kubler Ross's stages of dying

(1) Denial, (2) Anger, (3) Bargaining with God, (4) Depression, and (5) Acceptance of Death.

What is a "wug"?

- "This is a wug. And if there were two, there should be two ___" - By Jean Berko Gleason, to demonstrate that even young children possess implicit knowledge of linguistic morphology.

When does brightness detection mature?

2 months

What is Phoneme?

- A basic unit of sound - Roughly correspond to letters of the alphabet - CAT = k a t

What the punishment guidelines?

- ASAP - Intensity - Consistently - Be otherwise warm - Explain yourself - Reinforce alternate behavior - Alternative responses (TIME OUT, rephrase politely)

What is nurture?

- All external physical and social conditions, stimuli, and events that can affect us, from crowded living quarters and polluted air, to social interactions with family members, peers, and teachers, to the neighborhood and broader cultural context in which we develop

What is token economy?

- An item that can be traded for a reinforcer - Each token is a step toward a reinforcer Example: chart with stars, poker chips, point system

What is activity?

- Believe humans are curious, active creatures who orchestrate their own development by exploring the world around them and shaping their environments - Ex. Little girl asking for a doll, and a little boy asking for a truck - contributing to their gender-role development

What is passivity?

- Believe humans are shaped largely by forces beyond their control - usually environmental influences, but possibly strong biological forces - Ex. child's academic failings might be blamed on the failure of their parents and teachers to provide them the right learning experiences

4 months babbling

- Bubbles speech sounds -Play with sounds (Piaget's circular reactions) • Vowel & consonant • Dadadada, bababa - Larynx has descended - (ALL phonemes still recognizable) - Deaf children babble with their hands

What is Syncretic Speech?

- Consistent use of a word or phrase to stand for an object or idea. May use word plus, gesture, intonation, emphasis and/or context to convey meaning. - Mothers understand their children's language before strangers can at this stage!

criticisms of grief work perspective

- Cross-cultural studies: many ways to grieve - Little support for assumption that confronting loss and experiencing painful emotions is needed - No support for view that we must break our bonds - Many people have long-term relationships with deceased family members - Pathological view of grief

Main research finding regarding cross-cultural differences in math performance (e.g., observed gap in Asian American and White students in math performance was attributable to what?)

- Cultural differences in parent's commitment to the education process coupled with societal stereotypes - Cultures differ in the extent they believe in the power of effort - Certain cultures give up too easily on children who appear to have low intellectual ability - Culture differ in how much time their children spend studying (ex: Asian school days are longer than those in America)

Birth - various cries

- Expression of emotional states - Larynx like a Beaver's

2-3 yrs - language explosion

- Huge increases in vocabulary & complexity - Articulation difficulty may persist: thithors, pasketti - Modulation if meaning - from free to bound morhemes (simple to complex

What is a carrier?

- Individuals who possesses a recessive gene associated with a disease and who, although they do not have the disease, can transmit the gene for it to offspring - Hemophilia - Blue eyes

What is applied behavior analysis?

- Intense, systematic - Identify:behavior to be targeted and environmental conditions contributing to behavior - Obtain baseline - Do a functional analysis - Develop a treatment plan - Reassess for effectiveness Example: shaping social/language skills in autistic children

10 months jargoning

- Keep phoneme discrimination only for the ones they hear (their language), lose others - Jargoning: babbling with intonation patterns (pragmatics) - Comprehension is ahead of production - Receptive language - comprehension - Expressive language - production

What are some delivery complications?

- Medications - APGAR: Quick assessment of heart rate, respiration, color, muscle tone, reflexes (0-2)

What are the accomplishments of the formal operations stage?

- Mental actions on abstract ideas - Can think about the hypothetical - Hypothetical-deductive reasoning - Deductive reasoning: general → specific - Metacognition: think about thinking - Mature moral reasoning - Separation & control of variables - Proportional thinking

What are the accomplishments of the concrete operations stage: (7-11 years)?

- Mental actions on real/concrete objects - Conservation - The fundamental properties of an object do not change just because there is a superficial change in appearance - Gram cracker/water/quarter video - Liquid, mass, number = 6-7 years - Area, volume = 9-12 - Not egocentric - Can take other's perspective - Mountain video - Reversibility - Can reverse, undo a problem in their head - Decentration - Can focus on more than aspect of a problem - Seriation - Arrange items according to increasing or decreasing dimension - Transivity - Relationships between objects - A > B, B < C, what is larger, smaller? - Classification - Class inclusion - 5 dolls + 3 trucks; more dolls or toys? - Fact families: 6, 4, 2. 4+2 = 6, 6-4 = 2

What is context specificity?

- Paths of development follows in one culture may be different than others - Ex. In the US: children believe dreams are real, but give up as they age; in Taiwan, children are more convinced as they get older that dreams are real

What are the accomplishments of the sensorimotor period?

- Reflexive interaction - Begins to develop "means" or "schemes" - Repetition of interesting/rewarding acts on body, then on objects - Begins to show intent - Goal driven combination of related schemes - New ways to solve problems - Interest in novelty - Repetition with variation - Use symbols or symbolic representation - This allows internal (mental) combinations of schemes - "Beginning of thought"

1-4 months - cooing

- Repetition of vowel - like sounds (ooo, eeeee, aaaa) - Learn the rhythm of language, pauses, turn taking (back & forth)

What is motherese/child directed speech?

- Simple short sentences - Spoken slowly - High pitched voice - Infants pay more attenetion to high pitched, varied sounds

What is universality?

- Stages proposed are universal - Ex. all children enter a new stage in the intellectual development as they enter adolescence or adults experiencing a midlife crises around 40 yrs.

What are characteristics of skilled readers?

- Strong understanding of the alphabetic principle - Strong phonological awareness - Eye movement (eyes hit all the words instead of skipping over some) suggesting that they are faster information processors

What are the Brain areas for language?

- Supramarginal Gyrus - Angular Gyrus - Wernicke's Area - Inferior Frontal Gyrus Broca's Area - Arcuate Faciculus

7 months word segmentation,

- The cat scratched the dog's nose. • Sees as 6 words, not just one long word

What are the accomplishments of the preoperational stage: (2-6 years)?

- Symbolic capacity flourishes - Animism-anthropomorphism - Attributing life, consciousness to objects - Egocentric - Cannot take others' view (Mountain video) - Centration - Focus on one dimension at a time - Cannot look at more than one aspect of a problem at a time - Sometimes looks at important/not important information - Static thinking - Cannot mentally transform one state to another - Fluid motion predicament - Irreversible thinking - Cannot mentally undo/reverse an action - Lack of conservation - A superficial change in appearance does not change fundamental properties - Gram cracker/water/quarter video - Intuitive thought - Based on experience, not logic - Reasoning that is neither conscious nor rational - Basic classification but problems with class inclusion. - Can group some things according to similarities - Time - Concepts of time still in development

What is prosody?

- The melody, phrasing, timing, emphasis - Pitch/intonation - Stress or accentuation - Duration and timing - Change the sound, change the meaning Ex: raising voice at end produces a question Ex: No! (loud & sharp) vs. Noooooooo (long & drawn out)

What is overextension?

- Using a word to refer to a wide range of objects - All 4 legged animals are called doggie

What is continuity?

- Views human development as a process that occurs in small steps, without sudden changes - Ex. grade school children gradually gain weight from year to year - Developmental changes are gradual and quantitative (changes in degree - gaining more wrinkles, grows taller, interacting with friends less frequently)

What is discontinuity?

- Views human development as more like a series of stair steps, each of which elevates the individual to a new (and often more advanced) level of functioning - Ex. adolescent boy rapidly growing up 6 inches in height, gains a bass voice, and grows a beard - Developmental changes are more abrupt and qualitative (changes in kind - caterpillar to butterfly instead of just a bigger butterfly, puberty)

What is underextension?

- opposite of overextension - 'blankie' is only my security blanket - Doggie is only our basset hound

What is systematic desensitization?

- a type of behavioral therapy based on the principle of classical conditioning (Wolpe) - aims to remove the fear response of a phobia, and substitute a relaxation response to the conditional stimulus gradually using counter conditioning

2 challenges that occur during retirement

- adjusting to the loss of their work role - developing a satisfying and meaningful lifestyle in retirement

What are the two processes of social learning theory

- differential reinforcement: children are rewarded for sex-appropriates behaviors and are punished for the opposite - observational learning: children adopt the attitudes and behaviors of same-sex models

What are pragmatics?

- language in social context - Talking to & with someone - Acknowledging the audience

Describe the changes in vision with old age.

- pupils become smaller (greater difficulty when lighting is dim & when it suddenly changes) - pupils slower to dilate - dark adaptation is slower - lens become less denser and less flexible - yellowing of lens - lens and gelatinous liquid behind lens are less transparent - visual acuity decreases - sensory receptor cells in the retina may die or not function as efficiently as they did before - retina change = decreased visual field/loss of peripheral vision = tunnel vision

What is morpheme?

- smallest unit of language that carries meaning - Un desire able s

Strategies that aging adults use to maintain self-esteem

- strong social bonds - good hygiene - avoiding negative stereotypes - staying active - practicing independence

What is adaptation?

- the process of adjusting to the demands of environment (Piaget, 1971) - occurs through two complementary processes: assimilation and accommodation

Know evidences (things that support) the nature or in-born view of language ability and those that support the nurture/environment or learning view of language acquisition.

......

2 neurological abnormalities displayed in children with ASD

1) early brain overgrowth 2) later under-connectivity between areas of the brain involved in social cognition

pretend play

1-2 years of age, engage in pretend play

Hoffman's parenting approaches

1. Love withdrawal 2. Power assertion 3. Induction

5 stages of adopting a transgender identity proposed by Bockting and Coleman

1. Pre-coming out 2. Coming out 3. Exploration 4. Intimacy 5. Identity integration

Erikson's 8 stages of psychosocial development

1. Trust vs mistrust (birth - 1 year) - can i trust others? (emerging virtue: hope) 2. Autonomy vs. shame and doubt (1-3 years) - can i act on my own?(emerging virtue: will) 3. Initiative vs guilt (3-6 years) - can i carry out my plans succesfully? (emerging virtue: purpose) 4. Industry vs. inferiority (6-12 years) - am i competent compared with others? (emerging virtue: competence) 5. Identity vs role confusion (12-20 years) - who am i and where am i going? (emerging virtue: fidelity) 6. Intimacy vs isolation (20-40 years) - am i ready for a committed relationship? (emerging virtue: love) 7. Generativity vs stagnation (40-65 years) - have i given something to future generations? (emerging virtue: care) 8. Integrity vs despair (65+ years) - has my life been meaningful? (emerging virtue: wisdom)

The Infant's Attachment to the Caregiver

1. Undiscriminating social responsiveness - between birth -> 2 months, babies respond to all humans, not just caregivers 2. Discriminating social responsiveness - from 3 -> 6 months, infants respond to familiar people (caretakers, siblings, etc.) 3. Active proximity seeking (true attachment) - 7 months -> 3 years; strong attachment to a caretaker (will follow that person around) 4. Goal-corrected partnership ; 3+ years; takes parent's plan into consideration and adjusts their behavior to achieve optimal closeness to that parent

Social categories

1. accepted (popular) 2. neglected (invisible) 3. rejected (mean) 4. controversial (liked by a lot and disliked by a lot) 5. average (in the middle)

Dodge's social information-processing model

1. encoding of cues 2. interpretation of cues 3. clarification of goals 4. response search 5. response decision 6. behavioral enactment

Three main qualities that distinguish between secure and insecure attachment

1. intellectual competence 2. social competence 3. emotion regulation

Sternberg's seven types of love

1. liking - intimacy 2. romantic - intimacy and passion 3. companionate - intimacy and commitment 4. consummate - intimacy, passion, commitment 5. empty - commitment 6. fatuous - passion and commitment 7. infatuation - passion

The 3 aspects of personality

1.dispostional traits (extraversion or introversion), 2. characteristic adaptions (ways people adapt to their roles and environment) 3. narrative identities ( "life stories" to give ourselves and identity and make sense of our lives)

vocabulary spurt

12 months - first few words 14 months - 10 words 19 months - 50 words

At approximately what age does someone begin to display helping behavior?

14 months

When does cooperation emerge

14 months

When does helping behavior emerge

14 months

When does a sense of fairness emerge

15 months

When do infants/toddlers begin to display self-recognition?

18 months (approximately)

At approximately what age do secondary or self-conscious emotions emerge?

18 months old

At what age do infants begin to understand gender identity?

18 months; verbal proof at 2 1/2 - 3

At what age does the brain reach its full adult weight?

19-21

When is basic gender identity established?

2 1/2

What is the average retirement age?

65 (as of 1991 but it is rising)

What age does a child achieve word segmentation?

7 1/2 months

Rigidity about gender stereotypes relaxes at around what age?

7-10; once their gender identities are more firmly established

George is in late adulthood and has lived a long life. Considering the average life expectancy, how long can he expect to live?

76 years

What is the life expectancy for someone born now?

78 yrs.

What is ABC?

A = antecedent - environmental stimuli & events that precede the behavior B = behavior - specific response the individual makes C = consequence - stimuli & events immediate following the behavior

What is polygenic trait?

A characteristic influenced by the action of many gene pairs rather than a single pair - Height & weight - IQ - Temperament - Susceptibility to cancer

What is scheme/schema?

A cognitive structure or organized pattern of action or though used to deal with experiences - organized patterns of action or thought that people construct to interpret their experiences - schemes are like having a set of rules or procedures that structure our cognition

What is a language?

A communication system in which a limited number of symbols can be combined according to agreed upon rules to produce an infinite number of messages.

What is a gene?

A functional unit of heredity made up of DNA and transmitted from generation to generation (segment of DNA)

What is retinitis pigmentosa (RP)?

A group of hereditary disorder that all involve gradual deterioration of the light-sensitive cells of the retina - can cause tunnel vision

What is muscular dystrophy?

A group of inherited disorders that involve muscle weakness and loss of muscle tissue, which get worse over time

What is aphasia?

A language disorder

What is a conditioned response?

A learned response to a stimulus that was not originally capable of producing the response

What is a recessive gene?

A less powerful gene that is not expressed phenotypically when paired with a dominant gene - PKU - Blue eyes - Cystic fibrosis - Tay-Sachs

Transactional Model

A model that emphasizes the bidirectional effects of parents and adolescents on each other.

What are cataracts?

A pathological condition of the eye involving opacification (clouding) of the lens that can impair vision or cause blindness

Vocabulary spurt

A phenomenon occurring around 18 months of age when the pace of word learning quickens dramatically.

What is habituation?

A simple form of learning that involves learning not to respond to a repeated stimulus; - a method of assessing infant perception - learning to be bored by the familiar/losing interest - decreased response to a stimuli - stimulus discrimination

passive euthanasia

A situation in which a seriously ill person is allowed to die naturally, through the cessation of medical intervention.

active euthanasia

A situation in which someone takes action to bring about another person's death, with the intention of ending that person's suffering.

What is REM sleep?

A state of active, irregular sleep associated with dreaming; rapid eye movement associated with it

psychoanalytic theory (Freud and Erikson)

A theory developed by Freud that attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior

What best describes the activity theory of successful aging?

A theory emphasizing the value of remaining active in later life by either continuing or replacing previous activities

trait theory (Costa and McCrae)

A theory of personality that focuses on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences in behavioral predispositions

What is a chromosome?

A threadlike structure made up of genes

What happens in the frontal lobes during REM?

Activation-synthesis: dreams

What is the formal operations stage?

Adolescents can think about abstract concepts and purely hypothetical possibilities and can trace the long-range consequences of possible actions. With age and experience, they can form hypotheses and systematically test them using the scientific method.

Which of the following best describes adolescents' reactions to becoming terminally ill?

Adolescents' reactions reflects themes of adolescence (e.g. concers with body image)

What is mediation?

Adult proposes meanings & interpretations of objects & events Encourages the child to think about events a certain way

What does the spinal cord do?

Afferent (incoming) sensory Efferent (outgoing) motor Reflex connections

How far along in gestation is the AGE OF VIABILITY and the WEIGHT of viability?

Age of viability- ~five months Weight of viability- one pound

What is an age related change in the retina that results in poor vision (esp. in the center of the visual field)?

Age-related macular degeneration - damage to the cells in the retina responsible for central vision

Which of the following best describes how rigidity about gender stereotypes changes during childhood?

Ages 4-7 have high levels of rigidity about gender stereotypes and then at about ages 7-10 rigidity defuses

What is epigenetics?

Altering the expression of the genotype without any change in the actual DNA sequence (i.e. does not change the genetic code) - Involves changes in structures associated with chromosomes & DNA that affect gene expression without altering DNA sequence - Two of these changes are DNA methylation and histone acetylation

What is Perry & Punishment?

Although it is generally best to use more positive approaches before resorting to punishment, punishment can make children comply with parents' demands in the short run (Benjet & Kazdin, 2003). Spanking or another form of physical punishment can be effective in changing behavior in the longer run if it: (1) Is administered immediately after the act (not hours later, when the child is being an angel), (2) Is administered consistently after each offense, (3) Is not overly harsh, (4) Is accompanied by explanations, (5) Is administered by an otherwise affectionate person, and (6) Is used sparingly and combined with efforts to reinforce more acceptable behavior

What is behavior modification?

Applying operant principles to changing specific needs

Rosenzweig's and Greenough's experiments?

American research psychologists who, through animal studies on neuroplasticity, suggested that the brain continues developing anatomically, reshaping and repairing itself into adulthood based on life experiences, overturning the conventional wisdom that the brain reached full maturity in childhood - Also helped develop the theory of critical periods during early development

What is sex-linked?

An attribute determined by a gene that appears on one of the two types of sex chromosomes, usually the X - Hemophilia

What is the visual cliff experiment?

An elevated glass platform that creates an illusion and is used to test the depth perception of infants

What is the main difference between an internalizing disorder and an externalizing disorder in childhood?

An externalizing disorder involves acting out and disturbing other people such as aggressive behavior whereas internalizing disorders are difficulties being internalized and expressed in anxiety and depressions

What is a conditioned stimulus?

An initially neutral stimulus that elicits a particular response after it is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that always elicits the response

What is co-dominance?

An instance in which two different but equally powerful genes produce a phenotype in which both genes are expressed - AB blood type

What is a critical period?

An optimal time for development of specific physical or cognitive abilities Exposure to certain environmental stimuli or experiences influence development Impact can be positive or negative

What is a karyotype?

An organized profile of the number and appearance of a person's chromosomes

agency

An orientation toward individual action and achievement that emphasizes traits of dominance, independence, assertiveness, and competitiveness; considered masculine.

What is cognitive disequilibrium?

An uncomfortable state of mind that the child seeks to resolve

What is a teratogen?

Any environmental factor that can harm the developing fetus

What is an operant/operant response?

Any response that "operates" on the environment - behavior happens first (we operate on our environment) - we are then rewarded or punished - Engage in behaviors that are rewarded; avoid behaviors that are punished

Overregularization

Applying a grammatical rule too widely and thereby creating incorrect forms.

Describe the development of attention from infancy to adolescence.

As children get older... 1) their attention spans become longer 2) become more selective in what they attend to 3) better able to plan and carry out systematic strategies for using their senses to achieve goals Infancy: - selective attention: deliberately concentrating on one thing while ignoring something else - with age, attention becomes more selective and less susceptible t0 distraction - @ 2 yrs, able to form plans of actions --> guides what they focus on and what they ignore - systematic attention Adolescence: - longer attention spans - improved considerably between childhood and adulthood (b/c of increase myelination of the portions of the brain that help regulate attention) - become more efficient at ignoring irrelevant information - can divide their attention more systematically between two taskswwe

How do newborns view patterns/what do they prefer?

Attracted to moderately complex patterns - prefers a clear pattern like a bold checkerboard

Which parenting style is best associated with children who are unhappy, relatively aimless, and unpleasant to be around?

Authoritarian

What grandparenting style is most likely to foster autonomy during adolescence?

Authoritative

Which parenting style is associated with the best developmental outcomes?

Authoritative

The 4 parenting styles

Authoritative Authoritarian Permissive Neglectful

Which of the following do the parent adolescent conflicts of early adolescence generally concern?

Autonomy

Growth chart...

Average weight/length at birth: 7-7.5 lbs Growth rate in first year: 1 oz/day, 1"/month Average weight at age 2: 27-30lbs Growth rate from 2yrs. to puberty: 5-6lbs/year, 2-3"/year

What supports the "nurture" theory of language development?

Children whose caregivers encourage them to converse are more advanced in early language development

What is operant conditioning?

B.F. Skinner - a learner's behavior becomes either more or less probable depending on the consequences it produces - acquiring and modifying "voluntary" or non-reflexive behavior by the application of reinforcers of punishers - organisms behave in ways that bring them desirable consequences or help them avoid unpleasant ones

How do babies use common motion (@ 4 months) to help identify contour or figures?

Babies are attracted to displays that are *dynamic or contain movement* - newborns can and do track a moving target with their eyes (although it is imprecise, unless the target it moving slowly) - infants also look longer at moving objects and perceive their forms better than stationary ones - expects all pars of an object to move in the same direction at the same time and USE COMMON MOTION in determining what is or is not part of the same object

What tactile sense can babies detect?

Babies can detect and react to touch or pressure, heat or cold, and painful stimuli

Social learning theory

Bandura

What is the social cognitive theory (observational)?

Bandura - claims that humans are cognitive beings whose active processing of information plays a critical role in their learning, behavior, and development - learning by observing the behavior of other people (models)

What is the Bobo Doll experiment and who performed it?

Bandura - experiment set to demonstrate that children could learn a response neither elicited by a conditioned stimulus (classical conditioning) nor performed and then strengthened by a reinforcer (operant conditioning) - An adult models aggressive behavior towards the clown doll and the child imitates the behavior (aggression-frustration model)

What is conception?

Beginning of life, when egg and sperm unite; the moment of fertilization, when a sperm penetrate an ovum, forming a zygote

What is the process of hearing?

Begins when moving air molecules enter the ear and vibrate the eardrum; these vibration are transmitted to the cochlea in the inner ear and are converted to signals that the brain interprets as sounds

The slow-to-warm up temperament is characterized by

Being somewhat moody and slow to adapt to new situations

What was the conditioned stimulus in Pavlov's experiment?

Bell

What do 10 month olds who understand more words show promise of?

Better grades when they're older

What is biological predisposition?

Biological constraints on learning Garcia- Bright, noisy, tasty water

How does the biosocial theory explain gender role development?

Biosocial theory claims that evolution did not design human psychological sex differences. It argues that these are the result of the allocation of men and women into different sex roles, based on physical differences.

Brain weight chart...

Birth: 25 % of adult weight 2 yrs: 75 % of adult weight 5 yrs: 90 % of adult weight

What is sickle cell anemia?

Blood cells are sickle-shape rather than round and stick together; makes breather difficult and causes painful swelling in joints and blood clots - Common in African American Cause by: carriers were protected from malaria in Africa

What are examples of rites of passage?

Body painting circumcision, instruction by elders in adult sexual practices, test of physical prowess, gala celebrations, bar mitzvahs, quinceanera, and drinking at 21 yrs

Which gender shows more gender specific toy preferences?

Boys

What makes up the CNS?

Brain & spinal cord

What are some functions of sleep?

Brain is active - Internal stimulation from PGO spikes - Visual, auditory, motor areas active - PFC active Memory - Primed hippocampus - Theta waves & repetitive firing Hippocampus - Part of the limbic system - Memory structure Theta waves - Regular repeating waves @ 6 cycles per second - Produced by areas of the hippocampus & surrounding cortex Awake animals produce theta rhythm during behaviors learned for survival Asleep animals produce theta waves during REM sleep Cell in the hippocampus fire longer (more times) in response to a single stimulus during theta wave production Complex tasks learned better with REM sleep By activating theta rhythm, PGO spikes prime the hippocampus to "save" information Theta waves function as signal enhancer Memory consolidation of the days events

What are the 2-3 month milestones?

Brightness (rods) - detects 5% change at 2 months Color (cones) - mature at 2-3 months - now perceives shades of colors Scanning - explore figure interiors - prefers "normal faces"

What is cocaine's effect on a pregnant woman?

Can cause spontaneous abortion, tremors, premature separation of the placenta, low birthweight

What tastes do babies prefer?

Can distinguish sweet, bitter, salty, and sour tastes BUT PREFER SWEETS - flavor preferences are highly responsive to learning/may be influenced by early tastes that are exposed during infancy

Neuron's basic parts?

Cell body/nucleus (soma), axon, dendrites, terminal buttons, myelin and nodes of Ranvier

What is the proximodistal principle?

Center (trunk) to extremeties (toes), moves arms & legs before pincher grasp

What is psychosocial/socioemotional development?

Changes and carryover in personal and interpersonal aspects of development, such as motives, emotions, personality traits, interpersonal skills & relationships, and roles played in the family and in the larger society

What is cognitive development?

Changes and continuities in perception, language, learning, memory, problem solving, and other mental processes

Genetic relatedness?

Child to parent: 50% Siblings: 50% (average) Grandchild to grandparent: 25% Identical twin (monozygotic): 100% Fraternal twins (dizygotic): 50%

The social learning theory of gender development proposes that

Children learn masculine or feminine identities, preferences, and behaviors through differential reinforcement and observational learning

What are the three learning behaviors and who had thought of them?

Classical: Watson (and Rosalie Raynor) Operant: B.F. Skinner Observational: Bandura

What is the sociocultural perspective?

Cognitive development is shaped by the sociocultural context in which it occurs and grows out of children's social interaction with members of their culture - the role of the environment

Coordination of Secondary Schemes (8 - 12 months)?

Combination of actions to solve simple problems (e.g., bat aside a barrier to grasp an object, using the scheme as a means to an end); first evidence of intentionality

Grandpa Sylvester loves spending time going to professional wrestling events with his grandson Elmer. He comments that the best part is that he can have fun without worrying about parenting responsibilities. Sylvester is best described as having a _____ style.

Companionate

___ grief is unusually prolonged or intense and tends to impair functioning

Complicated

What is the corpus callosum?

Connects left and right central hemispheres of the brain

What is figure/ground contour?

Contour: the amount of light-dark transition or boundary area in a visual stimulus - light/dark edges - babies prefer bold patterns with shape contrast - at 3 months

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

What best describes the typical course of language acquisition during the first 2 years?

Cooing begins, then babbling, then the first word is spoken at around 1 year, the vocabulary spurt then occurs around 18 months and then words are combined into 2-3 word sentences

What is common motion?

Could also be known as the "Law of Common Fate" by Gestalt - states that humans tend to group similar objects together that share a common motion or destination

What is active correlation?

Create or seek out - Children seek out environments that are compatible with their genes - The environment they seek out will strengthen their gene expression

What is organogenesis?

Creating major organs from starch

Know some things about expertise in a domain & cognitive ability...

Critics concluded that Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of young children; recent studies suggest that children master some Piagetian concepts earlier than Piaget believed they did, although defenders of Piaget would question whether some of the simplified tasks used by later researchers really demonstrate that young children have fully mastered the concepts tested

Which of the following is a criticism of the grief work perspective?

Cross cultural studies reveal that there are many ways to grieve and that the model may be culturally biased

Judy was just told that she has terminal cancer. She believes that the results her ... are incorrect. Kubler Ross

Denial

Characteristics of nurture?

Environment, learning, experience, cultural influences

What is DNA methylation?

DNA methylation is the addition of methyl group to the DNA's cytosine base It may affect gene transcription through several different mechanisms (usually repression of transcription) The methylation pattern is heritable after cell division; therefore, DNA methylation plays an important role cell differentiation during development

What occurs during the zygote-germinal period?

Day 1- fertilization usually occurs within 24 hours of ovulati Day 2- single celled zygote begins to divide 24-36 hours after fertilization Day 3 & 4- morula travels down fallopian tube to uterus Day 5- inner cell mass forms- blastula Day 6 & 7- blastocyst attaches to wall or uterus Day 8-14- blastocyst becomes fully embedded in the wall of uterus

When is the blastocyte fully embedded in the uterine wall?

Day 8-14 of the zygote-germinal period

Which of the following is the best description of trends in the likelihood of death across the lifespan?

Death rates are relatively high during infancy, there is a relatively small chance of dying during childhood and adolescence, and death rates increase throughout adulthood

Higher mental functions?

Deliberate, focused cognitive processes

What is a interval (time) reinforcement schedule?

Dependent on "amount of time" that has passed (and a response being made) - fixed interval- pay day, pain meds - scalloping with post-reinforcement pause

What is a ratio (number) reinforcement schedule?

Dependent on amount of work - fixed ratio- piece work - variable ratio-slot machines

3 goals of psychology?

Description - Characterizing the functioning of humans of different ages and tracing how it changes with age - Describing both normal development and individual differences/variations in development Explanation - Seeking to understand why humans develop as they typically do and why some individuals develop differently than other - Studying the contributions of nature and nurture to development Optimization/Influence - How can humans be helped to develop in positive directions? - How can their capabilities be enhanced, how can developmental difficulties be prevented, and how can any developmental problem that emerge be overcome?

Gopniks borccoli bs cracher experiment showed that children 18-24 months have developed the ___ psychology stage in theory of moral developement?

Desire

What is Huntington's?

Deterioration of the nervous system in middle age, associated with dementia, jerky movements, and personality changes Cause by: abnormal number of repetitions of DNA sequence

What are the 7 assumptions about life-span development?

Development is a: - life long process - multidirectional - involves both gain and loss - characterized by life long plasticity - shaped by its historical-cultural context - multiply influenced - studied by multiple disciplines

Which of the following questions best characterizes the continuity-discontinuity issue the developmental psychologists grapple with?

Does poor functioning in childhood predict poor functioning in later life?

Which period of adulthood is associated with the highest levels of stress and life strains?

Early adulthood

What is Bronfenbrenner and what did he believe?

Ecological development: his theory was key in changing the perspective of developmental psychology by calling attention to the large number of environmental and societal influences on child development Microsystem: Immediate environment Mesosystem: Interrelationships of microsystems Macrosystem: External, social settings that have indirect effects Exosystem: Society, world events, the planet, historical era Chronosystem: Time

Who performed the visual cliff experiments?

Eleanor Gibson & Richard Walk

Elkind: imaginary audience, personal fable?

Elkind describes how young adolescents, because they are undergoing major physiological changes, are preoccupied by themselves. The egocentrism of adolescents lies in their belief that others are as preoccupied with their appearance and behavior as they are. As a consequence, the adolescent anticipates other people's responses and thoughts about herself, and is, in a way, constantly creating or reacting to an imaginary audience. - confusing your own thoughts of a hypothesized audience for your behavior (getting spaghetti on your shirt and thinking that people may think of you as a slob) According to Elkind, this probably plays a role in the self-consciousness so common in early adolescence, as well as other experiences in this period of life. Elkind also introduced the idea of the personal fable, in which the adolescent constructs a story about herself, a version of her life stressing the uniqueness of her feelings and experiences. Indeed, these ideas of personal uniqueness are also seen in a common conviction that the adolescent will not die. Elkind stressed how he found these concepts useful in understanding and treating troubled adolescents. Elkind believes the egocentrism of early adolescence usually lessens by the age of 15 or 16 as cognitive development proceeds. - tendency to think that you and yours thoughts and feelings are unique (being in love and saying the no one in the history of the whole human race has ever felt such heights of emotion)

What does the alphabetic principle lead to?

Emergent literacy

Which component of morality is characterized by the feelings that surround right or wrong actions and the feelings that motivate moral thoughts and actions?

Emotional

The processes involved in initiating, maintaining, and altering emotional responses are known as

Emotional regulation

What is functional grammar?

Emphasizes meaning being expressed, semantic relations between words. (Order may be important or not.) Ex: young children often use the same word order to convey different meanings - "Hit Billy" or "Billy hit" - Body language and tone of voice also communicate meaning

What is the life-course perspective?

Events such as retirement need to be considered within the context of life events experienced by a person (health status, financial stability, social network, etc.,)

Which theory of moral development proposes that morality is a part of human nature because morality helps humans adapt to their environment?

Evolutionary theory

What is Steven Pinker?

Experimental psychologist who has studied and written extensively on all aspects of language development, estimates that a new word is acquired every 2 hours during this time.

Tertiary Circular Reactions (12 - 18 months)?

Experimentation to find new ways to solve problems or produce interesting outcomes (e.g., explore bathwater by gently patting it, then hitting it vigorously and watching the results; or stroke, pinch, squeeze, and pat a cat to see how it responds to varied actions)

How do you know when a person is in REM sleep?

Eyeball movement

What is alcohol and its effects on a baby?

FAS (Fetal alcohol syndrome) Overshoot (elevator goes all the way to the top floor; everyone is having a party instead of doing their function)

What is anencephaly?

Failure of anterior tube to close; fatal

What is spina bifida?

Failure of posterior tube to close; possibly fatal

What is the function of the amygdala?

Fear Recognition of what to avoid

What is an umbilical cord?

Feeds oxygen and nutrients excretes CO2

What did Pavlov do?

First discovered classical conditioning - demonstrated how dogs, who have an innate (unlearned) tendency to salivate at the sight of food, could learn to salivate at the sound of a bell if, during a training period, the bell was regularly sounded just as a dog was given meat powder

Beginning of thought (18 - 24 months)?

First evidence of insight; solve problems mentally, using symbols to stand for objects and actions; visualize how a stick could be used (e.g., move an out-of-reach toy closer); no longer limited to thinking by doing.

What was the unconditioned stimulus in Pavlov's experiment?

Food

What is Zone of Proximal Development?

Gap between what learner can do independently What can he do with help What he can't do Can do → Zone ← too difficult

How does Eagly's social-role theory explain gender differences?

Gender differences are created and maintained by differences in the roles that men and women play in society rather than being inherent

What is the orthogenetic principle?

General (global) → specific, moves whole body, extends only one arm, grasps bottle with hand

What is passive correlation?

General home environment - the association between the genotype a child inherits from her parents and the environment in which the child is raised

Marital satisfaction with entry of first child

Generally declines; usually a steeper decline for women (post partum depression happy and fulfilled stress juggling responsibilites weight gain)

Marital satisfaction with exit of last child

Generally increases yet very sad

Wha is evocative correlation?

Generate responses from others - Genetically influenced attributes will affect the behavior of others toward him/her. These behaviors will typically strengthen the child's initial attributes Ex. good athletes get more attention and get better when the average players don't get better because the good players are getting all the attention

Those who are in middle adulthood are said to be in Erikson's ___ stage and grappling with whether they are leaving something behind for future generations

Generativity vs. Guilt

Process of sex determination?

Genes - Genes on the Y chromosome cause undifferentiated tissue to develop into testicular tissue Prenatal hormonal surges - (7th week) "testes" secrete testosterone prenatally, causing male reproductive organs to form and inhibits female reproductive organs Puberty hormonal surges

What did the Human Genome Project map?

Genome - An organism's entire collection of genes 20,000 - 25,000 genes Human genomes are nearly identical - Yet tiny genetic differences make a difference .001% difference in genome, your DNA would not match the crime scene/you are not the baby's father .5-4% difference in genome, you may be a chimpanzee 50% difference in genome from a banana

Whose adolescent growth spurt is first?

Girls

What is blastula/blastocyte?

Hallow ball of 150 cells formed by division of zygote

Temporal lobe function?

Hearing, speech comprehension (Wernickie's area), memory (hippocampus), fear (amygdala), and categorize/organize

What is the cephalocaudal principle?

Head to tail. Lifts head before controlling trunk to turn, sits up before controlling legs to walk

What is the function of the temporal lobe?

Hearing Memory Personality Categorization & organization Speech comprehension Wernikie's area

Characteristics of nature?

Heredity, maturation, genes, innate

What pitch of sound do children prefer?

High

The authoritarian parenting approach is characterized by ___ acceptance responsiveness and ___ demandingness control

High, high

What is HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)?

Hormone that gives rise to placenta Keeps the uterine line in place Lasts about 2 weeks

What is Gotlieb's Epigenetic Theory?

How genes (& their products) interact with the environment to guide development - Species interact with environment - Individual interact with unique environments Genetic endowment - Makes outcomes/paths probable Environmental factors Can influence genes and genetic outcomes Genes & environment are partners in direction organisms - they co-act

gender similarities hypothesis

Hyde's proposition that men and women (and boys and girls) are much more similar than they are different

A person's level of religiosity

If someone understands that people may hold incorrect beliefs that influence their behaviors

Who is Esther Thelen?

In Thelen's view behavior emerges as a pattern from all the streams that flow into the river of infant development. Or, as she wrote "The mind simply does not exist as something decoupled from the body and experience".

What is vicarious reinforcement?

In observational learning, the consequences experienced by models, because of their behavior, that affect the learner's likelihood of engaging in the behavior - model is rewarded

What is vicarious punishment?

In observational learning, the tendency to engage in a behavior is weakened after having observed the negative consequences for another engaging in that behavior - model is punished

emotional understanding

In the second year of life, teasing a sibling or comforting a playmate who is crying reflects an understanding that other people have emotions and that these emotions can be influenced for bad or good

What is glaucoma?

Increased fluid pressure in the eye that causes damage to the optic nerve and can cause a progressive loss of peripheral vision, and ultimately, blindness

What supports the "nature" theory of language development?

Infants and children progress through the same sequences of learning language at similar ages and make similar errors

What is the endoderm?

Inside layer

The 3 components of Sternberg's triangular theory of love

Intimacy, passion, and commitment

Biological death

Irreversible somatic death, where life cannot be restored.

In what months of the year do men produce the most testosterone?

June/July

childhood gender nonconformity (CGN)

Lack of adherence as a child to the typical gender-role norms for members of one's assigned gender group.

What is PKU?

Lack of an enzyme that is needed to metabolize phenylalanine in milk and many other foods which results in the conversion of phenylalanine into an acid that attacks the nervous system and causes mental retardation

Which of the following is an early indicator of autism?

Lack of eye contact

Which of the following is an internalizing problem?

Lack of social control

What is an LAD?

Language acquisition device (LAD), - sifts through language, applies the universal rules, and begins tailoring the system to the specifics of the language spoken in the young child's environment.

Who is Thorndike and what did he believe?

Law of Effect - the response to a stimulus is affected by the consequence of that behavior - trial & error learning results in some behaviors (those follows by a good consequence) being "stamped in", while others (those follows by discomfort or unpleasant consequences) are stamped out - behavioral response is affected by the consequence of that behavior - behavior changes because of its consequences - rewarded behavior is likely to reoccur

What is latent learning?

Learning occurs but is not evident in behavior; children can learn from observation even though they do no imitate (perform) the learned responses - learning that occurs but is not exhibited until there is reinforcement or an incentive to do so

Who was Noam Chomsky?

Linguist who drew attention to the child's learning of these rules by proposing that language be described in terms of a transformational grammar

What did Watson do?

Little Albert Experiment (classical conditioning - fears are not innate and can be learned) Rat was presented to Albert and showed no fear --> after presenting rat to Albert, Watson bangs a steel rod with a hammer (UCS) for fear (UCR) --> during conditioning, stimuli of the rat and the loud noise were presented together several times --> Watson present the rat without the bang --> Albert begins to whimper and cry (white rat - CS; fear after rat- CR) --> same response is generalized with furry items *emotional responses can be learned*

What is a low-birth weight infant?

Lower the weight, lower the chance of survival

What is pidgin?

Makeshift combination of two languages - Not a true language - For practical tasks - No grammar -- No consistent word order -- No prefixes or suffixes -- No tense

What is neuron proliferation?

Making of new neurons. Only happens in the first weeks of life. 50-100K a second. Weeks 5-20.

The gender similarities hypothesis states that

Males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables

What is multiplicity?

Many views

What is morula?

Mass of 16 cells; ball of cells

What did Myrtle McGraw do?

McGraw's work was notable for her emphasis on observation and the novelty of some of her methods. She looked for cues in the infant's behavior to suggest environmental challenges that would promote optimal motor development. She was the first to demonstrate the swimming reflex in 2- and 4-month old infants. In her research with the Woods twins, to challenge the development of equilibrium and stepping movements she put 13-month old Johnny on roller skates. To the surprise of the research team and the delight of the media, Johnny became a very skillful skater. In 1935 she published the results of her twin study, Growth: A Study of Johnny and Jimmy.

What is amniocentesis?

Medical procedure used in determining chromosomal abnormalities

Parts of the brain stem and functions?

Medulla Oblongata - Vegetative functions - HR, Resp, BP Reticular activating system (RAS) - Arousal, wakefulness & sleep Thalamus - Sensory Relay Center

What is the function of the hippocampus?

Memory

What is the mesoderm?

Middle layer

Which neuron process is most affected by alcohol?

Migration

What is SORC?

Model for conceptualizing a behavior S = stimulus or "antecedent" factors which occur before target behavior O = organismic variables relevant to target behavior R = the response = the target behavior C = consequences of target behavior

What are some lateralizations for babies?

More likely to turn their heads right 1/4 prefer the right hand in their grasp reflex More left hemispheric response to speech sounds Right handedness more popular (left hemisphere) - males more likely to be left handed - genetics play a role, though for left handedness experiences can be a factor

What does the cerebellum do?

Motor Coordination 'Unconscious' or 'Procedural' Memory

What soothes newborns?

Mother's voice, their own amniotic fluid, and their mother's breast milk

Nuclear family

Mother, father and children living as a unit

What is the corpus callosum?

Nerve fibers that connect the brain's two hemispheres - brain/body connections are crossed

Nervous system development?

Neural plate: ectodermal cells differentiae into neural plate (16 days) Neural tube: Neural plate forms neural tube which becomes the beginnings of the CNS Neural crest cells: Neural plate forms neural crest cells which becomes the beginnings of the PNS

Which of the following best describes how sending an infant to daycare influences attachment?

No differences in secure attachment compared to those who do not go to daycare

Growth trends of moral reasoning into later adulthood

No major age differences in complexity of moral reasoning when the age groups compared have similar education

Daycare Influence on Attachment

None

Example of bottom-up processing?

Nose smells something funky (response in body) --> repulsion (emotion)

The Big Five personality dimensions

OCEAN - Openness - Conscientiousness - Extraversion - Agreeableness - Neuroticism

Categorical-self

Occurs once babies realize they are separate. It is becoming aware that even though we're separate, we exist in the world with others. Babies first learn AGE and GENDER, then SKILLS and SIZE. They learn concepts like traits, comparisons, and careers last.

What is an allele?

One of the possible variants of a particular gene

12 mo - one word / (syncretic speech) or holophrases,

One word stage Objects (nominal): - Food: juice, milk, cookie - Body parts: eye, nose - Clothing: diaper, sock - Toys: doll, block - Items: car, bottle, light, kitty Actions: - Up, off, peekaboo, eat, go Modifiers - Hot, allgone, more

Which visual field sends information to each hemisphere and which side of the body each hemisphere controls?

Opposite sides

What is the ectoderm?

Outer layer

What is over-regularization AKA overgeneralization?

Over-applying rules where proper form is irregular Example • Child: My teacher holded the baby rabbits

What is anoxia?

Oxygen shortage pinch umbilical cord

What is the function of the frontal lobe?

PFC/Association "Personality" Strategy formation Associative learning Risk taking, rule breaking Motor inhibition Smell Motor Voluntary Speech Production Broca's Area

PGO spikes?

PGO: pontine - geniculate - occipital - Brain stem - thalamus - visual cortex Originate in brainstem area (pons) Activates visual cortex & motor cortex Inhibits motor neurons in spinal cord Stimulates rapid eye movements Causes theta rhythm in hippocampus

Models of influence

Parent Effects Model Child Effects Model Interactional Model Transactional Model

What are memes?

Passed down from generation to generation Informal conversations, schooling, rituals Ways of problem solving - an idea, behavior, or style that spreads from person to person within a culture - acts as a unit for carrying cultural ideas, symbols, or practices that can be transmitted from one mind to another through writing, speech, gestures, rituals, or other imitable phenomena with a mimicked theme

Properties of patterns that capture the young infant's attention

Patterns that have a large amount of light-dark transition, or contour Displays that are dynamic (as opposed to static), or contain movement Patterns that are moderately complex

Adult stage?

Postformal thought: Understanding that knowledge is relative, not absolute; there are far more shades of gray than there are clear dichotomies of knowledge. Accepting that the world (physical and mental) is filled with contradictions: inconsistent information can exist side by side. Attempting to integrate the contradictions into some larger understanding.

Positive psychological change resulting from highly challenging experiences such as being diagnosed with a life-threatening illness or losing a loved one is known as

Posttraumatic growth

Frontal lobe function?

Pre-frontal = higher order thinking (risk taking, working memory) Motor cortex = voluntary control of skeletal muscles, fine motor movement & strength Brocas area = speech production

What are the 4 steps of the alphabetic principle (in order)?

Prealphabetic phase, partial alphabetic phase, full alphabetic phase, consolidated alphabetic phase

Someone in the ___ stage of moral development believes that the goodness or badness of an act depends on the consequences

Preconventional

Prenatal v. Perinatal?

Prenatal - ex/ germinal/zygotic, embryonic, fetal Perinatal - Surrounding the birth

How does the ability to grasp the concept of death change throughout childhood

Preschool age children view death as reversible, then later on children ages 5-7 can understand that death is final

What is the preoperational stage?

Preschoolers use their capacity for symbolic thought to develop language, engage in pretend play, and solve problems. But their thinking is not yet logical They are egocentric (unable to take others' perspectives) and are easily fooled by perceptions, failing conservation problems because they cannot rely on logical operations.

What is equipotent?

Principles of learning should apply across different behaviors and across different species ("organisms")

What are the states of infant sleep?

Quiet sleep Active sleep - w/ movements & irregular breathing Drowsy Non-alert waking Alert waking

What is presbycusis (truncated range hearing)?

Problems of the aging ear, which commonly involve loss of sensitivity to high-frequency of high-pitched sounds - hearing aids can help

What is presbyopia?

Problems of the aging eye, especially loss of near vision related to a decreased ability of the lens to accommodate to objects close to the eye - loss of accommodation - caused by the thickening of the lens - cope by moving newspaper further away to read, getting reading glasses

Parietal lobe function?

Processes sensory information regarding the location of parts of the body as well as interpreting visual information and processing language and mathematics

What happens in the nervous system during the third trimester & first 1-2 yrs. of life?

Proliferation, migration, aggregation/organization and differentiation

Diathesis-stress model of psychopathology

Proposes that psychopathology results from the interaction over time of a predisposition or vulnerability to psychological disorder and the experience of stressful events

What does a gene code for?

Protein

What was Rosenzweig's experiment about?

Rats raised in a large cage with a few other rats for company wheels for exercising, and blocks to play with develop more neurons, more connections between neurons, and more glial cells supporting neurons than rats raised in isolation *plasticity*

What was Greenough's experiment about?

Rats that grow up in enriched environments with plenty of sensory stimulation develop larger, better-functioning brains with more synapses than rats that grow up in barren cages *plasticity*

Cerebellum function?

Receives information from the sensory systems, the spinal cord, and other parts of the brain and then regulates motor movements Coordinates voluntary movements such as posture, balance, coordination, and speech, resulting in smooth, balanced muscular activity

What is the olfactory capability at 1 week?

Recognition of mother by smell from breast-fed babies

Sensorimotor stages and ages?

Reflex Activity (Birth - 1 month) Primary Circular Reactions (1 - 4 months) Secondary Circular Reactions (4 - 8 months) Coordination of Secondary Schemes (8 - 12 months) Tertiary Circular Reactions (12 - 18 months) Beginning of thought (18 - 24 months)

What is shaping?

Reinforcing successive approximations of behavior

Grandparenting styles

Remote Companionate involved

Primary Circular Reactions (1 - 4 months)?

Repetition of interesting acts centered on the child's own body (e.g., repeatedly suck a thumb, kick legs, or blow bubbles)

Secondary Circular Reactions (4 - 8 months)?

Repetition of interesting acts on objects (e.g., repeatedly shake a rattle to make an interesting noise or bat a mobile to make it wiggle)

What is dualism?

Right OR wrong

Rates of autism are

Rising

What is syntax?

Rules for word order for arranging words into sentences and phrases. - Englush rule - adjectives before nounds: white house - Spanish rule - nouns first: Casa blanca -sometimes we still need context to determine meaning

What is was unconditioned response in Pavlov's experiment?

Salivation

What is the concrete operational stage?

School-age children acquire concrete logical operations that allow them to mentally classify, add, and otherwise act on concrete objects in their heads. They can solve practical, real-world problems through a trial-and-error approach but have difficulty with hypothetical and abstract problems.

Adults with a ___ attachment style are comfortable entering into intimate relationships and are not worried about being abandoned if they do

Secure

Example of top-down processing?

Seeing a sign that has missing letters (sensory), but still being able to make out the words because of PRIOR knowledge I l_ke c_tt_n ca_dy!

What is the function of the parietal lobe?

Sensory Association areas Math (angular gyrus - left) Body image Spatial ability & drawing Contralateral neglect (right)

What are the reflexes?

Sensory, Afferent, Motor, Efferent Permanent: Breathing, Eye blink, Pupillary Early: Rooting, sucking, swallowing Primitive: Babinski, Grasping, Moro (startle), swimming & stepping, extensor reflex, flexor reflex Positive: Automated responses, neonatal survival, adult automation Negative: may interfere with motor function if still present

What are some sources of genetic variability?

Sexual reproduction, crossing over, mutation, migration in or out, inbreeding & outbreeding

What is the main developmental trend in moral reasoning that occurs during adolescence for most individuals?

Shift from preconventional to conventional reasoning

Children of homosexual couples show ___ developmental outcomes to children of heterosexual couples

Similar

What are monozygotic/identical twins?

Single fertilized egg (1 zygote) Identical genetics Raise together, raised apart?

What is NOT a characteristic of skilled readers?

Skilled readers have low sensitivity to rhyme

What is the Skinner box?

Skinner would give a reward or punishment towards the birds or rats in the Skinner box, while teaching them a trick (light, food)

What is andropause?

Slower and not as dramatic as menopause in women, is characterized by decreasing levels of testosterone and a variety of symptoms including low libido, fatigue and lack of energy, erection problems, memory problems, and loss of pubic hair

What are the 2 defining characteristics of Autism Spectrum Disorder?

Social and communication deficits; Restricted and repetitive interests and behaviors

Which of the following best describes how social cognitive abilities change later in life?

Social cognitive abilities remain relatively intact during aging

What is an age grade?

Socially defined age groups or strata, each with different statuses, roles, privileges, and responsibilities in society

What is an ultrasound?

Sound waves to detect development

What is lateralization?

Specializations of each hemisphere Localization of function or activity on one side of the body in preference to the other. Specific parts of the brain have specific functions

What is neuron differentiation?

Specialize structurally and functionally

What are the 3 broad criteria that are used in defining when a psychological disorder is present?

Statistical deviance, Maladaptiveness, Personal distress

The number of adults pursuing continuing education has ___ in recent years?

Steadily increased

What does radiation do to a pregnant woman?

Stillborn, handicapped, mental retardation, greater risk of cancer

Mary Ainsworth developed an experimental method for determining the quality and style of an attachment relationship between a child and their caregiver. She called it

Strange Situation Test

What is scaffolding?

Structure a learning situation so learning becomes easier Giving guidelines to complete tasks --> Legos

What is surfactant?

Substance that prevents air sacs of the lungs from sticking together

Which neuron process is most affected by radiation?

Surviving children from the mothers affected by the radiation had a higher than normal rate of mental retardation and greater chance of acquiring leukemia and cancers later in life.

ANS?

Sympathetic - Fight or Flight - Mobilizes for emergency - Accelerates - Diffuse/widespread - Adrenaline - Epinephrine - Norepinephrine Parasympathetic - Rest & rejuvenate - Slows/digests - Discrete - Acetylcholine

What is time-out?

Technique for the control of problem behaviour based on operant conditioning principles

What is chorionic villus sampling (CVS)?

Test done during early pregnancy to find problems with the fetus by testing placental tissue

What was the experiment that Fantz performed and what was the outcome of it?

Testing the visual perception on infants Outcome: infantss preferred to look at the picture that seemed more of a human face rather than the scrambled one

What does the left side of the brain do?

The LEFT hemisphere controls the right side of the body (ie right hand) Right visual field to LEFT brain Math Speech/Words/Lists Explains, gives reasons Laughter Motor to and sensory from right body & right visual field

What does the right side of the brain do?

The RIGHT hemisphere controls the left side of the body (ie left hand) Left visual Field to RIGHT brain Spatial/Pictures/Diagrams Faces Emotional tone Motor to & sensory from left body & left visual field

What is visual accommodation?

The ability of the lens of the eye to change shape to bring objects at different distances into focus - 6 months-1 year

What is discrimination?

The ability to distinguish one stimuli from another, responding only to the CS

What is acuity?

The ability to perceive detail - ability to distinguish two points close together - sharpness - newborn: poor, 20/600 & prefers bold patterns w/ sharp contrast, closeness (8" from face)

The emergence of symbolic capacity?

The ability to use images, words, or gestures to represent or stand for objects and experiences—enables more sophisticated problem solving.

What is intermodal/cross-modal perception?

The ability to use one sensory modality to identify a stimulus or a pattern of stimuli already familiar through another modality - developed around 3-6 months

When a parent loses a child, how does the age of the child affect grief?

The age of the child who dies has little relation to the severity of the grief

What best describes semantics?

The aspect of language centering on meanings

What is spermarche?

The beginning of development of sperm in boys' testicles at puberty. It contrasts with menarche in girls. Depending on their upbringing, cultural differences, and prior sexual knowledge, boys may have different reactions to spermarche, ranging from fear to excitement

What is maturation (caused by genes)?

The biological unfolding of the individual according to a plan contained in genes

What is plasticity (re-wiring, Sharon video)?

The brains ability to rewire itself over time as the environment changes

What is transduction? Related to?

The conversion of one form of energy to another/process that converts a sensory signal to an electrical signal to be processed in a specialized area in the brain - changing, encoding, or transducing that energy into neural signals *sensation*

What is myelination?

The covering of the neurons axon in a myelin, a fatty covering that improves the speed of impulse conduction

The socioemotional selectivity hypothesis refers to

The decrease in quantity but increase in quality of adult friendships

What is menopause?

The ending of a woman's menstrual periods in midlife. The process takes place gradually over 5-10 years as periods become either more or less frequent and less regular. Levels of estrogen and other fe- male hormones decline so that the woman who has been through menopause has a hormone mix that is less "feminine" and more "masculine" than that of the premenopausal woman. When menopause is completed, a woman is no longer ovulating, no longer menstruating, and no longer capable of conceiving a child

What is natural selection?

The evolutionary principle that individuals who have characteristics advantageous for survival in a particular environment are most likely to survive and reproduce

Who determines the sex of the baby?

The father (sperm cells) - XX= Female - XY= Male

Developmental psychopathology is

The field of study concerned with the origins and courses of maladaptive or psychopathological behavior

What is a genotype?

The genetic endowment that an individual inherits

What is single gene/gene-linked?

The genetic mechanism through which a characteristic is influenced by only one pair of genes, one gene from the mother and its partner from the father

What is extinction?

The gradual weakening and disappearance of a learned response when it is no longer reinforced Lessening of a conditioned response - Classical: occurs when the UCS is no longer paired with the CS - Operant: occurs when behavior is no longer reinforced

What is physical development?

The growth of the body and its organs, the functioning of physiological systems including the brain, physical signs of aging, changes in motor abilities, etc.

Childhood amnesia

The inability to remember events and experiences that occurred during the first two or three years of life.

What is perception?

The interpretation of sensory input - selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory information - enables recognition and makes meaning of objects and events - based on "higher level" information (prior knowledge or experience or wiring) - making meaning *top-down processing*

What is hearing acuity?

The keenness or sharpness of hearing - is good at birth - more developed than vision - orient to soft sounds; startles & retreats from loud sounds (reflexive at birth; voluntary control at 4 months) - recognizes mother's voice - prefer relatively complex sounds

The situation of middle-aged adults who are pressured by demands from both the younger and older generations simultaneously is known as

The middle-generation squeeze

What is neuron migration?

The moving of neurons to their correct area and layer of the brain (1-6)

parental imperative

The notion that the demands of parenthood cause men and women to adopt distinct roles and psychological traits.

The middle-generation squeeze

The phenomenon in which middle-aged adults sometimes experience heavy responsibilities for both the younger and the older generations in the family.

What is a sensory threshold?

The point at which low levels of stimulation can be detected - dim light being seen - faint tone being heard - slight odor being detected

What is spontaneous recovery?

The reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period

What is sensation?

The process by which information is detected by the sensory receptors and transmitted to the brain/detection of physical energy from the environment by sensory receptors - Also is the starting point in perception - Based on properties of stimulus - properties of the stimulus + transduction *bottom-up processing*

What is dark adaptation ?

The process by which the eyes become more sensitive to light over time as they remain in the dark/process in which the eyes adapt to darkness and become more sensitive to the low level of light available - occurs more slowly in older individuals than in younger ones - less sensitive/glare

What is assimilation?

The process by which we interpret new experiences in terms of existing schemes or cognitive structures. - Thus, if you already have a scheme that mentally represents your knowledge of dogs, you may label this new beast "doggie."

What is negative reinforcement?

The process in operant conditioning in which a response is strengthened or made more probable when its consequence is the removal of an unpleasant stimulus from the situation (taking something away to increase behavior - something you will be glad is gone) - alarm goes off, pressing the snooze button, alarm noise stops

What is negative punishment?

The process in operant conditioning in which a response is weakened or made less probable when its consequence is the removal of a pleasant stimulus from the stimulus (taking something away to decrease behavior - you will be sorry it is gone) - Getting in a fight with sibling over toy, the mother take the toy away

What is positive reinforcement?

The process in operant conditioning whereby a response is strengthened when its consequence is a pleasant event (applying something increase behavior - something that you like) - candy, food

What is positive punishment?

The process in operant conditioning whereby a response is strengthened when its consequence is an unpleasant event (applying something to decrease behavior - something you don't like) - late to work, driving over the speed limit, gets pulled over and receives a ticket

What is mitosis?

The process in which a cell duplicated its chromosomes and then divides into two genetically identical daughter cells

What is meiosis?

The process in which a germ cell divides, producing sperm or ova, each containing half of the parent cell's original complement of chromosomes (humans: products of meiosis is 23)

What is bottom-up processing?

The process in which sensation is stimulated before the brain is active in decision-making - pressure waves of sound, temperature differences (heat, cold), chemical molecules for smell, wavelengths of light *sensory information/body response --> emotion --> brain/thoughts/beliefs

What is top-down processing?

The process in which the brain makes use of information that has already been brought into the brain by one or more sensory systems - rules the brain to interpret sensory information The Gestalt - the "percept" - a unified whole - things being grouped perceptually because the stimuli occur close to one another in time and space - ex: leaves and branches merging into trees, and trees merging into forests

gender typing

The process of developing the behaviors, thoughts, and emotions associated with a particular gender.

What is accommodation?

The process of modifying existing schemes to incorporate or adapt to new experiences - Piaget's cognitive development theory - Perhaps you will need to invent a new name for this animal (dog) or ask what it is and revise your concept of four-legged animals accordingly

What is learning (caused by environmental influence)?

The process through which experience (environmental stimuli) brings about relatively permanent changes in thoughts, feelings, or behavior

Add meaning

The relationship between words & things, interpreting sentences, paragraphs, etc.

What is A-not-B error?

The surprising tendency of 8- to 12-month-olds to search for an object in the place where they last found it (A) rather than in its new hiding place (B) is called the A-not-B error. The likelihood of infants making the A-not-B error increases with lengthier delays between hiding and searching and with the number of trials in which the object is found in spot A (Marcovitch & Zelazo, 1999).

What is size constancy?

The tendency to perceive an object as the same size despite changes in its distance from the eyes - an object keeps its same size no matter its distance from our eyes - change in size of image on retina is cue to depth - visual cliff experiment

belief-desire psychology

The theory of mind reflecting an understanding that people's desires and beliefs guide their behavior and that their beliefs are not always an accurate reflection of reality; evident by age 4.

Which of the following is one of the main ways in which the sociocultural environment contributes to anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders

The thinness ideal that is present in our society

What is a unconditioned response?

The unlearned response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus/natural response

grief work perspective

The view commonly held, but now challenged, that to cope adaptively with death bereaved people must confront their loss, experience painful emotions, work through these emotions, and move toward a detachment from the deceased.

Disengagement theory

The view that aging makes a person's social sphere increasingly narrow, resulting in role relinquishment, withdrawal, and passivity.

Biosocial theory

The view that both thought and behavior have biological and social bases.

What is a phenotype?

The way in which a person's genotype is expressed in observable or measurable characteristics - Gene + environment = expression of gene (characteristics that is displayed by the organism)

Critiques on Piaget?

Themes are correct Sequence of events are correct Order develops roughly the same across cultures Age varies greatly Gradual change Context specific

What is constructivism?

Theory that children actively construct new ideas of the world based on their experiences - the position taken by Piaget and other that humans actively create their own understanding of the world from their experiences, as opposed to being born with innate ideas or being programmed by the environment

Developmental period: Puberty and beyond

Theory: All

Developmental period: Prenatal period

Theory: Biosocial

Developmental period: 7 to puberty

Theory: Cognitive development

Developmental period: 3-6 years

Theory: Gender schema

Developmental period: Birth to 3 years

Theory: social learning

In general, how does sexual desire change with age?

There is a decline in sexual desire with age

What were Darwin's 3 main arguments?

There is genetic variation is species - Some members have different genes than other within a species; if all were identical; there would be no way for the genetic makeup of a species to change over time Some genes aid adaptation more than others do - Having genes for strength and intelligence would likely be better able to adapt to their environment rather than those with weak and dull genes Genes that aid their bearers in adapting to their environment will be passed to future generations more frequently than genes that do not - Natural selection

How do sensory thresholds change with age

They increase with age

What is true object permanence?

This is the fundamental understanding that objects continue to exist—they are permanent—when they are no longer visible or otherwise detect- able to the senses. It probably does not occur to you to wonder whether your coat is still in the closet after you shut the closet door

What is neuron aggregation?

Those with like functions group together

What is a placenta?

Tissue fed by blood vessels from the mother and connected to the embryo by the umbilical cord

What is histone acetylation?

To form the chromosome, DNA strands roll over "nucleosomes", which are a cluster of nine histone proteins Acetyl groups attached to the histone can affect the accessibility of the DNA Acetylation of the lysine residues as the N terminus of histone proteins removes positive charges, thereby reducing the affinity between histone and DNA - This allows RNA polymerase and transcription factors easier access to the promoter regions Histone acetylation enhances transcription Histone deacetylation represses transcription

Why has there been a rise in retirement age?

Today's older workers are healthier and want to keep contributing, mandatory retirement policies are gone, economic uncertainty and rising health-care costs make people feel they need or want to continue working for financial reasons, and the age eligibility for Social Security benefits has increased

Evolutionary theory

Tomasello and Krebs

Communal traits

Traits that have traditionally been associated with women, such as the desire to foster relationships, to be sensitive, and to get along with others.

What is thalidomide and its effects on a pregnant woman?

Tranquilizer taken for nausea Eventually women start to give birth to babies with flipper limbs

Examples of epigenetics?

Traumatic events - Methylated DNA or histones that persist - Restraint stress in rats - Chronic social defeat in rats - Depression in humans - Maternal traumatic events

ADHD treatments

Treatments for ADHD include: -Support group -Cognitive behavioral therapy -Anger management -Counseling psychology -Psychoeducation -Family therapy -Applied behavior analysis -Medications (Stimulant, Cognition-enhancing medication, and Antihypertensive drug)

What are dizygotic/fraternal twins?

Two eggs (2 zygotes) Different genetics Reared together, reared apart?

18-24 - telegraphic speech/two word

Two word stage Ex: "all dry" ; "I sit", "no bed", "all messy"

The earliest stage of attachment where the baby will respond to anyone who is nice to them and taking care of their needs is described as ___ social responsiveness

Undiscriminating

What is "out of Sight, out of mind"?

Up through roughly 4-8 months, it is "out of sight, out of mind"; infants will not search for a toy if it is covered with a cloth or screen. By substage 4 (8-12 months), they master that trick but still rely on their perceptions and actions to "know" an object (Piaget, 1952).

Occipital lobe function?

Vision

How do babies react to sensory integration?

Vision --> sound - looking in the direction of a sound they hear Touch --> vision - infants expecting to feel objects they can see and are frustrated by a visual illusion that looks like a graspable object, but proves to be nothing but when they reach for it

What is the function of the occipital lobe?

Visual Primary visual cortex (some visual "association cortex" in parietal and temporal)

What is folic acid?

Vitamin b9 Crucial for conversion of amino acid homocysteine into methionine Green leafy things Used for production and repair of functioning DNA (rapid cell growth)

What is classical/associative conditioning?

Watson - behaviorism: Believed that conclusions about human development and functioning should be based on observations of overt behavior rather than on speculations about unobservable cognitive and emotional processes - Classical conditioning: a simple form of learning in which a stimulus that initially had no effect on the individual comes to elicit a response through its association with a stimulus that already elicits the response - we learn associations b/w events, anticipate important events - stimulus happens first and ELICITS the response; behavior then follows - Like John Locke

What occurs during the embryo/embryonic period, fetus/fetal period?

Week 9 of fetal period- bone tissue, "fetus," close mouth, turn head Week 10-12 of fetal period- fingers and toes formed, external genetalia, moves Week 13-16 of fetal period- heart beat audible, mom can feel movement Week 17-22 of fetal period- fingernails, toenails, hair, teethbuds, eyelashes, detectable brain waves Week 23-25 of fetal period- age of viability- survival MAY be possible weighs 1 pound Week 26-32 of fetal period- fetus gains weight brain grows Week 33-38 of fetal period- lungs contract and expand

What is relativism?

What is right for you

What is generalization?

When stimuli that are similar to the CS evokes some level of the CR

What is preferential looking/visual preference method?

When two objects are presented together and there is a longer looking time to the "new/different" one - in cross-model matching, we look at the one that we have already experienced - length of time looking *baby will look at the UNSCRAMBLED face*

Which statement is the best example of postconventional moral reasoning?

While it may be legally wrong, it is morally right

Is old age a time for religious and spiritual growth?

Yes

What can newborns smell?

Yes

Does early experience affect later taste preference?

Yes - babies that had a greater exposure to a variety of flavors during infancy may lead to a more adventurous eater later on - early experiences with different flavors also extend to the prenatal period and exposure to different chemicals in the amniotic fluid *cannot discount genetic predisposition!*

Can babies hear before birth?

Yes; fetuses can hear some things outside of the womb 3 months before birth

What best describes the course of achievement motivation during childhood?

Young children start off with growth mindset and adopt mastery goals, but as they age and go throughout school, they are more likely to develop a fixed mindset and adopt performance goals

Are younger or older children more rigid in their beliefs towards gender behaviors?

Younger

Socioemotional selectivity hypothesis

`adult social networks shrink trade quantity for quality we actively narrow social network to those who best meet our needs less desire for social stimulation & new information from acquaintances

Extended Family

a family that extends beyond the nuclear family, including grandparents, aunts, uncles, and other relatives, who all live nearby or in one household.

id

a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

Family Life Cycle

a sequence of changes in family composition, roles, relationships, and developmental tasks from the time people marry until they die

Dementia

a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes

Continuity theory

a theory focusing on how people adjust to retirement by continuing aspects of their earlier lives

What is word segmentation?

ability to detect target word in a stream of speech. Ex: When they hear the sentence "The cat scratched the dog's nose"; they understand that this is not one long word but a string of six words.

imitation

ability to mentally represent other's actions

Parenting style of disorganized attachment

abuse, maltreated, depressed, frightening

Theories of successful aging

activity theory, disengagement theory, continuity theory

gender identity

an internal awareness of their gender

communality

an orientation that emphasizes connectedness to others and includes traits of emotionality and sensitivity to others

biological sex

anatomical and physiological characteristics related to reproduction

False-belief task

assesses the understanding that people can hold incorrect beliefs and that these beliefs, even though incorrect, can influence their behavior

joint attention

at 9-15 months of age, babies can direct their attention to a point in space to which another's eyes are directed

adult: dismissing

avoidant attachment history shut out emotions; defend against hurt by avoiding intimacy, dismissing the importance of relationships and being compulsively self reliant low anxiety high avoidance

gender stability

awareness that gender remains the same over time

When does altruistic rahter than selfish motivations emerge

before they are 2

antisocial behavior

behavior that violates social norms, rules, or laws and often involves harming other people or society

implicit theory of mind

being able to track others mental states unconsciously

What is the difference between biological sex and gender?

biological sex refers to the physical characteristics that define male and female whereas gender refers to a combination of features that a society associates with or considers appropriate for being a man and a woman

Fast mapping

children using sentence context to help them make an education guess on the meaning of the word

gender consistency

child's understanding that his/her sex won't change even if he/she acts like the opposite sex (entering Piaget's concrete operational stage)

Emotional display rules development

children become increasingly able to hide and alter their true feelings as they grow older

Cognitive theory (Kohlberg)

children learn about their gender and then actively seek same-sex models

Influences on identity formation

cognitive development, personality, quality of relationship with parents, opportunities for exploration, cultural context

Two main influences on moral development

cognitive growth and social interactions

Harlow's studies with monkeys and wire or cloth "mothers" demonstrated the importance of

contact comfort

Family Systems Theory

conceptualizing the family as a system, everyone influences one another

Eagly's Social Role Theory

differences in the roles males and females play in society contributes to and maintain gender stereotypes

Marcia's 4 statuses of identity

diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, achievement

Word segmentation

discovering where words begin and end in fluent speech

adult: fearful

disorganized attachment history need relationship but doubt own worth and fear intimacy; lack a coherent strategy for meeting attachment needs high anxiety, high avoidance

Androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

Telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs and leaving out filler words

Three components of morality

emotional, cognitive, behavioral

Primary emotions

emotions that are expressed by people in all cultures

What is Creole?

full complex language with grammar produced by children exposed to pidgin - immigrant children - Kanzi (bonobo or pygmy chimp)

Social cognitive skills ___ during adolescence

improve

understanding intentions

in their first months of life, infants seem to understand that other people have intentions, set goals, and act to achieve them

Parenting style of resistant attachment

inconsistent in their caregiving depending on their moods

Adolescents tend to be ___ of gender tole norm violations

intolerant

gender intensification

increased tolerance of deviance from gender-role expectations gender differences may be magnifies by hormonal changes associates with puberty and increased pressure to conform to gender roles

A father positively influencing the mother-infant relationship be being supportive and sensitive to the mother is an example of a ___ effect

indirect

transgender

individuals have an internal sense of gender that does not match the biological label they were assigned at birth

Children who are neither liked or disliked, who stay on the outskirts and who are "invisible" would be classified as

neglected

mirror neurons

neurons in the brain that are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action and when one performs a similar action

At what rate does initial language acquisition proceed?

one word at a time

Holophrases

one-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase, whose meaning depends on the particular context in which they are used

Cooing

oooh, aaahhh

gender schemata

organized set of beliefs and expectations about males and females that influence the kinds of information they will attend to and remember

gener stereotype

overgeneralized and largely inaccurate beliefs about the characteristics of all males and all females

Interactional model

parent and child characteristics may combine in certain ways to influence development

The model of family influence that would place blame on the parent if the child was misbehaving is the

parent effects model

The notion that the demands of parenthood cause men and women to adopt distinct roles and psychological traits is known as

parental imperative

The maturity principle

people become better equipped to deal with the demands of life as they acquire experience and skills

prosocial behavior

positive social acts

Main developmental trend in moral reasoning that occurs during adolescence

preconventional to conventional

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

preconventional, conventional, postconventional

When is gender stability established?

preschool

Theories of Personality

psychoanalytic theory, trait theory, social learning theory

Social referencing

reading emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation

Surgency/extraversion

refers to the extent to which a child is generally happy, active, vocal, and regularly seeks interesting stimulation

Parenting style of avoidant attachment

rejecting, impatient, unresponsive, resentful

adult: preoccupied

resistant attachment history desperate for love to feel worth as a person; worry about abandonment; express anxiety and anger openly high anxiety, low avoidance

What are semantics?

rules for meanings - Greek: significance, to signify meaning

What is transformational grammar?

rules of syntax for transforming basic underlying thoughts into a variety of sentence forms.

adult: secure

secure attachment history healthy balance of attachments and autonomy; freedom to explore low anxiety, low avoidance

Parenting style of secure attachment

sensitive and responsive to their needs

Religiosity

sharing the beliefs and participating in the practices of an organized religion

Sounds produced from birth

sneezing, cried, burps, grunts

Stages of Preconventional morality

stage 1: obedience and punishment orientation stage 2: instrumental hedonism

Babbling

stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds In what Piaget would call, a primary circular reaction

Social cognitive abilities during aging

strengthen during adulthood and improves as they age

the positivity effect

tendency for people to remember more positive than negative information with age

negative affectivity

tendency to experience negative emotions and moods, feel distressed, and be critical of oneself and others

Emotional regulation

the ability to control when and how emotions are expressed

Joint attention

the ability to focus on what another person is focused on

Effortful control

the ability to regulate one's emotions and actions through effort, not simply through natural inclination

Euthanasia

the act of painlessly killing a suffering person or animal; mercy killing

Emergent literacy

the developmental precursors of reading skills in young children

Dual-process theory of morality

the dual-process theory states that moral judgments are either processed emotionally (fast, not thought through, unconscious) or rationally (slow, thought through, conscious)

What is menarche?

the first menstrual cycle, or first menstrual bleeding, in female humans. From both social and medical perspectives, it is often considered the central event of female puberty, as it signals the possibility of fertility

Growth mindset

the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow

What is the alphabetic principle?

the idea that the letters in printed words represent the sounds in spoken words in a systematic way

Fixed mindset

the idea that we have a set amount of ability that cannot change

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

goodness of fit

the match between a child's temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with

Overextention

the overly broad use of words, overgeneralizing their meaning (calling any four-legged, hairy animal "doggie")

Underextension

the overly restrictive use of words (only using the word "doggie" to refer to basset hounds)

superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

gender roles

the patterns of behavior that females and males should adopt in a particular society

Parentese (child-directed speech)

the speech adults use with infants: short-simple sentences spoken slowly, in a higher-pitched voice and with an altered quality that seems to help engage infants as they are trying to decipher these vocalizations

syntactic bootstrapping

the strategy of using the grammatical structure (syntax) of whole sentences to figure out meaning of one word

Social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

social learning theory (Bandura and Mischel)

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

empathy

the vicarious experiencing of another's persons of feelings

Activity theory

theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby

Social cognition is best defined as

thinking about the thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviors of one's self and others.

Emotional display rules

what emotions should and should not be expressed under circumstances

expansion

when toddlers use a familiar word of phrase and mothers respond a more complete expression of what the toddler stated