PSYC 523 Chapter 14

____ about the skills and behaviors necessary for effective leadership are one rea-son for sex- based discrimination.

Biased beliefs

Other possible reasons for the glass ceiling have been suggested, which include: ( 6) lack of strong efforts to gain ___ to leadership positions,

access

These values tend to be associated with stronger needs for ___ and ____ than for pleasure, achievement, or power.

affiliation and belongingness

The _____ laws are based on the premise that men and women are equally qualified to hold leadership posi-tions.

antidiscrimination

A strong concern for task performance is widely believed to be a requirement for effective leadership in ____.

any country

Structural mechanisms to uncover discrimination and reward tolerance are also help-ful. Examples include: ( 1) ___ criteria that include diversity issues,

appraisal

Even when some types of leadership behaviors are not ____ by the prevailing cultural values and traditions in a country, it does not necessarily mean that these behaviors are ineffective.

clearly supported

Another difficulty in evaluating results in research on gender differences in leadership is caused by the type of ___ and reporting of results.

data analysis

Managers use more detailed planning, formal rules and standard procedures, and monitoring of activities, and there is less ___

delegation

Different sets of cultural value dimensions have been proposed by schol-ars, and disagreements about ____ have not been resolved.

desirable features

Other possible reasons for the glass ceiling have been suggested, which include: ( 4) lack of encouragement and opportunity for _____,

developmental activities

The most common approach has been to explain cross- cultural ___ in leadership in terms of ___ in cultural values.

differences

When cross- cultural studies have large samples, it is easy to find significant ___, and researchers have not been consistent about reporting whether the ___ have much practi-cal significance.

differences

Reviews of this research on gender and leadership ___about the results

disagree

Other possible reasons for the glass ceiling have been suggested, which include: 3) exclusion of women from ____ that aid advancement,

informal networks

The values are likely to be ____ by managers who grow up in a particular culture, and these values will influence their attitudes and behavior in ways that may not be conscious.

internalized

Leaders must also be able to understand how people from different cultures view them and __ their actions.

interpret

The differences among countries for ideal values were much smaller than for actual values, and it is still not clear how to___ the results

interpret

Even for well- designed studies, the ___ of results is often difficult.

interpretation

It can be difficult to achieve equivalence in meaning when questionnaires are translated into another ___, and there are cultural differences in response biases even for scales with equivalent ___

language

Another reason for conformity with social norms is that the use of socially unacceptable forms of behavior is likely to undermine a _____.

leader's effectiveness

Serious ____ in much of the research on gender differences complicate interpreta-tion of the results.

limitations

Widespread discrimination is clearly evident in the ___ of women who hold important, high- level leadership positions in most types of organizations.

low number

An organization is less likely to have shared values and strong member commitment when it has many diverse members who identify primarily with their own subgroup. Thus, ____ is an important but a difficult responsibility of leaders in the twenty- first century.

managing diversity

For a long time, it was assumed that effective leaders must be confident, task- oriented, competitive, objective, decisive, and assertive, all of which were traditionally viewed as ___ attributes

masculine

A topic of great interest among practitioners as well as scholars is the possible difference between __ and ___ in leadership behavior and effectiveness.

men and women

Other possible reasons for the glass ceiling have been suggested, which include: ( 5) lack of opportunity for effective _____

mentoring,

The advancement by women and minorities is facilitated by __ programs that pro-vide adequate advice, encouragement, and assistance.

mentorship

Structural mechanisms to uncover discrimination and reward tolerance are also help-ful. Examples include: ( 3) measures that allow systematic ____ of progress,

monitoring

The explanations are not ____, and they may combine to create an inhospitable corporate climate for female managers.

mutually exclusive

The values and traditions in a ____ can change over time, just as they do in an organizational culture

national culture

People may be attracted to a profession ( e. g., women to nursing, men to police work) because it involves the use of " __" skills and behaviors, or because their opportunities are limited and their choices influenced by strong sex- role stereo-types.

natural

Cross- cultural research also requires researchers to consider a broader than usual range of variables and processes, which can provide ___ and improve leadership theo-ries.

new insights

The researchers identified __ value dimensions, including some cultural values not identified in the earlier research by Hofstede.

nine

The difference is a result of childhood experiences, parent- child interactions, and socialization practices that reflect cul-tural ____ and beliefs about gender differences and appropriate occupations for men and women

sex- role stereotypes

More ___ and ___ research is needed to determine the extent of any gender differences in leadership and the reasons for them.

systematic and comprehensive

In turn, the groups are expected to ____ of their members.

take care

In a high perfor-mance orientation culture, the selection of members for a team with an important task is likely to be based on ____, not on friendship or family relations.

talent

Structural mechanisms to uncover discrimination and reward tolerance are also help-ful. Examples include: 2) ___ and ___ to help identify discrimination or intolerance and develop remedies,

task forces or advisory committees

Research to develop or validate ____ of leadership behavior in different cultures can reveal new aspects of behavior that are relevant for effective leadership.

taxonomies

The preference for rewards based on individual achievements and performance also makes it more difficult for leaders to use ___ rewards and recognition

team- based

Other possible reasons for the glass ceiling have been suggested, which include: 8) lack of strong action by _____ to ensure equal opportunity,

top management

However, diversity can also result in more distrust and conflict, lower satisfaction, and higher ___

turnover.

___ leadership, ___ leadership, and ___- oriented aspects of transformational leadership are viewed less favorably in cultures with low gender egali-tarianism.

-Participative -supportive -relations

Related values and attributes include hard work, responsibility, ____, persistence, ___, pragmatism, and acquisition of new skills.

-competitiveness -initiative

These beliefs involved assumptions about the traits and skills required for effective leader-ship in organizations ( ____), assumptions about inherent differences between men and women ( ____), and assumptions about appropriate behavior for men and women ( ____).

-implicit theories -gender stereotypes -role expectations

Key values include altruism, benevolence, ___, compassion, ___, and generosity.

-kindness -love

For example, in a country that has high power distance and low uncertainty tolerance, it is not clear how much each value influences the emphasis on centralized decisions for a company. For this reason, researchers have grouped countries into clusters based on regional proximity and similarity in __, __ background, and __

-language -ethnic -religion

In cultures with strong " ___" values for toughness and assertiveness, " ___" attributes such as compassion,empathy, and intuition are not viewed as important for effective leadership

-masculine -feminine

The researchers hoped to develop an empirically based theory that describes the relation-ships between ___ culture, _____ processes, and ____.

-national -organizational -leadership

Some examples include the type of ____ ( e. g., profit vs. nonprofit, public corporation vs. private ownership), the type of ____ ( e. g., retailing, financial services, manufacturing, telecommunications), and characteristics of the managerial ___ ( e. g., level and function of the manager, position power, and authority).

-organization -industry -position

Cultural values are influenced by many types of changes ( e. g., economic, ___, social, ___).

-political -technological

Most managers will conform to social norms about acceptable behavior, even if they have not internalized the norms. One reason is that deviation from social norms may result in diminished ___ and increased ___ from other members of the organiza-tion.

-respect -social pressure

Social norms, __, detailed agreements, and certified ___ are more valued, because they offer a way to avoid uncertainty and disor-der

-tradition -expertise

In the complete absence of sex- based discrimination, the number of women in chief executive positions in business and government should be close to __ percent.

50

___ programs can be helpful if they are well designed and implemented. The programs are likely to be less controversial and more successful if the need for them is clearly understood by the members of an organization, and ways are found to encourage affirmative action without imposing reverse discrimination.

Affirmative action

____ specify acceptable forms of leadership behavior and may be formalized as social laws lim-iting the use of power.

Cultural norms

___ can take many forms, including differences in race, ethnic identity, age, gen-der, education, physical appearance, socio- economic level, and sexual orientation.

Diversity

___ programs provide a formal approach to encourage tolerance, understand-ing, and appreciation. One objective of____ is to create a bet-ter understanding of diversity problems and the need for self- awareness about stereotyping and intolerance.

Diversity training

____ of cross-cultural differences may cause researchers to pay more attention to possible effects of situational variables not usually included in most leadership theories ( e. g., religion, language, history, laws, political systems, ethnic subcultures).

Examination

The __ project is a cross- cultural study of leadership in 60 different countries repre-senting all major regions of the world

GLOBE

The ___ researchers grouped 60 countries into 10 clusters, and a discriminant analysis confirmed that the classification of countries into clusters accurately reflected differences in the nine cultural values for each country.

GLOBE

The different ways culture can influence leaders and fol-lowers are explained, and examples of cross- cultural studies on leadership are described, includ-ing the multinational ___ project.

GLOBE

_____ is the extent to which men and women receive equal treatment, and both masculine and feminine attributes are considered important and desirable.

Gender egalitarianism

The acronym GLOBE means " ___"

Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness."

____ means a strong concern for the welfare of other people and the willing-ness to sacrifice one's own self- interest to help others.

Humane orientation

___ is the extent to which the needs and autonomy of individuals are more important than the collective needs of groups, organizations, or society.

Individualism

____ programs should provide equal opportunities for people who want to learn relevant skills and gain valuable expe-rience.

Leadership development

The selection of variables and interpretation of results can be biased by cultural differ-ences among researchers in their underlying values and ___ about human nature and organizational processes

assumptions

Countries in which an ___ political system is replaced by a democratic system are likely to become more accepting of participative leadership and empowerment in organizations.

autocratic

The six value dimensions to be discussed include: ( 2) uncertainty ____,

avoidance

As in the case of the leadership research conducted within a single culture, much of the cross- cultural research involves leader ___,___and ___.

behavior, skills, and traits

Another important research objective is to explain how leadership ___ and ___ are influenced by cultural values.

beliefs and behavior

Unfortunately, most studies on gender differences in leadership provide little information about the reasons for any differences that are found. In the absence of such evidence, people are more likely to attribute gender differences to inherent ___ factors than to things that could be changed.

biological

A problem with some diversity training programs is their emphasis on placing ___ for discrimination rather than on increasing self- awareness and mutual understanding

blame

The reliance on ____ leadership behaviors in many studies makes it more difficult to get a clear picture of cross- cultural differences in behavior.

broadly defined

Most studies on gender and leadership are focused on determining if there is a difference between men and women, not on determining the ___ of any differences.

cause

There is more ____ over deci-sions involving change or innovation.

centralized control

This distinction made it possible to determine if people were dissatisfied with the current values and wanted to see a ____ in the ____.

change in the future

Only a small number of studies have examined how cultural values and leadership practices are both _____.

changing over time

Another pos-sible explanation is that differential treatment during __ causes men and women to have different values, traits, skills, and ways of dealing with situations.

childhood

Finally, cross- cultural research poses some unique meth-odological challenges that may result in improved procedures for data ___ and ___

collection and analysis

The six value dimensions to be discussed include: ( 3) individualism versus ___,

collectivism

In a ____ culture, membership in cohesive in- groups is an important aspect of a person's self- identity, and loyalty to the group is an important value.

collectivistic

The research on cultural values finds important differences that are relevant for beliefs about effective leadership and actual behavior of leaders. However, ___ and___ weaknesses are common, and limitations in the research have been pointed out by sev-eral scholars

conceptual and methodological

In comparative studies, a major problem is ____ from extraneous variables

contamination

Some cross- cultural studies examine how beliefs about effective leadership behavior, skills, and traits are similar or different from one ___ to another.

country

Research on ___ leadership and leadership in global companies has been increas-ing rapidly during the last 10 years

cross- cultural

The conceptual frameworks used in ____research on leadership affect inter-pretation of results.

cross- cultural

Another objective of diversity training is to educate employees about real ___ or ___ differences and how to respond to them in the workplace.

cultural or demographic

The ____ dimensions are moderately intercorrelated, and examining differences for a single value dimension without controlling for the others makes it difficult to determine their independent effects on leadership beliefs and behavior.

cultural value

Leaders are increasingly confronted with the need to influence people from other ___, and successful influence requires a good understanding of these ___.

cultures

This section summarizes major findings in the research on how ________ are related to leadership beliefs, leadership behavior, and leadership development practices.

current cultural values

Equally important to understanding the reasons for any real gender differences is the need to find ways to eliminate unfair ___.

discrimination

The six value dimensions to be discussed include: ( 1) power ___,

distance

Such societies are likely to invest more resources in ___ and ___ people for careers and in providing health care and social services to people.

educating and training

The clusters were compared with regard to leadership beliefs, and differences were found among clusters for some of the beliefs about ____.

effective leadership

To make full use of the talent represented by the diverse members of the organization, it is essential to ____ that prevent qualified people from selection for important positions.

eliminate constraints

The use of ____ and a detailed historical perspective are advocated as more useful approaches for research on the relationship between leadership and culture

ethnography

In the absence of strongly differentiated gender- role expectations, men and women lead-ers are less limited in their behavior, and there is less bias in how their behavior is ____ by subordinates and by bosses.

evaluated

Altruism and kindness are not limited to a person's family or ethnic/ religious in- group, but instead include a humanitarian concern for __.

everyone

A small number of U. S. companies have made concerted effort over the past two decades to eliminate barriers to advancement of women into top management positions. An example is Xerox, where in the 1980s, female employees formed a Women's Alliance to influence top man-agement to promote more women to management positions. The effort was successful, and Xerox is routinely ranked among the best places for women to work. In 2001, Xerox was one of only a small number of Fortune 500 companies with a female CEO, and her successor CEO at Xerox was an African- American women. The events at Xerox suggest that faster progress could be made if more companies made a similar effort to eliminate barriers to the selection of women and minorities for top management positions.

example

Examples include setting challeng-ing goals or standards, developing action plans with schedules and deadlines, expressing confi-dence that subordinates can improve performance, developing job- relevant skills in subordinates, encouraging initiative, and providing praise and rewards for achievements.

example

For example, if strong interpersonal and political skills facilitate advancement into executive positions but the standards for selection are more dif-ficult for women than for men, then fewer women will advance but they will have more of these skills than the men who advance.

example

For example, participative leadership is considered more important in the Anglo, Germanic Europe, and Nordic Europe clusters than in the Eastern Europe, Southern Asia, Confucian Asia, and Middle East clus-ters.

example

Managers who have little ___ with a particular type of leadership behavior may not understand how effective it could be

experience

The humane values for an individual are influenced by family ___,___ and __ teaching as well as by cultural norms.

experiences, parenting, and religious

Other possible reasons for the glass ceiling have been suggested, which include: ( 7) difficulties created by competing ___ demands

family

As shown in earlier chapters, effective leadership also requires strong interpersonal skills, and leadership behaviors traditionally viewed as __

feminine

Countries in which strong gender differentiation is gradually replaced by gender equality can be expected to become more accepting of leadership practices that reflect traditional ___ attributes ( e. g., nurturing, developing, building cooperative rela-tionships).

feminine

These experiences encourage " ____" values such as kindness, compassion, nurturing, and sharing.

feminine

Proponents of the " ____" theory contend that women are more concerned with consensus building, inclusiveness, and interper-sonal relations; they are more willing to develop and nurture subordinates and share power with them.

feminine advantage

Much of the early research used convenience samples from only a ___, rather than representative samples from many different countries with controls for type of organiza-tion and type of respondent.

few countries

Strong values in the organizational culture may or may not be consistent with the dominant cultural values, espe-cially if an organization is a subsidiary of a ___ company.

foreign- owned

Other possible reasons for the glass ceiling have been suggested, which include: ( 1) lack of opportunity to _____ and visibility in types of positions that would facilitate advancement,

gain experience

One major problem is the lack of a clear definition of ___

gender

The six value dimensions to be discussed include: 4) ____ egalitarianism,

gender

As noted earlier, the implicit theories and gender stereotypes are also influenced by cultural values for ____.

gender egalitarianism

The strong tendency to favor men over women in filling high- level leadership positions has been referred to as the " ___."

glass ceiling

Increasing ___ of organizations makes it more important to learn about effective leadership in different cultures.

globalization

In an individualistic culture, ____ are more important than social responsibilities, and people are expected to take care of themselves

individual rights

The key values are consistent with a diplomatic, conciliatory style of conflict management that seeks to restore ____ and satisfy each party's important needs.

harmonious relations

Other possible reasons for the glass ceiling have been suggested, which include: ( 2) _____ of performance for women than for men,

higher standards

Structural mechanisms to uncover discrimination and reward tolerance are also help-ful. Examples include: 4) ___ or other special mechanisms that make it easier for employees to report discrimination and intolerance.

hotlines

The ____ management department usually has primary responsibility for many of the processes that affect diversity and equal opportunity, such as recruiting, selection, employee orientation, performance appraisal, training, and mentoring.

human resources

The six value dimensions to be discussed include: ____ orientation.

humane

A unique feature of the GLOBE research was to measure not only the current cultural values, but also ___ cultural val-ues.

ideal

When people learn that new practices are highly effective, they are likely to be widely ___.

imitated

The implications of collectivistic values depend in part on whether they are more impor-tant for in- groups or the larger society, but most of the cross- cultural research has emphasized ______.

in- group collectivism

The ___ may be based on family ties, religious or ethnic background, membership in a political party, or a stable, collaborative business relationship.

in- groups

Results from studies on gender differences in leadership effectiveness are also ___.

inconsistent

Interest in studying barriers to advancement for women has been ___.

increasing

People are less likely to change jobs, and members are more likely to volunteer their time to do extra work and " ____"

organizational citizenship behaviors

Another type of biased result can occur in a comparative study that fails to take into account how ___ may have a differential influence on the skills of men and women who are in the same type of leadership position.

organizational factors

The six value dimensions to be discussed include: ( 5) performance ____,

orientation

Other studies examine cross- cultural differences in the actual pattern of leadership behavior, or the effects on ___ such as subordinate satisfaction, motivation, and performance.

outcomes

To understand these issues, it is essential to determine if a leadership theory is valid in cultures that differ from the one in which it was developed. Some aspects of a leadership theory may be relevant for all cultures, but other aspects may apply only to a ___ of culture.

particular type

In a high performance orientation culture, there is more emphasis on leader behaviors that are relevant for improving ___ and ____.

performance and efficiency

The extent to which high performance and individual achievement are valued is called _____

performance orientation

In some cases, it refers to anatomical sex ( male vs. female), and in others it refers to a set of ___ often associated more with one sex than with another.

personal characteristics

A greater variety of ___ increases creativ-ity, and full utilization of a diverse workforce will increase the amount of available talent for filling important jobs.

perspectives

Throughout the twentieth century, gender- based discrimination was supported by age-old beliefs that men are more ___ than women for leadership roles

qualified

A smaller number of cross- cultural studies attempt to identify ___ differences in the way a specific type of behavior is enacted in each country.

qualitative

a _____ of scale means from behavior description questionnaires is complicated by methodological problems such as con-founding and lack of equivalence ( Peng, Peterson, & Shyi, 1991). For example, lower scores may be obtained in one country because the behavior items have a different meaning there, or because respondents in that culture avoid giving very high scores on a questionnaire.

quantitative comparison

To compare beliefs about the importance of various traits and skills for effective leadership, managers in different countries were asked to provide importance ratings on a ___.

questionnaire

The experience of working for men and women leaders over a period of time can ___ the effects of gender stereotypes on evaluation of the leaders

reduce

The assessments used for selection and promotion deci-sions will be more accurate if the raters who make them are trained or otherwise helped to ___ caused by racial, ethnic, or gender role stereotypes.

reduce biases

When there is high uncertainty avoidance, valued qualities for managers include being __,___ and ___, rather than flexible, innovative, and risk taking.

reliable, orderly, and cautious

To minimize this type of problem it is advisable to have a ___ with qualified representatives from the different cultures included in the study.

research team

In societies with strong performance orientation values, ___ are emphasized more than people.

results

Other possible reasons for the glass ceiling have been suggested, which include: ( 10) intentional efforts by some men to ____ of the most powerful positions for themselves.

retain control

Differential ___ can also influence the measurement of leader behavior, skills, or performance for men and women in the same type of leadership position

role expectations

Cross- cultural studies also examine differences in the relationship of leadership behavior to outcomes such as subordinate ___ and ___.

satisfaction and performance

Unfair discrimination can be reduced by the use of ___ based on relevant skills rather than biased conceptions.

selection criteria

Because people are more motivated to satisfy their ___ and ___ in an individualistic culture, it is more difficult for leaders to inspire strong commitment to team or organizational objectives

self- interests and personal goals

Humane orien-tation values are also associated with participative leadership, ___ leadership, and team-building behaviors ( encouraging cooperation and mutual trust).

servant

In cultures with high gender egalitarianism, there is less differentiation of ___ and most jobs are not segre-gated by gender.

sex roles

The emphasis on individual rights and autonomy makes it more difficult to create a strong culture of ____ for social responsibility, cooperation, and ethical behavior. Because of the transitory nature of careers, selection is likely to be more important than training for ensuring that people have adequate skills.

shared values

Other possible reasons for the glass ceiling have been suggested, which include: ( 9) bias to select and promote individu-als who are ___ to the ( male) managers who make the decisions,

similar

One important research question is the extent to which effective leadership is __ and ___ across cultures, and the reasons for these differences.

similar or different

Leadership behavior is influenced by other ___ variables besides national culture

situational

Unfortunately, the changes in gender role stereotypes and implicit theories have been ___, especially among male managers

slow

In addition, cultural values are reflected in ___ about the way people relate to each other.

social norms

Countries in which ___ is being replaced by capi-talism and emphasis on entrepreneurship are likely to see a shift toward stronger individualism and performance orientation values.

socialism

Cultural values for gender egalitarianism have implications for the selection and evalua-tion of leaders and for the types of leadership behavior considered desirable and ___

socially accept-able

To understand the joint influence of cultural and organizational values on leader-ship behavior, it is essential to measure ____ of this behavior in addition to broad categories such as participative leadership, supportive leadership, and transformational leader-ship.

specific aspects

Sex- based discrimination in leadership selection also reflects the influence of popular ___ and ___ for men and women

stereotypes and role expectations

One method for reducing this type of bias is a " ____" intervention. The raters are asked to recall examples of both positive and negative behaviors by a candidate before rating the person's qualifications for a position.

structured free recall

understand: There is little reason to believe that either women or men make superior managers, or that women and men are different types of managers. Instead, there are likely to be excellent, average, and poor managerial performers within each sex. Success in today's highly competi-tive marketplace calls for organizations to make best use of the talent available to them. To do this, they need to identify, develop, encourage, and promote the most effective managers, regardless of sex.

summary of gender differences

Humane orientation values encourage ___leadership behaviors such as being considerate of a subordinate's needs and feelings, showing sympathy when a subordinate isupset, providing mentoring and coaching when appropriate, offering to provide assistance when needed to deal with a personal problem, and acting friendly and accepting.

supportive

Another limitation in many cross- cultural studies is too much reliance on ____.

survey questionnaires

Much of the cross- cultural research examines differences among countries with regard to ____ of leadership behavior.

typical patterns

If a study includes more women than men in types of leadership positions that require a lot of supportive and participative behavior, then ( unless type of position is controlled) the results will seem to indicate that women leaders are generally more supportive and participative.

understand

The GLOBE project also examined how leadership and cultural values are affected by other situational variables, including type of industry, economic development, type of government, dominant religions, and type of climate conditions for a country.

understand

In cultures with high avoidance of uncertainty, there is more fear of the ___, and people desire more security, stability, and order.

unknown

A more recent controversy is fueled by claims that women are more likely than men to possess the ___ and __ necessary for effective leadership in modern organizations

values and skills

However, as with earlier claims that men are more qualified to be leaders, the claims that women are more qualified appear to be based on ____ and exaggerated gender stereotypes

weak assumptions