Psych Chpt 11
evolutionary approach to attraction
sexes different statuses in reproduction are the key to understanding how the evolution and pressures have made behaviors (procreate if the purpose)
Stanley Migram's Obedience Experiment
shocking someone for a wrong answer... would students obey the teacher no matter what? 2/3 did give the full 450 volts, p 422
aggression
social behavior whose objective if to harm someone, either physically or verbally
social role view of gender
social, not evolutionary, experiences have led to differences in gender behavior; biological differences are played out differently in various cultures and societal contexts
inferences
taking information we have and coming up with a good guess about who someone is and what the person is likely to do in the future
stable/unstable causes:
temporary/permanent/ or because he was mad at the moment
reciprocity
the Golden Rule; do unto others as you would have them do to you
social cognition
the area of social psychology that explores how people select, interpret, remember and use social information
self-esteem
the degree to which we have positive or negative feelings about ourselves
groupthink
the impaired group decision making that occurs when making the rights decision is less important than maintaining group harmony; conformity and unanimity are more important than open discussion;
normative social influence
the influence other people have on us because we want them to like us; two factors 1) how well informed we perceive the group to be and how confident we are in our own judgement
informational social influence
the influence other people have on us because we want to be right
observer
the person who offers a causal explanation of the actors behavior; often say there is an internal cause for the actors behavior
actor
the person who produces the behavior to be explained; usually say there is an external cause for their actions
mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that the more individuals encounter someone or something, the more probable it is that they will start liking the person or thing even if they do not realize they have seen it before
social comparison
the process by which individuals evaluate their thoughts, feelings, behaviors and abilities in relation to others: Leon Festinger theory
person perception
the processes by which we use social stimuli to form impressions of others; faces, attactiveness
deindividuation
the reduction in personal identity and erosion of the sense of personal responsibility when one is part of a group
group polarization effect
the solidification and further strengthening of an individual's position as a consequence of a group discussion or interaction; influenced by the others persuasive discussions
social psychology
the study of how people think about , influence, and relate to other people
risky shift
the tendency for a group to be riskier than the average decision made by the individual group members; Ex: persuading or someone to quit his job to start a company is easier if a group tells him to
bystander effect
the tendency for an individual who observes and emergency to help less when other people are present than when the observer is alone; Genovese case/Darley & Lantane study; cues from others on how to behave decrease the likeliness you will do something
ethnocentrism
the tendency to favor one's own ethnic group over the other groups; asserting superiority over others groups
self-serving bias
the tendency to take credit for one's own successes and to deny responsibility for one's own failures
social exchange theory
the view of social relationships as involving exchange of goods, the objective of which is to minimize costs and maximize benefits; costs and benefits of a romantic partner; equity "fair share"
attribution theory
the view that people are motivated to discover the underlying cause of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior "why people do the things they do"
identity theory
the view that social identity is crucial part of self-image and a valuable source of positive feelings about oneself; Henry Taijfel jew; "in group or out group" comparisons of each other lead to conflict because of favortism
social identity
the way individuals define themselves in terms of their group membership (church,country,social organization, political party)
elaboration likelihood model
theory identifying two ways to persuade; a central route (by engaging someone thoughtfully with a sound logical argument) and a peripheral route (non-message factors like attractive/emotional appeal)
attibution
to understand the causes of others behavior and form and impression of them p. 403
altruism
unselfish interest in helping another person;
sexual harrassment
unwelcome behavior or conduct of a sexual nature that offends, humiliates ,or intimidates another person
controllable/uncontrollable causes:
we perceive we have power over some things but not other (rain)
Symptoms of groupthink:
1) Overestimating the power and morality of one's group 2) lack of willingness to listen to all sides of an argument 3) pressure for uniformity over accuracy
Three aspects of group decision making:
1)risky shift or group polarization 2)groupthink 3)majority and minority influence
self-perception theory
Daryl Bem's theory on how behaviors influence attitudes, stating that individuals make inferences about their attitudes by perceiving their behavior; "well I run every morning so I must like it"
Can attitudes predict behavior?
Ex. think you should recycle but still throw a can in the trash Sometimes: when the persons attitudes are strong, when the person shows a strong awareness of his or her attitudes and when the person rehearses and practices them, when the person has a vested interest
IAT Test
Implicit Associations Test; computerized survey that assesses the ease with which respondents can associate a Black or White person with good (flowers) or bad things (misery)
social facilitation
Improvement in an individual's performance because of the presence of others arousing us
Carl Harvland's elements of persuasion:
The communicator (source): are you a good persuader The medium: technology used to get the message across The target (audience): age and attitude to be effective The message: strong argument or do you need exciting emotion p408
Can behavior predict attitude?
Two explanations: Cognitive dissonance and self-perception theories
Stanford Prison Experiment
Zimbardo; anyone would do these vile things if put in the same situation, and good people will do evil things to other good people if the situation supports those deeds p.424
conformity
a change in a person's behavior to coincide more closely with a group standard ; Solomon Asch experiment on lines ; affected by culture and brain p. 419 Two main contributors to conformity: informational social influence and normative social influence
market economy
a decentralized system featuring the free exchange of products and services between producers and consumers; requires reciprocity/trust
empathy
a feeling of oneness with the emotional state of another person; a key social emotion in altruism
stereotype
a generalization about a group's characteristics that does not consider any variations from one individual to another (categorizing people)
cognitive dissonance theory
a individual's psychological discomfort (dissonance)cased by two inconsistent thoughts; feeling of being a "hypocrite"; when our attitudes and behavior are at odds, our behavior can influence our attitude ($1/$20 to lie) p. 406
investment model
a model of long-term relationships that examines the way that commitment, investment, and the availability of attractive alternative partners predict satisfaction and stability in relationships;
conduct disorder
a pattern of offensive behavior that violates the basic rights of others
self-fulfilling prophesy
a stereotype where expectations cause individuals to act in way that server to make the expectations come true Ex. teachers were told certain kids were "late bloomers" but would later be great learners
effort justification
a type of dissonance reduction that means rationalizing the amount of effort we put into something; loyalty to a group because of what you had to do to gain admission to a group
avoidant attachment style
an attachment style that describes adults who are hesitant about getting involved in romantic relationships and once in a relationship tend to distance themselves from their partner; ambivilant
anxious attachment style
an attachment style that describes adults who demand closeness, are less trusting, and are more emotional, jealous, and possessive
secure attachment style
an attachment style that describes adults who have positive views of relationships, find it easy to get close to others, and are not overly concerned or stressed out about their romantic relationships; positive relationships
stereotype threat
an individual's fast-acting self-fulfilling fear of being judged based on a negative stereotype about his or her group; will underperform because they are living down to the expectations of others p.405
attitudes
an individuals opinions and beliefs about people, objectst and ideas- how the person feels about the world;
prejudice
an unjustified negative attitude toward an individual based on the individual's membership in a group
discrimination
an unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because the person belongs to that group.
established religions
another important factor in prosocial behavior; Golden Rule p411
obedience
behavior that complies with the explicit demands of the individual in authority; demand to comply
relational aggression
behavior that is meant to harm the social standing of another person; women; because they don't have physical power it requires social and cognitive skills
internal/external causes:
causes inside the person: traits/abilities causes outside the person: peer pressure/social situation/weather
heuristics
cognitive shortcuts that allow us to make decisions rapidly such as stereotypes (which lead to errors)
What causes prejudice:
competition between groups, cultural learning, when people feel bad about themselves (self esteem increases if you thing you're better)
Social influence on behavior:
conformity and obedience
social loafing
each person's tendency to exert less effort in a group because of reduced accountability for individual effort; less accountability
Kay Deaux 5 distinct types of social identity:
ethnicity and religion, political affiliation, vocation and avocations, personal relationships, and stigmatized groups
Biological influences on aggression:
evolutionary thought that survivors were aggressive, genetics, neurobiological (frontal lobes, limbic system,neurotransmittors, horemones mostly testosterone)
positive illusions
favorable views of the self that are not necessarily rooted in reality
Psychological factors on aggression:
frustrating and aversive circumstances, cognitive deterinants (perceiving things are unfair and if there is a gun available) , observational learning (people/tv)
Ways to improve intergroup relations:
get to know each other better; contact with other people "task-oriented cooperation" or working together on something
inoculation
giving a persuasive message and allowing them time to argue against it to help avoid persuasion
egoism
giving to another person to ensure reciprocity; to gain self-esteem; to present oneself as powerful competent or caring; or to avoid social and self-censure for failing to live up to society's expectations
media influences
good, uplifting, wholesome TV/radio can affect your actions
social contagion
imitative behavior involving the spread of behavior, emotions, and ideas; laughing more when others are around (movies) or being meaner too
foot-in-the-door technique
in agreeing to the smaller (3 month subscription) you will be able to get them to upgrade to the larger
sociocultural factors to on aggression:
is your cultures violent or a culture of honor (reputation of honor), media violence (ex: porn on rape myth)
affectionate love
love that occurs when and individual has a deep caring affection for another person and desires to have that person near; also called compassionate love
romantic love
love with strong components of sexuality and infatuation, often predominant in the early part of a love relationship; also called passionate love
majority and minority influence
majority impacts group decision making through informational (opp to share their views) and normative influence (the set group norms); ousted if you don't agree; the minority but speak out and influence the majority or any other members that were ousted.
door-in-the-face
making the biggest pitch first then a smaller one after they reject it
brains reward centers:
nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area
fundamental attribution error
observers overestimation of the importance of internal traits and underestimation of the importance of external situations when they seek explanations of another person's behavior (Protestants attribute behavior to the person rather than the situation more than Catholics)
false consensus effect
observers' overestimation of the degree to which everybody else thinks or acts the way they do; Ex: racial remark in a group and no one responds so he thinks everyone agrees with him
consensual validation
our won attitudes and behaviors are supported when others who are similar to us, thus validating our attitudes and behaviors
explicit racism
person's conscious and openly shared racist attitudes
implicit racism
persons unconscious, deeper hidden level of racism
overt aggression
physical and verbal behavior that directly harms another person; more males
Reducing aggression:
reduce rewards, lesson exposure to aggression, encourage empathy