Psychology-8

Robert Zajonc

Developed the mere exposure effect. It is possible to have preferences without interferences and to feel without knowing why.

Trust versus mistrust

Erikson's first psychosocial stage. Infants learn "basic trust" if the world is a secure place where their basic needs (for food, comfort, attention) are met.

Edward Thorndike

Pioneer in operant conditioning who discovered concepts in intstrumental learning such as the law of effect. Known for his work with cats in puzzle boxes.

distraction-conflict theory

audience distracts us so don't have enough attentional resources for difficult task

Scapegoating

blaming an innocent person or a group for one's own troubles

Need for affiliation

desire to associate with others, to be part of a group, to form close and intimate relationships

maximum ingroup profit

ingroup maximises it's benefits

Episodic

occurring or appearing at usually irregular intervals

Self presentation

people might present themselve other then they feel: false pride or modesty

illusory correlation

see relationship between events that actually do not exist

Proactive interference

situation in which Previously learned information hinders the recall of information learned more recently

Proactive Interference

situation in which previously learned information hinders the recall of information learned more recently

Retrieval

the cognitive operation of accessing information in memory

Opponent-process

theory of colour vision stating that we percieve color in terms of paired opposites: red/green, yellow/blue, black/white

Drive reduction theory

theory that claims that behavior is driven by a desire to lessen internal states of tension resulting from needs that disrupt homeostasis

Bereavement

state of sorrow over the death or departure of a loved one

Behavior

the aggregate of the responses or reactions or movements made by an organism in any situation

categorical imperative

A concept developed by the philosopher Immanuel Kant as an ethical guideline for behavior. In deciding whether an action is right or wrong a person should evaluate the action in terms of what would happen if everybody else in the same situation, or category, acted the same way.

Approach-approach conflict

A conflict arising from having to choose between equally desirable alternatives.

The Will to Believe Doctrine

A lecture delivered by William James, and first published in 1896, which defended our right, in certain cases, to adopt a belief on faith even without prior evidence of its truth,In virtue of this dependency of truth on belief ,it argues that it can be rational for us to have faith in our own ability to accomplish tasks that require confidence even if at the time we lack sufficient evidence for whether we truly possess that ability.

Savant

A person of low intelligence who has an extraordinary ability.

Facial expressions of emotion

-typically last between 1-5 seconds

Pontari & Schlenker (2000)

What about introverts vs. extroverts? Introverts do better when cognitively busy because they have less time to worry about social aspects

Anxiety

a vague unpleasant emotion that is experienced in anticipation of some (usually ill-defined) misfortune

Consistency

Do they often act this way? Y/N?

Consensus

Does everyone act this way? Y/N?

Punishment

Does not work as well as positive reinforcement

Jean Piaget

Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational. He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation and accomodation

Oral Stage

Freud's first stage of personality development, from birth to about age 2, during which the instincts of infants are focused on the mouth as the primary pleasure center.

Self discrepancy theory

Higgins, 1987 discrepancy between the 3 forms of self leads to action

Type AB Personality

Mixture of Type A and Type B Personalities.

5 factors that might influence the link between attitude and behavior

Situational variables Personality Habit Sense of control Direct experience

Commons dilemma

Social dilemma in which cooperation by all benefits all, but competition by all harms all. Hardin-1968-the tragedy of the commons- 100 farmers with 1 cow each on the common pasture, but then 100 farmers with 200 cows, destroys the commons

confederate

Someone who appears to be a research participant but actually is part of the research team.

Social Facilitation

Stronger responses/performances on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others; Complex tasks require fewer people in the room for a higher success rate

androgens

Support sperm formation; development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics

Response

a bodily process occurring due to the effect of some foregoing stimulus or agent

Ego

The drive of your psyche that is is located in our conscious so it is the part of our personality that we are aware of and everyone sees. It works on the reality principle and is generally the boss of your personality(Also develops after the Id, but before the Superego.

validity

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Conformity

acting according to certain accepted standards

Emotions such as fear enable

adaptive responses to threats to survival

low ball

agree to specific deal and then change the terms

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Meta-needs

also called growth motives or being values; self-actualization is growth motivated; these are the motivations of self-actualizing people

applied psychology

any of several branches of psychology that seek to apply psychological principles to practical problems of education or industry or marketing etc.

response bias

anything in the survey design that influences the responses from the sample

Heuristic processing

simple rules are used to arrive at a judgment, perceiver feels good, the judgment will be positive.

in-group bias

tendency to favor individuals within our group over those from outside our group. Ex: help Texas person on side of road but not if from michigan

Cerebellum

the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

role

the actions and activities assigned to or required or expected of a person or group

phobia

an anxiety disorder characterized by extreme and irrational fear of simple things or social situations

Chronological Age

the actual age of the child taking the intelligence test

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

Motor Cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements. The top of the motor cortex controls the bottom of our body and the bottom of the cortex controls the top of our body.

Passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.

Theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

hidden variable

an extraneous variable that does not have a direct connection to the correlation, and is thus hard to recognize

afterimage

an image (usually a negative image) that persists after stimulation has ceased

long-term potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

informed consent

the agreement of participants to take part in an experiment and their acknowledgement that they understand the nature of their participation in the research, and have been fully informed about the general nature of the research, its goals, and methods

Theory of reasoned action Ajzen & Fishbein 1975

the attitude and the subjective norms make up a Behavioral intention which leads to the behavior

Sociology

The scholarly discipline concerned with the systematic study of social organizations.

Autonomy versus doubt

The second stage in Erickson's theory of development, as the child begins to control bowels and other bodily functions, learns language, and begins to receive orders from adult authorities. An inevitable conflict arises: Who's in charge here?

LEFT hemisphere

the cerebral hemisphere to the left of the corpus callosum that controls the right half of the body, hemisphere of brain that specializes in speaking, calculating, logic, language processing (concrete)

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

Reminiscence

the process of remembering (especially the process of recovering information by mental effort)

personal identification

the target person imitates the agents behavior or adopts the same attitudes to please the agents and the be like the agent

James - Lange theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.

James-Lange theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.

self-control

withstanding temptations, the self in action Baumeister 1998

Appraisals cause emotions (exceptions)

appraisals cause emotions but appraisals are not necessary for emotions, correlational studies.

group identity

group identiy has to be made salient. So the opinion will polarize in order to get a prototypical opinion. Spears, Lea & Lee (1990) showed that this was true

sample

items selected at random from a population and used to test hypotheses about the population

Homeostasis

metabolic equilibrium actively maintained by several complex biological mechanisms that operate via the autonomic nervous system to offset disrupting changes

Konrad Lorenz

Austrian zoologist and ethologist who studied the behavior of birds and emphasized the importance of innate as opposed to learned behaviors

Regression

psychoanalytic defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

Deductive Reasoning

reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general principle and then applying that principle to a specific case (The sun rises every morning; therefore, the sun will rise on Tuesday morning.)

Electra complex

conflict during phallic stage in which girls supposedly love their fathers romantically and want to eliminate their mothers as rivals, counterpart to the Oedipus complex for females

Social Cognitive Theory

contemporary learning-based model that emphasizes the roles played by both cognitive factors and environmental or situational factors in determining behavior

Amygdala

Two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to EMOTION

Prisoner's dilemma

Two-person game in which both parties are torn between competition and cooperation and, depending on mutual choices, both can win or both can lose. Detectives question 2 obviously guilty parties separately with only enough evidence to of a lesser offence. Luce and Raiffa-1957 set up a payoff matrix, of one confessing, both confessing or neither confessing.

Sublimation

a defense mechanism in which unacceptable energies are directed into socially admirable outlets, such as art, exercise

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard (Like taking an AP TEST).

Intrinsic Motivation

a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective

reverse tolerance

a drug user's experiencing the desired effects from lesser amounts of the same drug(usually Hallucinogens)

Attitude

a favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction towards something or someone, rooted in one's beliefs, and exhibited in one's feelings and inclinations to act

Catatonia

a form of schizophrenia characterized by a tendency to remain in a fixed stuporous state for long periods

Recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

Dream Interpretation

a method developed by Freud in which the symbols of the manifest content of dreams that are recalled by the patient are interpreted to reveal their latent content

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Linear perspective

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance

representative sampling

a sample from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population.

Random selection

a sampling method in which each element has an equal chance of selection independent of any other event in the selection process

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

prefrontal lobotomy

a surgical procedure in which the connections between the prefrontal lobes and the rest of the brain are cut as a treatment for mental illness(ONLY good if YOU LOVE BEING A VEGGIE)

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Achievement Test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

Aptitude Test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance

language acquisition device

Chomsky's concept of an innate, prewired mechanism in the brain that allows children to acquire language naturally

John Watson

Early behaviorist; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat, also used generalization-inductive reasoning.

William James

Founder of functionalism and also wrote Principles of Psychology; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment; important emotion theory, also involved in: Pragmatism, and The Meaning of Truth

Karl Wernicke

German neurologist who discovered the part of the brain responsible for the comprehension of speech was ___.

Salient stimulus

Gets more attention and is more easily recalled. happens when: discrepancy with context discrepancy with expectation (didnt expect it) Congruency with goal (if its what you want to hear)

Philippe Pinel

He insisted that madness was not due to demonic possession, but an ailment of the mind, and who contributed to the more humane treatment of psychiatric patients in the late 1700s

social facilitation

Improvement in an individual's performance because of the presence of others.

two factor theory

Schachter's theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal

Fritz Heider

- 1958 - Creator of the Attribution Theory

Basic research

One of the two main types of research, pure research that aims to confirm an existing theory or to learn more about a concept or phenomenon

Emotional roots of prejudice

- Scapegoat theory - Us v. Them, Ingroup v. Outgroup

Strategic Self-Presentation

Our efforts to shape others' impressions in specific ways in order to gain influence, power, sympathy, or approval -Self-Promotion: Attempting to present ourselves to others as having positive attributes

Authoritarian Parents

Parents who make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioned obedience from their children, punish misbehavior, and value obedience to authority

The belief in a just world results in which attributions?

People get what they deserve and deserve what they get

Descriptive self-disclosure

People share facts about their lives

Attribution Theory

People usually attribute others' behavior either to their internal dispositions (nature) or to their external situations (nurture)

hypochondriasis

A somatoform disorder characterized by excessive preoccupation with health concerns and incessant worry about developing physical illnesses.

Oedipus Complex

According to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

Oedipus Complex

According to Freud, a conflict that develops in the phallic stage, where a boy has sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

Perfectionism

An unhealthy compulsion to do things perfectly is called:

Thomas Young

Published "A Theory of Color Vision" in England (his theory was later called the trichromatic theory), , Double Slit Interference Experiment: Light is made of waves

elaborate social identity theory

Reicher, 1996 crowd behavior is influenced by identiy and social context. behavior of one group always forms the context of the other. changes in relations at an event leads impact the broader social relations

Super Ego

Part of personality that represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement and future aspirations (Works on Moral Principle_

attitudes

Patterns of feelings and beliefs about other people, ideas, or objects that are based on a person's past experiences, shape his or her future behavior, and are evaluative in nature.

Looking-glass self:

The idea that people learn about themselves by imagining how they appear to others

Self-Handicapping

The strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves

Dehumanisation

The stripping people of dignity and humanity

Mood Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

Primacy Effect

The tendency to show greater memory for information that comes first in a sequence.

Recency Effect

The tendency to show greater memory for information that comes last in a sequence.

elaboration likelihood model

Theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route.

social comparison theory

Theory that we seek to evaluate our beliefs, attitudes, and abilities by comparing our reactions with others'

Self-evaluation Maintenance Model:

We dissociate ourselves from people who perform better than we do & stay close to those who perform inferior relative to us

Kurt Koffka

Worked with Wertheimer on his early perception experiments. Wrote Perception: An Introduction To Gestalt Theory which got recognition by the US.

electroconvulsive therapy

a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient, Sometimes works (Dont Know WHY) Most likely because of increased blood flow(Maybe)

Developmental Psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

External cause

a cause of behavior that is assumed to lie outside a person

estrogen

a general term for female steroid sex hormones that are secreted by the ovary and responsible for typical female sexual characteristics

Narcissistic personality disorder

a personality disorder characterized by exaggerated ideas of self-importance and achievements; preoccupation with fantasies of success; arrogance

Existentialist

a philosopher who emphasizes freedom of choice and personal responsibility but who regards human existence in a hostile universe as unexplainable, influenced humanistic psychology greatly

debriefing

a procedure to inform participants about the true nature of an experiment after its completion

astrology

a pseudoscience claiming divination by the positions of the planets and sun and moon

Convergent thinking

a type of critical thinking in which one evaluates existing possible solutions to a problem to choose the best one

Operant Conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher (B. F. Skinner)

Resistance

an unwillingness to bring repressed feelings into conscious awareness

Age regression

During hypnosis, a hypnotized person is given suggestions to re-experience an event that occurred at an earlier age and to act like and feel like a person of that particular age.

storage failure

Poor durability of certain stored memories which leads to forgetting

Efferent Neurons

Nerves that carry impulses away from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. Also called motor neurons.

Parietal lobe

portion posterior to the frontal lobe, responsible for sensations such as pain, temperature, and touch

Allport's contact hypothesis

positive effects of contact only occur: equal status common goals intergroup cooperation support of authorities law or custom

Milgram

studied obedience by asking subjects to administer electroshock; also proposed stimulus-overload theory to explain differences between city and country dwellers

clang associations

psychotic speech in which words are rhymed and spoken for their appealing sound, found mainly in a disorganized schizophrenic person

stereotype activation

pulled out of memory due to its association with the category

Rosenhan Study

study in which healthy individuals were admitted into mental hospitals after saying they were hearing voices. Once in, they acted normally and still were not labeled as impostors.

"getting along" vs. "getting ahead"

some emotions have the effect of promoting interpersonal connectedness and warmth, whereas others promote interpersonal distance and rivalry.

sexual response cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by William Masters and Virgina Johnson 1. excitement, 2. plateau, 3. orgasm, and 4. resolution.

Learned Helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

commitment and consistency

stick with commitments - cognitive dissonance and self-perception

Encoding failure

the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory

Counterfactual thinking

the mental undoing of something that has happen, focusing on the factors that are seen as causing the outcome.

Acetylcholine

the neurotransmitter substance that is released at the synapses of parasympathetic nerves and at neuromuscular junctions, enabling learning and memory and most prominately triggers muscle contraction, lack of it is linked to Alzheimer's

Substantive processing

the perceiver engages in a more careful analysis of the available information.

Direct access

the perceiver retrieves a pre-stored evaluation or judgment about the target.

Temporal Lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear.

monism

the presumption that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing.

Framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments, Like if I said there is a 90% life rate compared to me saying there is a 10% death rate.

excitement phase

1st phase of the sexual response cycle; characterized by the genital areas becoming engorged with blood, causing the man's penis to become partially erect and the woman's clitoris to swell and the inner lips covering her vagina to open up. (Masters and Johnson)

Oedipus complex

According to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father, counterpart to the Electra Complex for males.

Creative intelligence

According to Sternberg, the form of intelligence that helps people see new relationships among concepts; involves insight and creativity.

Phrenologist

A scientist who studied the shape of the skull and bumps on the head to determine whether these physical attributes are linked to criminal behavior; believed that external cranial characteristics dictate which areas of the brain control physical activity.

percentile score

A score that indicates the percentage of people who achieved the same as or less than a particular score.

Relative deprivation

A sense of having less than we feel entitled to.

Problems with instinct theory

Circularity - instinct is not a reason, everything can be instinct Does not account for variation

Social categorisation

Classification of people as members of different social groups.

Learning Psychology

Emphasizes the effects of behavior on past experiences. Think AFTER the fact.

Actor-observer effect (AOE)

Negative traits are either due to the environment (for self), or because of internal traits (for others)

Introspection:

The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives

Three component model of attitude

Thoughts, feelings, and actions

collective realism

ability to turn social beliefs in to a form of social being

task groups

goal-focused groups, work groups in organisations, e.g. teams

Spotlight effect

think that everyone looks at you Gilovich et al, (2000)

Retroactive inhibition

decreased ability to recall previously learned information, caused by learning of new information

social dominance orientation

desire for hierarchical group relations - maintained through discrimination

Undifferentiated Schizophrenia

diagnosis made when a person experiences schizophrenic symptoms, such as delusions and hallucinations, but does not meet criteria for paranoid, disorganized, or catatonic schizophrenia

Impulsiveness

difficulty waiting turn, organizing, following throught, not due to clear cognitive impairment

4 influences on attitudes

direct experience, classical conditioning, association instrumental conditioning, reward and punishment observational learning, mimicing

P. T. Barnum effect

-tendency of people to accept high base rate descriptions as accurate. -personal validation are a flawed method for evaluating a tests validity (astrology, card readers)

Cultural Specificity of Emotion

-vary of emotion across culture -ex: inuit never seem to express anger -ex: japanese wives smile when receive news that samurai husband dead

Principles of Psychology

1890, considered to be the first modern psychology textbook by William James

Summation

A + B = +/- C

Down Syndrome

A condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one's genetic makeup (21)

Prejudice

An unjustifiable ATTITUDE toward a group and its members

prejudice

An unjustified negative attitude toward an individual based on the individual's membership in a particular group

discrimination

An unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because the person belongs to that group.

instrumental learning

Associative learning in which a behavior becomes more or less probable depending on its consequences

Søren Kierkegaard

Danish philosopher, founder of existentianalism, said "truth is subjectivity", religion is a personal matter, and relationships with God require suffering, wrote "Either/Or", The Sickness Unto Death"

Carl Lange

Danish physiologist who proposed a theory of emotion similar to, and about the same time as James' theory that awareness of physiological responses leads to experiences of emotion.

egoism

Giving to another person to ensure reciprocity; to gain self-esteem; to present oneself as powerful, competent, or caring; or to avoid censure from self and others for failing to live up to society's expectations.

secondary motives

Motives based on learned needs, drives, and goals

Afferent Neurons

Neurons that transmit messages from sense organs to the central nervous system. Also called sensory neurons

Paraphilias

Sexual disorders in which sexual arousal occurs almost exclusively in the context of inappropriate objects or individuals.

analgesia

The absence of pain sensations in the presence of a normally painful stimulus

role modeling

The use of self as a role model often overlooked as an instructional method, whereby the learner acquires new behaviors and social roles by identification with the role model.

Spiesman et al (1964) study results and limitations

Trauma music had most emotion, the researchers did not measure appraisal.

Sel-fulfilling prophecy

expectations cause indidviduals to act in ways that serve to make the expectation come true

Observer bias

expectations or biases of the observer that might distort or influence his or her interpretation of what was actually observed

demand characteristics

feature introduced by nature of it being an experiment and participants know they are taking part - try to make sense and avoid negative evaluations

the ingroup projection model

ingroup projects their prototypical charachteristics, norms, on the superordinate and judge outgroups on it.Social discrimination comes from disagreement between two groups about their relative prototypicality for the superordinate category. (Mummendey & Wenzel, 1999

sexual intelligence

involves self-understanding, interpersonal sexual skills, scientific knowledge, and consideration of the cultural context of sexuality.

Down's syndrome

is a chromosomal disorder caused by the presence of all or part of an extra 21st chromosome.. Often Down syndrome is associated with some impairment of cognitive ability and physical growth as well as facial appearance

Hypoglycemia

abnormally low blood sugar usually resulting from excessive insulin or a poor diet

Latent Content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). Freud believed that this functions as a safety valve.

self-actualization

according to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

labelling

assign the target a trait and then seek consistent behaviour

Theory X

assumes that the average person dislikes work and will avoid it if possible. therefore, people must be forced, controlled, and threatened with punishment to accomplish organizational goals

benevolent 'isms'

contain both positive and negative features

self-conscious emotions

embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt have a social nature

authority

follow suggestion of legitimate authority

Enuresis

inability to control the flow of urine and involuntary urination

nature intelligence

measured by presentation of specific tasks that measure general and specific abilities

echolalia

mechanical and meaningless repetition of the words of another person (as in schizophrenia, autism)

Extrinsic motivation

motivation reflecting a desire for external rewards, such as wealth or the respect of others

Endorphins

natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

Mood-congruent memory (how emotion influences content)

people are more likely to retrieve memories that are congruent with their current mood, match between mood state at recall and the affective quality of the material being recalled.

Interposition

monocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one patially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away

defensive pessimism

ready made excuse for failure by obsessing about failure - negative expectancies about future

scarcity

scarce resources are worth more - the more valuable the more people want it, e.g. limited number/deadline tactics

assimilation effect

schemata or priming, providing a frame of reference

conformity

social influence resulting from exposure to the opinions of a majority

Inattention

non-responsiveness to task demands

spillover effect

occasions when our emotional response to one event carries over into our response to another event. (Stanley Schachter)

neuroticism

one of the three underlying dimensions of personality in Eysenck's model, referring to tendencies toward emotional instability, anxiety, and worry

gain-loss theory

people act in order to obtain gain and avoid loss; people feel MOST favorably toward situations that start out negatively but end positively (even when compared to completely positive situations)

animalistic dehumanisation

people are seen and treated as not completely human

intentional stance

people assume agents responsible for own behaviour (FAE), create theory of mind to explain and predict behaviour

self esteem hypothesis

people derive self-esteem from group membership - ingroup bias and discrimination helps increase that

social reconnection hypothesis

people who have threat of being socially excluded found it more difficult to make new friends, increased desire to work with others, formed more positive impressions of novel social targets, and assigned greater rewards to new partners

Internal Locus of Control

people with this tend to respond to internal states and desires; they tend to see their successes as the result of their own efforts

norms of reciprocity

people's tendency to think that when someone does something nice for them, they ought to do something nice in return

Self-categorization theory (SCT, Turner, et al;, 1987)

when there is competition with an outgroup or when perceivers notice that attributes such as appearance and opinions covary with group membership, there will be a tendency to define the self as a group member rather than as an individual.

Solomon Asch

- Studied conformity - Participant thought it was a test of visual perception; one test subject with a group of actors; which line matches the standard line?; actors pick the wrong line to see what the test subject will do - Conflict of following the group or doing the right thing - More than one-third of the time, the college students were willing to go along with the group instead of saying the correct answer - His procedure became a model for later studies

What is Gilbert's 3 stage model?

- asserts attributing behaviour to dispositions rather than situations - correspondent inferences lead to spontaneous dispositional attributions unconsciously - perceivers spontaneously attribute because this allows a behaviour to be identified quickly - situational attributions are corrections that require more effort and cognitive resources

According to the Covariation Model, when is a situational attribution likely to be made?

-Consistency: high -Distinctiveness: high -Consensus: high

Cultural Approach to Emotion

-emotions strongly influenced by values, roles, institutions, and socialization practices -these vary across cultures

clinical case study

A detailed investigation of a single person, especially one suffering from some injury or disease.

Autism

A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind

Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve

A forgetting curve that determines that we lose about 2/3 of information in first hour of learning; though the rate of forgetting levels off after a few days

echoic memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Carl Jung

A neo-Freudian psychologist that argue that the unconscious is actually divided up into two parts, the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious and identified archetypes by studying dreams, visions, paintings, poetry, folk stories, myths, religions

curvilinear relationship

A relationship in which increases in the values of the first variable are accompanied by both increases and decreases in the values of the second variable.

Attitude

A relatively enduring organisation of beliefs, feelings, and behavioural tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events, or symbols

case study

A research method used to get a full, detailed picture of one subject or a small group of subjects, is also an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Type A Personality

A theory used to describe a person with a significant number of traits focused on urgency, impatience, success, and excessive competition. Higher Risk for Coronary Heart Disease.

unconditional positive regard

According to Carl Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person.

role theory

According to this theory, subjects under hypnosis merely act in accordance with the hypnotized role. They are not in a special state

Two component model of attitude

Affect and mental readiness

stereotypes

Attributions that cover up individual differences and ascribe certain characteristics to an entire group of people

Intergroup behaviour

Behaviour among individuals that is regulated by those individuals' awareness of and identification with different social groups.

Stanley Schachter

Developed the 2 factor emotion theory-physiological happens first, cognitive appraisal must be made in order to experience emotion. Had .Experiments on the Spillover Effect.

Common-identity group

Group identity

Nun Study

Had nuns write autobiographies at age 22...studied them at 75 and 95...those who were happier lived longer

Reciprocity of self-disclosure

People attempt to match the level of self-disclosure provided by new acquaintances

achieved roles

Roles that individuals assume after some effort or achievement.

5 concepts of the self

Self-concept Self-esteem Self-control Self-serving biases Self-presentation

Morphemes

Smallest meaningful units of speech; simple words, suffixes, prefixes; examples: red, hot, calm, -ed, pre-

reliability

Yielding consistent results; Does not insure validity

Limbic System

a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

Prejudice

a negative attitude formed toward an individual or group without sufficient experience with the person or group (Different from a Stereotype)

Trial and Error

problem-solving strategy; best if there are limited choices; takes time to try all approaches; try one approach, fail; and another until you succeed; guarantees a solution

Redintegration

the phenomenon of a sense cueing a memory

Behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior(involving an action acting opun a prejudice) toward a group or its members

power of the situation

ways that the situation determines behaviour

Aggregates

A bunch of people in close proximity

Alarm reaction

First stage of the general adaptation syndrome(GAS) , involving mobilization of the body's resurces to cope with an immediate stressor. (Hans Seyle)

anal stage

Freud's second stage of psychosexual development where the primary sexual focus is on the elimination or holding onto feces. The stage is often thought of as representing a child's ability to control his or her own world.

transference

In psychoanalysis, the process whereby emotions are passed on or displaced from one person to another

Obedience

Milgram 1963

crystallized intelligence

One's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Solomon Asch

Performed famous study on conformity in which people gave an obviously incorrect answer just to conform to the group - length of line study.howed the subjects three vertical lines of varying sizes and asked them to indicate which one was the same length as a different target line.

Noam Chomsky

Psychologist that specialized in language development; disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, humans have an inborn native ability to develop language

Behavioral Response

The actions taken in response to stress

introversion

a personality trait that signifies that one finds energy from internal sources rather than external ones

fight or flight response

a physical reaction triggered by the sympathetic nervous system preparing the body to fight or run from a threatening situation

Incentives

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

Factor Analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score.

reference group

any group that individuals use as a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior

fissures

deep grooves on cortical surface of the cerebral hemisphere

Denial

defense mechanism by which people refuse to believe or even to perceive painful realities.

Rationalization

defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

Similarity

extent to which we have things in common with others, a predictor of attraction

egotistic motivation

feels good to do good things

FAS

fetal alcohol syndrome= caused by mothers who drink alcohol while being pregnant

Representativeness Heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information

growth mindset

the idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow

Intensify emotion

to make stronger in feeling

Attributions and emotions

what type of positive or negative emotion is experienced depends on further appraisals, assessment of who or what is responsible for the event in question.

realistic conflict theory

(sheriff 1966) showed that competition creates negative outgroup stereotype and co-operation the opposite.

Kashy & DePaulo (1996)

- College students report telling lies to other people about twice a day! - Why? To advance their own interests & to help protect their other person *People who lied reported having more friends

Biological approaches to aggression

- Instinct theory of aggression, Aggression is not earned. It builds up untill it explodes. Freud stated its redirected self-destruction Lorenz thought it was adaptive - genetics, Aggression is a heriditary trait Critics: can it be seperated from socialization

Oxytocin

- Produced in the hypothalamus - Part of the limbic system - HORMONE OF LOVE - Consistently involved in all forms of love - Coats brain during the first 90 days of love - Risk takers get a rush of oxytocin

Bobo doll experiment

-children watched the actions of adults towards a doll and when in the same situation imitated the actions of the adult whom they watched -we choose to imitate people who we respect or like, people who are attractive or powerful, people of the same gender, people who are similar to us, people who's behavior leads to positive outcomes (Albert Bandura)

Other-praising emotions

-gratitude, "elevation", awe -signal of approval of others' moral virtues

stereotype

A generalization about a group's characteristics that does not consider any variations from one individual to another.

Stereotype

A generalized BELIEF about a group of people

Split Halves

A method of showing a test's reliability; involves dividing the test into halves

split halves

A method of showing a test's reliability; involves dividing the test into halves

investment model

A model of long-term relationships that examines the ways that commitment, investment, and the availability of attractive alternative partners predict satisfaction and stability in relationships.

Projective tests

A personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli to trigger projection of one's inner thoughts and feelings

meta-analysis

A procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies., A set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by combining the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength of particular effects

experimental group

A subject or group of subjects in an experiment that is exposed to the factor or condition being tested.

Cognitive Therapy

A therapy developed by Aaron Beck that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions

midlife transition

According to Levinson, a process whereby adults assess the past and formulate new goals for the future; taking stock of life

inferiority complex

Adler's theory of the feelings of inadequacy or inferiority in young children that influence their developing personalities and create desires to overcome

One component model of attitude

Affect only

Confabulations

An attempt to fill in the gap of memories where no memories actually exist

Biorhythms

An innate periodicity in an organism's physiological processes, as sleep and wake cycles.

Common-bond group

Attachment based group

longitudinal research

Collect data from the same group of individuals as they age, useful in life span studies, HOWEVER downsides are that participants may withdraw, die, move away, influenced by changing historical context

evaluation theory

Cottrell (1972) presence of others only influences when others will evaluate ones actions

Heider's balance theory

Has to be a balance of likes and dislikes in a relationship balance can be off resulting in negative attitudes

hidden observer

Hilgard's term describing a hypnotized subject's awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis

hidden observer

Hilgard's term describing a hypnotized subject's awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis.

penis envy

In Psychoanalytic Thought, the desire of girls to posses a penis and therefore have the power that being male represents.

Irrelevant Questions

In a polygraph test random questions used for truth testing, Like (Is you Name Julius?)

cross-sectional

In this study data is collected on people of different ages at the same time, it can show similarities and differences among age groups. However it cannot establish age effects, makes individual differences

Postconventional Level

Kohlberg's highest level of moral development, in which moral actions are judged on the basis of personal codes of ethics that are general and abstract and that may not agree with societal norms

Corpus callosums

Large band of white neural fibers that connects to to brain hemispheres and carries messages between them; myelinated; involved in intelligence, consciousness, and self-awareness; does it reach full maturity until 20s (Very Important because it is LARGER in GIRLS than in Guys). An Important factor in differential Gender Development

Krosnick and Petty 1995 strong attitudes are:

More persistent More resistant to change More likely to affect perception and judgement More likely to guide behaviour

What theory did Heider propose?

Naive Psychologist -cause and effect analysis -people intuitively deduce the causes of events around them -view behaviour as a set of cause and effect relationships even when there is no causal relationship -cause and effect = perceptual unit: similarity and proximity make cause and effect more likely ->attribution of behaviour is because of a single cause ->attribution of behaviour is because of dispositional factors

fluid intelligence

One's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.

Stanford Prison experiment

Philip Zimbardo's study of the effect of roles on behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to play either prisoners or guards in a mock prison. The study was ended early because of the "guards'" role-induced cruelty. Proved that situational forces can lead ordinary people to exhibit horrendous behavior.

libido

Sigmund Freud's terminology of instinctual sexual energy or sexual drive.

status symbols

Signs that identify a status, such as uniforms or wedding rings (Elkind)

Retroactive Interference

Situation in which information learned more recently hinders the recall of information learned previously

Retroactive interference

Situation in which information learned more recently hinders the recall of information learned previously

genuineness

The ability to present oneself honestly and spontaneously. (So the opposite of most politicians)

Musical intelligence

The ability to read, understand, and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. Auditory functions are required for a person to develop this intelligence for pitch and tone, but it is not needed for the knowledge of rhythm

Attributions

The causes we use to explain another's behavior

retention

The length of time records must be retained and proper disposition of them when they should no longer be stored.

Somatic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles. (Volantary )

door-in-the-face effect

The tendency of a person who has refused a major request to subsequently be more likely to comply with a minor request.

bystander effect

The tendency of an individual who observes an emergency to help less when other people are present than when the observer is alone.

Intergroup emotion theory (IET)

The theory that appraisals of personal harm or benefit in a situation operate at a level of society and must be related to positive ingroup and negative outgroup emotions

Gender Schema Theory

The theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly.

State Dependent Memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

Contact hypothesis

The view that bringing members of opposing social groups together will improve intergroup relations and reduce prejudice and discrimination.

Kenneth Clark

United States psychologist (born in Panama) whose research persuaded the Supreme Court that segregated schools were discriminatory , Used dolls to study children's attitude towards race. Their findings were used in the Brown vs. Board trial.

Stimulus motive

Unlearned motive, such as curiosity or contact, that prompts us to explore or change the world around us

Sensory memory

Very brief (0.5 to 1.0 second for visual stimuli and 2 to 3 seconds for auditory stimuli) but extensive memory for sensory events

Missattribution

When people are aroused for one reason such as crossing a scary bridge, they often attribute this arousal to the wrong source-such as attraction to the person they are with.

Cultural Differences in Mimicry

When the interviewer mirrored a hispanic interviewee, the interviewee reported less anxiety and was rated more highly by observers than when the interviewer did not do any mirroring. For Anglo-American interviewees, it made no difference whether the interviewer mirrored their behavior or not

Functionalism

William James's school of thought that stressed the adaptive and survival value of behaviors

Hippocampus

a complex neural structure located in the limbic system (shaped like a sea horse) consisting of gray matter and located on the floor of each lateral ventricle that helps process explicit memories for storage

Mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

Elaborative rehearsal

a memorization method that involves thinking about how new information relates to information already stored in long-term memory

Hypothalamus

a neural structure lying BELOW the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

Hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

stimulus overload

a reaction to the plethora of noises, sounds, sights, and other stimuli that bombard the senses simultaneously

mean

an average of n numbers computed by adding some function of the numbers and dividing by some function of n

lesion

any destruction or damage to brain tissue

Catecholamine

any of a group of chemicals including epinephrine(adrenaline) and norepinephrine that are produced in the medulla of the adrenal gland

Emotions arise as a result of

appraisal processes

Kelley's covariation model

consistency, does one always act like this distinctiveness, to only that stimulus? consensus, do others act the same way problem is that humans are not as rational as this model

3 factors of influence of minority

consistency, moscovici blue green studies self-confidence, defections, one man can cause a snowball effect

dehumanisation

deny another individual mind

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes

What is a correspondent inference?

dispositional attributions

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram--'go car'--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting 'auxiliary' words

Facial movements and sensory regulation

facial movements associated with fear enhance sensory acquisition, whereas those that are associated with disgust have the opposite affect.

waxy flexibility

feature of catatonic schizophrenia in which people rigidly maintain the body position or posture in which they are placed by others

fixed mindset

idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change

outgroup homogeneity effect

if an outgroup acts in a conflicting way then that leads to radicalization

Neurotic disorders

mental disorders in which a person does not have signs of brain abnormalities and does not display grossly irrational thinking or violate basic norms but does eperience subjective distress; a category dropped from DSM-III

social facilitation

mere presence of an entirely passive and unresponsive audience that is only physically present

drive theory

mere presence of audience creates arousal that energises the dominant response - when it is correct performance will be facilitated, when it is incorrect performance will be inhibited

test-retest

method examines how well people's scores from 2 different testing occasions are correlated

Attribution

needed to explain behavior of others

Dopamine

neurotransmitter that influences voluntary movement, attention, alertness; lack of dopamine linked with Parkinson's disease; too much is linked with schizophrenia

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

Role of embodiment in emotion perception

perceiving an emotional state in another person activates in the perceiver the same sensorimotor states that are entailed in the emotion they are witnessing.

"ingroup advantage"

persons of a given culture or ethnicity perform better when interpreting expressions made by members of their own culture or ethnicity.

Projection

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

Projection

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.

Object permanence

recognition that things continue to exist even though hidden from sight; infants generally gain this after 3 to 7 months of age (Piaget)

compulsions

repetitive behaviors or mental acts performed to reduce or prevent stress

eclectic

selecting what seems best of various styles or ideas

attributional ambiguity

targets of bias develop expectations that people will be biased against them - attributional style helps confirm that they are targets of stereotypes

indoctrination

teaching someone to accept an idea or principle without question

Semantic Encoding

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

population

the entire aggregation of items from which samples can be drawn

Bell Curve

the plot of frequencies obtained for many psychological tests; most people's scores are in the middle range, and the decline in frequencies is similar whether scores get higher or lower than the mean.

Hypercognize

to represent a particular emotion with numerous words and concepts. cultures vary in how they hypercognize different emotions. (e.g. 46 words in tahiti to refer to angle, 113 words that describe shame and embarrassment in chinese)

suppression

trying to prevent activated stereotype from impacting judgement - can lead to increased stereotyping by keeping the stereotype in mind

dominance hierarchies

use of force and punishment elicit submission, avoidant gaze, proximity, and fear

implicit attitudes test

uses cognitive psychology (stroop task), is better for predicting discrimination towards social groups

individualist

view of self/others as independent from social context, constant across social situations

collectivist

view of self/others as relational admist a network of others context dependent

Gender differences in defining the self

women have relational interdependence -focus on their close relationships ex=how they feel about wife and child men are collective interdependent -focus their memberships on in larger groups ex=they are American

Functionalism

William James school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes FUNCTION - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish. (influenced by Darwin!)

self-perception theory

Bem's theory on how behaviors influence attitudes, stating that individuals make inferences about their attitudes by perceiving their behavior.

forensic psychology

field that blends psychology, law, and criminal justice. These psychologists make legal evaluations of a person's mental competency to stand trial, the state of mind of a defendant at the time of a crime, the fitness of a parent to have custody of children, or allegations of child abuse. (Yeah I just had to use this picture, its hilarious)

Deintensify emotion

would you cover up emotion over good news to make a friend feel better

Deception.

in research, an effect by which participants are misinformed or misled about the study's methods and purposes

speculation

a hypothesis that has been formed by speculating or conjecturing (usually with little hard evidence)

Myelin Sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

extraversion

The tendency to experience positive emotions and moods and to feel good about oneself and the rest of the world.

ethnocentrism

The tendency to favor one's own ethnic group over other groups.

Parasympathetic division

the part of the autonomic nervous system that monitors the routine operations of the internal organs and returns the body to calmer functioning after arousal by the sympathetic division

self-handicapping

the strategy whereby people create obstacles and excuses for themselves so that if they do poorly on a task, they can avoid blaming themselves

Eugenics

the study of methods of improving genetic qualities by selective breeding (especially as applied to human mating)

Proxemics

the study of spatial distances between individuals in different cultures and situations

J-curve

A graphical figure that captures the way in which relative deprivation arises when attainments suddenly fall short of rising expectations.

Abraham Maslow

A humanistic psychologist who proposed the hierarchy of needs, also developed the view that the human needs for security, love, belonging, self-esteem and self-actualization were more important than physiological needs for food, sleep and sex. He developed a theory of a hierarchy of human needs, of which the highest were the need for "self-actualization"

client centered therapy

A humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth.

Belief perseverance

A tendency of clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.

Psychosocial Theory

A theory of psychological development that proposes that cognitive, emotional, and social growth are the result of the interaction between social expectations at each life stage and the competencies that people bring to each life challenge. (Erikson)

Erik Erikson

Neo- Freudian who proposed that as humans develop, they have psycho-social tasks that, if completed, lead to healthy development. , People evolve through 8 STAGES of personality development over the life span. Each stage marked by psychological crisis that involves confronting "who am I". Also described "basic trust" and also worked with Anna Freud( Freud's daughter)

Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment

Attachment style in which infants become extremely upset when their caregiver leaves but reject the caregiver when he or she returns (12%)

ADHD

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity

individualistic cultures

Cultures in which a person's identity focuses on themselves as an individual ( e.g. United State and Canada). Also called independent cultures. This is where the FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR happens more frequently when compared to collectivistic cultures.

Fluid Intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

What is intergroup attribution?

This is how group members make attributions for their own and others behaviour on the basis of their membership -ethnocentrism/in-group serving bias -ultimate attribution error

Attribution

The process of explaining the causes of people's behavior, including our own

mutual interdependence

The situation that exists when two or more groups need each other and must depend on each other to accomplish a goal that is important to each of them

social psychology

The study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people.

Exposure and response prevention

a behavioral treatment for OCD that exposes a client to anxiety-arousing thoughts or situations and then prevents the client from performing his or her compulsive acts. AKA exposure and ritual prevention

General Intelligence

a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

Spearman's g.

a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

Dependent personality disorder

personality disorder in which the person is unable to make choices and decisions independently and cannot tolerate being alone

hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

interns syndrome

a tendency to diagnose one's self while studying any particular disorder

Antisocial personality

personality who lacks a conscience, is emotionally shallow, impulsive, and selfish, and tends to manipulate others

Cognitive psychology

perspective that focuses on the internal mental processes involved in perception, learning, memory, and thinking

experimenter effect

phenomenon in which researchers' hypotheses lead them to unintentionally bias the outcome of a study (Also called Self Fulfilling Prophecy)

self esteem

positive or negative evaluation of the self can be both cause and effect Baumeister 1989 on high and low self esteem

psychological realism

real life psychological processes occur in the experiment

Reconstruction

recall that is hypothesized to work by storing abstract features which are then used to construct the memory during recall

the halo effect

refers to the overall positive evaluation of a worker based on one known positive characteristic or action.

Lewis Terman

revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of young geniuses and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life

Are emotions always functional?

social impact of our emotions is not taken into account or if inappropriate appraisals of the social context are made.

Eidetikers

someone who has a photographic memory

Social butterflies

someone who talks to a lot of people

Group tests

intelligence tests administered by one examiner to many people at one time

Bargaining

Process of intergroup conflict resolution where representatives reach agreement through direct negotiation.

Social Comparison Theory:

The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people

social learning theory

new behaviour acquired through observation

Dependent Variable

the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

Motivated processing

the perceiver processes information about the target in a way that serves one or more of the perceiver's goals.

Occipital Lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field.

reciprocity

the principle that people tend to like others who like them back

Weber's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) 10 % for weight , 5% hearing and 8 % vision

moral self

view self as nice/moral

Social Responsibility Norm

An expectation that people will help those dependent upon them; Based in the idea of altruism

Impression Formation Study

An experiment by the social psychologist Solomon Asch where he determined that describing a professor as "warm" or "cold" significantly affected people's perceptions.

ABC model

Demonstrates how negative, irrational beliefs can create stress and lead to unwanted consequences A - Activating Event B - Belief C - Consequences Used in the field of Cognitive Therapy by (Ellis , Beck)

"Flashbulb" memories

detailed memory for events surrounding a dramatic event that is vivid and remembered with confidence

Jane Elliot

A 3rd grade Iowa teacher who in response to assassination of MLK, she divided her class into blue eyes and brown eyes, brown eyes felt inferior to blue eyes, group favoritism, and racism

Beta Amyloid plaques

Structural change in the cerebral cortex associated with Alzheimer's Disease, in which dense deposits of a deteriorated protein called amyloid develop, surrounded by clumps of dead nerve and glial cells, also called senile plaques, they seem to trigger the death of surrounding neurons.

positive transfer

The process of one skill helping the learning and performance of a separate but similar skill

Electra Complex

A pattern described by Freud in which a young girl develops an attachment to her father and competes with her mother for his attention.

Hydrocephaly

Enlargement of the cranium caused by abnormal accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid within the ventricles of the cerebral system, tends to cause bulging eyes and most prominently mental retardation.

integrity versus despair

Erickson's final, eighth stage, where the person asks himself or herself: "After seventy, eighty, or ninety years of life, do I have anything of interest and value to say to the next generation? Or not?"

Mere Exposure Effect

phenomenon in which repeated exposure to a stimulus makes us more likely to feel favorably toward it

Affect Valuation Theory

(7)-Cultures differ in which emotions they value >In U.S., excitement is valued, promotes self-expression, achievement, risk taking >E. Asians value calm, contented-->harmony, soothing recreations -the different emotions that are valued translate into cultural differences in emotional behavior -americans value excitement -cultures vary in display rules

door in the face technique

(Cialdini, 1975) Make an absurd high request then go for your real demand Cialdini and Ascani (1976) blood donation study

deindividuation

(Festinger et al., 1952) one loses the sense of self in a group and with it self control

Cognitive roots of prejudice

- Categorization (other-race effect) - Just-World phenomenon

What is the ultimate attribution error?

- favour to protect the ingroup and attribute negatively to the outgroup -group level attribution bias -negative out: group behaviour is dispositional -positive out: group behaviour is situational - outgroup + positive behaviour = ingroup attributes situationally = not representative of their stereotyped image - outgroup + negative behaviour = ingroup attributes to dispositional factors - ingroup + positive behaviour = dispositional attributions by ingroup - ingroup + negative behaviour = situation attributions by ingroup

Cognitive Consequences If we succeed:

-Catastrophic Fantasy: Our tendency to a largely unconscious fear of being unmasked as a fake or unworthy of the respect - "Imposter Phenomenon": A psychological syndrome based on intense, secret feelings of fraudulence in the face of success and achievement.

What is an example of the covariation model being applied for a dispositional attribution?

-Consistency: If an individual responds similarly at different times (high consistency) For example, Alison smokes when she goes out to a restaurant with friends consistency is high -Distinctiveness: An individual will show similar responses to different stimuli (distinctiveness is low) For example, Alison smokes at any time or place: distinctiveness is low. -Consensus: An individual will act a different way to most other people (consensus is low). For example, If only Alison smokes a cigarette when she goes out for a meal with her friend: consensus is low.

According to the Covariation Model, when is a dispositional attribution likely to be made?

-Consistency: high -Distinctiveness: low -Consensus: low

Asperger's

-Having an obsessive interest in a single object or topic -Tend to have good vocabs, grammar skills -Usually have other language problems - being overly literal, trouble with non-verbal communications -May include: obsessive/repetitive routines or rituals, motor skills problems, social skills problems, sensitivity to sensory information -sometimes overwhelmed by touch -sometimes do not like to kiss

What are the limitations of attribution theory?

-Individual is asocial & decontextualised -Producing causal attributions is not neutral: assigning blame - the effect of perceptions of blame are on our understanding of responsibility and causality -Focus on westernised cultures (ethnocentric)

Cognitive Consequences of self prejudice

-It's really a lose-lose situation! - Constantly worrying, monitoring, & questioning oneself leads to a reduction in cognitive resources - A reduction in cognitive resources makes it difficult to learn new skills

Cognitive Consequences If we fail:

-Self-fulfilling Prophecy: Once an individual is labeled, he/she may accept the redefined identity and play out the expectations of that role (females are bad at math so of course I am going to fail math test) - Learned Helplessness: A passive resignation produced by repeated exposure to negative events that are perceived to be unavoidable (females are bad at math so why study)

obedience to authority

-Studies of obedience by Stanley Milgram. Milgram told participants they would be participating in a study of the effects of punishment on learning. Their task was to administer electric shock to a "learner," but in reality, the "learner" was a confederate. Found that 65% of participants could be coaxed to deliver every level of shock -Milgram may have found high obedience because his participants were volunteers -Raised ethical issues. To ensure that there are no long-lasting effects, participants were debriefed

Universality of Emotion

-all humans express or encode these emotions in largely the same way & with accuracy -Ekman study with different cultures (remote tribe matched American facial expressions in content) -babies can express at 6 mos -even children blind from birth

Emotional Expressions in Other Animals

-anatomical foundation: our closest primate relatives (chimps) have facial musculatures similar to our own -ex: chimps show threat displays similar to our own displays of anger (along with other emotions)

Other-condemning Emotions

-anger, disgust -best studied -we feel these emotions in response to others' immoral acts -tend to be involved in different moral domains -anger-> violations of rights and freedom -disgust-> arise when people condemn others for being impure in body, mind, or character

Study done on embarrassment between United States Students and Indian Students

-both identified one photo as embarrassing, but indian students also identified a photo of someone biting their tongue as also a sign of embarrassment whereas U.S. students had no idea what it meant -example of emotional accent

Touch and Closeness

-can communicate many emotions through tactile contact -People in the United States and Spain could reliably communicate prosocial emotions such as love, compassion, and gratitude with brief tactile contact -Spaniards-> high touch culture, better at communicating emotion through touch -interdependent cultures better at communicating emotion through touch Benefits: 1) provides rewards to others (a smile) 2) builds closeness (soothes in times of stress) 3) encourages reciprocity (more touch=increased compliance with requests)

Emotions and Role Negotiations within Groups

-central dimension: individuals role within a group and their status -conflicts over hierarchy can sometimes be violent and deadly -ex: anger a high power emotion (conveys force and strength) -expressions of anger lead to gains in power in the group -people assume that high power people respond to difficulties with anger -embarrassment is a lower power emotion (lower status and physically smaller, submissiveness)

The Determinants of Pleasure

-core element of many experiences of pleasure -peak moment: associated with the most pleasurable moment of the event -how you feel at the end of the event strongly predicts your overall reports of pleasure -the length of the pleasurable experience in unrelated to overall reports of pleasure->bias->duration neglect -what matters is whether the peak moment and ending are GOOD

The Components of Emotion

-emotions involve many components -the conclusion you come to depends on which component of emotion you are focused on ex: William james argued that the essence of an emotion, what determines its experience and differentiates it from other emotions, is its bodily response (sweaty palms, increased heart rate)

What brings people happiness in their lives?

-finding sound answers to this question leads to better personal relationships and career, and helps you live longer -happiness is good for marriage -> partners need to express 5 positive emotions for every negative one->higher ratios of laughter, gratitude, appreciation, love, and kindness more likely to last -better performing, more creative workers -women=men in happiness -age has weak effect on happiness -Strongest indicator-> **relationships**

What are the explanations for the fundamental attribution error?

-individual level attributional bias -cognitive explanation: actor dominates observers perceptual field -motivational explanation: dispositional explanations are more stable than situational -this allows our sense of prediction and control to be enhanced in every day life

Do emotions always guide people's judgements?

-most likely to rely on our emotions when we make more complex judgements ("How will global warming influence the American economy 20 years from now?) -not as likely to rely on our emotions when we make simple judgements ("is my cars tire flat?") -not as likely to rely on emotions when we do not have preexisting schemas to guide our judgement

Emotions help people achieve their social goals

-motivate us to act in specific ways that affect important relationships and help us navigate our social environment Ex of emotional motivators: gratitude, guilt, anger,

Mimicry Study

-nonverbal mimicry increases liking between strangers -two strangers sit across from one another -listening to tones -asked to tap fingers to tones two groups: -both listening to rhythmic patterns of tones -both listening to different rhythms Results: -those tapping to same rhythm reported to have more in common with each other or felt closer

What are self-serving biases?

-our own successes are internal and our failures are external -this protects and maintains our self-esteem

Emotions can be specific:

-people and events evoke specific emotions

Romantic Breakup Study

-people who had not experienced a romantic break-up called "luckies", reported on their own overall happiness and then predicted how unhappy they would be two months after a romantic break up -this estimate compared with the happiness of people who had recently broken up (leftovers) -leftovers just as happy as luckies, but luckies predicted that they would be much less happy two months after a breakup than leftovers actually were **People overestimated how much a romantic breakup would diminish their life satisfaction -biases interfere with people's attempts to predict the level of their future happiness: >immune neglect >focalism

Human Displays of Embarrassment and Other Animals

-resemble appeasement displays in other mammals -signals remorse for social transgressions, prompting forgiveness and reconciliation when violate social norms -more favorable when show embarrassment for embarrassing behavior when judged by others

self regulatory resource model

-self-control is a limited resource (like a muscle), gets tired with frequent use but rebounds in strength -must be careful how we spend our self-control -if exert s-c on one task, likely will not have much to exert on another

Self-critical emotions

-shame, embarrassment, guilt -arise when violated social norms and moral codes or ideas about virtue and character -motivate us to make amends fore inappropriate behavior -shameless-> more likely to engage in violent or criminal behavior

Harm-related emotions

-sympathy, concern, compassion -motivate prosocial behavior toward people who suffer or are vulnerable -momentary compassion leads people to see the common humanity they share with others (encourages prosocial behavior)

5 functions of ingroup identity

1. Decreases psychological distance 2. Facilitates empathy 3. Increases ingroup pro-social behaviors 4. Increases personal restraint (decreases greediness) 5. Increases generosity in evaluations of and explanations for behaviors

Katz' four functions of attitudes (1960)

1. Knowledge function 2. Instrumental function, promoting self interest 3. Ego defensive function, overcoming fear 4. Value-expressive function, establishing a social identity

Rahe and Holmes

2 Psychologist that came up with a test that measures stress in your lives. The test is called the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) and measures stress using life-change units (LCUs).

Kurt Lewin

A German refugee who escaped Nazi oppression. He designed an experiment to investigate the effects of different leadership styles on group functions. He wanted to find out if people were more productive under 3 different styles 1. autocratic, 2. laizssez-faire, and 3. democratic. This is the study when he had children do activities under the 3 conditions. The democratic style proved to be the most productive as was expected

Wolfgang Kohler

A Gestalt psychologist who became known for his experiments with chimpanzees and insight in problem solving. He believed that by perceiving the WHOLE situation, chimps were able to create novel solutions to problems (rather than just by trial and error). Through insight, chimps were able to use props in order to retrieve rewards., started Gestalt psychology with 2 companions Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer

Rosenthal

A Psychologist along with Jacobson famous for his research regarding the "experimenter effect", study on self-fulfilling prophecy with students expected to improve, social expectations influence how one treats and behaves toward those people, the way they are treated shape them into what is socially expected "Pygmalion in the Classroom"

Mary Ainsworth

A Psychologist interested mainly in developmental psychology; compared effects of maternal separation, devised patterns of attachment; "The Strange Situation": observation of parent/child attachment. Discovered 3 Types of attachment 1.Secure Attachments(66%), 2.. Avoidant Attachments(21%) 3.Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment (12)

George Sterling

A Psychologist that demonstrated that sensory memory exists, and that it only lasts a split second. He flashed a grid of nine letters, three rows and three columns, to participants for 1/20 of a second. The participants in the study were directed to recall either the top, middle or bottom row immediately after the grid was flashed to them (Using a low, medium or high tone to indicate which row they should recall). The participants could recall any of the three rows perfectly. This experiment demonstrated that the entire grid must be held in the sensory memory for a split second. Also Ionic Memory

Ivan Pavlov

A Russian researcher in the early 1900s who was the first research into learned behavior (conditioning) and who discovered classical(Pavlovian) conditioning by; training dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

B.F Skinner

A behaviorist and pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments. he is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pidgeons and rats.

adolescent egocentrism

A characteristic of adolescent thinking that sometimes leads to young people to focus on themselves to the exclusion of others and to believe, for example, that their thoughts, feelings and experiences are unique (Elkind)

Klinefelter's syndrome

A chromosomal trisomy in which males have an extra X chromosome resulting in an XXy condition; affected individuals typically have reduced fertility

Repression

A classical defense mechanism that protects you from impulses or ideas that would cause anxiety by preventing them from becoming conscious

imaginary audience

A cognitive distortion experienced by adolescents, in which they see themselves as always "on stage" with an audience watching (Elkind)

Schema

A cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a specific concept or stimulus

schema

A collection of basic knowledge about a category of information; serves as a means of organization and interpretation of that information

Positive Correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction. First Graph

Specific hunger

A craving for a particular substance such as a salt.

Intellectualization

A defense mechanism that involves thinking abstractly about stressful problems as a way of detaching oneself from them;

Extrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.

Mary Ainsworth

A developmental psychologist who compared effects of maternal separation, and devised patterns of attachment; Used "The Strange Situation"-observation of parent/child attachment and vivided the attachments into 3 broad categories (Secure 66%, Avoidant 22%, and Anxious/Ambivalent/Resistant 11%)

Limbic System

A doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

Egoistic relative deprivation

A feeling of personally having less than we feel we are entitled to, relative to our aspirations or to other individuals.

anal retentive

A fixation that develops during the anal stage if a child's freedom to have bowel movements is restricted that can result in obsessively organized and meticulous personality traits

Stereotype

A fixed idea or conception of a character or an idea which does not allow for any individuality, often based on religious, social, or racial prejudices.

Scientific method

A general approach to gathering information and answering questions so that errors and biases are minimized

Tay- Sachs disease

A human genetic disease caused by a RECCESIVE allele for a dysfunctional enzyme (lysosomes) , leading to accumulation of certain lipids in the brain. Seizures, blindness, and degeneration of motor and mental performance usually become manifest a few months after birth. Very Rare

PKU

A human metabolic disease caused by a mutation in a gene coding for a phenylalanine processing enzyme (phenylalanine hydroxylase), which leads to accumulation of phenylalanine and mental retardation if not treated; inherited as an autosomal recessive phenotype.

Carl Rogers

A humanist who revolutionized therapy with his book, Client-Centered Therapy in 1951; furthered humanistic theory. Also developed the theory of unconditional positive regard

Thomas Szasz

A humanistic psychologist that argues that mental illness does not even exist, it is a "myth".He argues that the symptoms used as evidence of mental illness are merely medical labels that allow professional intervention into what are social problems-deviant people violating social norms.

client-centered therapy

A humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth.

consolidation

A hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stored in long-term memory

Existentialism

A label for widely different revolts against traditional philosophy, stressing choice, freedom, decision, and anguish, and emerging strongly during and after the World War II years.

law of contiguity

A law of association holding that events that occur in close proximity to each other in time or space are readily associated with each other. ( Aristotle) similar to classical conditioning.

Preconscious level

A level of mental activity that is not currently conscious but of which we can easily become conscious.

Benjamin Whorf

A linguist who noticed that the more words that you have for a certain type of thing, the more subtle the distinctions you recognize in it. Also , language we use might control, and in some ways limit our thinking. For example since the Hopi didn't have a grammatical structure that as useful for the past, they rarely talked or worried about it.

Information-processing model.

A model of memory in which information must pass through discrete stages via the processes of attention, encoding, storage, and retrieval

Three-Box Model

A model that says that info that does not transfer out of the sensory register or short term memory is assumed to be forgotten forever. once in along term memory, info can be retrieved for use in analyzing incoming sensory information or performing mental operations in short term memory

Parkinson's Disease

A motor disorder characterized by difficulty in initiating movements, slowness, and rigidity, masked facial expressions, muscle tremors, poor balance, and a shuffling gait.Also increases with the onset of old age, the symptoms of the disease result from the neurons in the midbrain nucleus called the substantia nigra which (normally release dopamine), and the buildup of protein aggregates containing a-synuclein

Erich Fromm

A neo-Freudian psychologist that centerd his theory around the need to belong and the loneliness freedom brings , believed personality is to a considerable extent a reflection of factors such as social class, minority status, education, vocation, religious and philosophical background.

Erik Erickson

A neo-Freudian psychologist that hypothesized that people face pass through 8 social development stages from infancy to old age. Each challenge has an outcome that affects a persons social and personality development.

Karen Horney

A neo-Freudian( and feminist) who criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends; concept of "basic anxiety". Also said that psychoanalysis was biased against woman, and that men acted superior because they had "Womb Envy"

action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane

Working memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

P. T. Barnum

A nineteenth-century American showman known for his circus, "The Greatest Show on Earth." His sideshows were particularly notable, even though many of the "freaks" he advertised were hoaxes." AFter Barnum's death, his circus was absorbed into the Ringling Brothers and Barnum & Bailey Circus.

degrees of freedom

A parameter of the t distribution. When the t distribution is used in the computation of an interval estimate of a population mean, the appropriate t distribution has n-1 degrees of freedom, where n is the size of the simple random sample.

Savant

A person of low intelligence who has an extraordinary ability

Paranoid personality disorder

A personality disorder characterized by a pervasive distrust and suspiciousness of the motives of others without sufficient basis

Reductionism

A phenomenon in terms of the language and concepts of a lower level of analysis, usually with a loss of explanatory power.

Cohort

A population group unified by a specific common characteristic, such as age, and subsequently treated as a statistical unit.

Eustress

A positive stress that energizes a person and helps a person reach a goal

reuptake

A process in which neurotransmitters are sponged up from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane

Hermann Rorschach

A psychoanalyst psychologist who developed one of the first projective tests, the Inkblot test which consists of 10 standardized inkblots where the subject tells a story, the observer then derives aspects of the personality from the subject's commentary

The sleeper effect

A psychological phenomenon whereby a highly persuasive message, paired with a discounting cue, causes an individual to be more persuaded by the message over time.

Aaron Beck

A psychologist associated with cognitive therapeutic techniques. Believe problems arise from a persons maladaptive ways of thinking about the world. Created the Beck Scales-depression inventory, hopelessness scale, suicidal ideation, anxiety inventory, and youth inventories

Ernest Hilgard

A psychologist who believed that hypnosis worked only on the immediate conscious mind of a person. he also believes that there is a hidden part of the mind(hidden observer) that is very much aware of the hypnotic subjects activities and sensations.

Rosenthal

A psychologist who conducted a study on self-fulfilling prophecy with students expected to improve, social expectations influence how one treats and behaves toward those people, the way they are treated shape them into what is socially expected

Howard Gardner

A psychologist who disagreed with Spearman and devised devised theory of multiple intelligences: logical-mathematic, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, linguistic, musical, interpersonal, naturalistic, studied savants.

Cultural Psychology

A psychology that is concerned with how the culture in which an individual lives -- its traditions, language, and worldview -- influences that person's mental representations and psychological processes.

Correlational Research

A research strategy that identifies the relationships between two or more variables in order to describe how these variables change together.

survey method

A research technique that questions a sample of people to collect information about their attitudes or behaviors. Probably the most common

Structuralism

A school of psychology based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analyze consciousness into its BASIC elements and to investigate how these elements are related. Differed from the Gestalt School Approach.

Milgram experiment

A series of psychological experiments which measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience.(1961)

Heuristics

A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgment and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier, but more error-prone than algorithms

Stanford Prison study

A social psychological study conducted at Stanford University by Philip Zimbardo. Its aim was to study the impact of roles on behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to play the role of either prisoner or guard. This study was terminated early because of the role-induced punitive behavior on the part of the "guards."

David Rosenhan

A social psychologist that did a study in which healthy patients were admitted to psychiatric hospitals and diagnoses with schizophrenia; showed that once you are diagnosed with a disorder, the label, even when behavior indicates otherwise, is hard to overcome in a mental health setting

Primary Punisher

A stimulus that is inherently punishing; an example is electric shock.

Reinforcement

A stimulus that strengthens or weakens the behavior that produced it

Little Albert Study

A study by John Watson and his wife Rosalie Rayner, Lttle albert associated loud noise with a white rat, he began to become afraid of it, and he was never unconditioned

Secondary Appraisal Stage

A subsequent evaluation in which we determine why we feel the way we do about an event, possible ways of responding to the event, and future consequences of different courses of action. -transform initial unpleasant/pleasant feelings into more specific emotions (fear, anger, pride, gratitude) -who is responsible for the event? -is it consistent with social norms? -how fair is it? -what effective action can be taken to deal with the event?

Positive Symptom

A symptom of schizophrenia, including thought disorder, delusions, and hallucinations

low-ball technique

A tactic for getting people to agree to something. People who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante. People who receive only the costly request are less likely to comply with it.

womb envy

A term coined by Karen Horney, is the neo-Freudian feminist equivalent of penis envy. Horney suggests that it is the unexpressed anxiety felt by some men over women's ability to give birth, leading them to dominate women or driving them to succeed in order for their names to live on

Arousal Theory

A theory of motivation suggesting that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of alertness and physical and mental activation.

Processing Style Perspective

A theory that different emotions lead people to reason in different ways. Positive and negative emotions lead to different types of information processing -Positive moods lead to more top-down thinking *More reliance on schemas and heuristics -Negative moods lead to more bottom-up thinking *More systematic and analytical thinking, -happiness prompts people to think more creatively, categorize objects in more inclusive ways (their categories are not so narrow) -anger facilitates preexisting heuristics and stereotypes, -sadness facilitate more careful attention to situational details.-> less likely to induce stereotypes, more astute, careful judges of others -negotiators in a positive mood are more likely to reach an optimal agreement that incorporates the interests of both sides

Type B Personality

A theory used to describe person with a significant number of traits focused on relaxation, lack of urgency, and normal or reduced competition.

ex post facto study

A type nonexperimental research design that involves the comparison of subjects, who are placed in contrast groups, on the basis of some pre-existing characteristic of the subjects.

Systematic desensitization

A type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias. (Joseph Wolpe)

Observational Learning

A type of learning that occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models

pluralistic ignorance

A type of misunderstanding that occurs when members of a group don't realize that the other members share their perception (often, their uncertainty about how to react to a situation). As a result, each member wrongly interprets the others' inaction as reflecting their better understanding of the situation.

Levels of Processing Model

A view stating that how well something is remembered depends on the degree to which incoming information is mentally processed

Heinz Dilemma

A woman is dying and needs an expensive medication. Husband cannot afford the medication, should he steal it or should she die?

Flynn Effect

A worldwide increase in IQ scores over the last several decades, at a rate of about 3 points per decade, makes it necessary to renorm tests

Cognitive triad

According to Beck, there are 3 important areas of life that are most influenced by the depressive cognitive schema; this refers to information about the self, about the world, and about the future

Unconditional positive regard

According to Carl Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person.

Basic Trust

According to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Electra Complex

According to Freud a conflict during phallic stage in which girls supposedly love their fathers romantically and want to eliminate their mothers as rivals

Unconscious

According to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories mainly formed during childhood. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

Analytical intelligence

According to Sternberg, the ability measured by most IQ tests; includes the ability to analyze problems and find correct answers. (book smart)

Incentive Theory

According to this theory, behavior is goal-directed; we behave in ways that allow us to attain desirable stimuli and avoid negative stimuli

state theory

According to this theory, hypnotized people experience an altered state of consciousness

dissociation theory

According to this theory, hypnotized subjects dissociate, or split, various aspects of their behavior and perceptions from the "self" that normally controls these functions

teratogens

Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm. Can lead to FAS

Social Learning Theory

Aggression has a reward, people who are rewarded for their aggressive behavior will do it more often. Patterson 1967, Bandura 1997 study on children

Prozac

An antidepressant drug that blocks the reabsorption and removal of serotonin fron synapses, a selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitor commonly prescribed as an antidepressant

Thorazine

An antipsychotic drug(along with Haldol) thought to block receptor sites for dopamine, making it effective in treating the delusional thinking, hallucinations and agitation commonly associated with schizophrenia. May lead to tardive dyskinesia.

Charles Spearman

An english psychologist, known for his work in statistics, as a pioneer of factor analysis and for Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. He also did seminal work on models for human intelligence, including his theory that disparate cognitive test scores reflect a single general factor and coining the term g factor. Predicted that doing good on one part of a test should mean that you do good on another part.

Bobo doll Experiment

An experiment that was conducted by Albert Bandura in the 1940s, 1st group of kids were placed in room with bobo doll and hammer, nothing happened; second group show movie where adult hits bag with hammer and the kids followed suit when placed with bag and hammer; people's behavior can become more violent as a result of violent media.

double blind study

An experimental procedure in which both researchers and participants are uninformed about the nature of the independent variable being administered

experimenter effect

An experimenter-related artifact that results when the hypothesis held by the experimenter leads unintentionally to behavior toward the subjects that, in turn, increases the likelihood that the hypothesis will be confirmed

Phi phenomenon

An illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in succession. Studied by Max Wertheimer.

Long Term Potentiation

An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory, more firing better memory and better learning.

mania

An intense or extreme enthusiasm or excitement.

What definition best describes dispositional attribution

An internal attribute such as personality and ability

Test Bias

An undesirable characteristic of tests in which item content discriminates against certain students on the basis of socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, or gender.

stage theorists

At every stage, something needs to happen, then they can move onto the next stage Erikson(Social) , Piaget(Cognitive),Freud(Social), Kolberg(Moral), Havighurst)

Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977 attitudes and behavior

Attitudes only predict behavior when it is directly related to the situation. Not when the measured attitude is general.

What are actor-observer biases?

Attributions of others behaviour are dispositional whereas our own behaviour when the same is situational Tendency for actors to attribute their own actions to situational factors, whereas observers tend to attribute the same actions to dispositional factors - polar tendency in attribution

Reciprocal Determinism

Bandura's idea that though our environment affects us, we also affect our environment

Distraction

Baron (1989) Presence of other makes it efortful to focus on task, simple task will be enhanced, difficult tasks will be inhibited

Albert Bandura

Behaviorist/modern theorist who challenges Skinner saying he ignored the most distinctive and important feature of human behavior. He agrees that personality is shaped through learning but that observational learning through models is influential. (Bobo doll)

aggression

Behaviors that are intended to harm another person.

Intergroup differentiation

Behaviour that emphasises differences between our own group and other groups.

Ingroup favouritism

Behaviour that favours one's own group over other groups.

Aggression

Behaviour that is intended to cause pain

Comparative psychology

Branch of psychology that studies the behavior of different animal species

Titchener

British psychologist who studied with Wundt; opened laboratory at Cornell; focused on identifying the basic elements of consciousness (Structuralism) rather than the relationship between them

Watson

Called the father of behaviorism, he claimed that a psychologist's only interest should be in observable behavior.

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history.

anal expulsive character

Character type that results from a fixation at the early anal stage. Person may be overly generous or has trouble with bowel control

anal retentive character

Character type that results from a fixation at the late anal stage. Such a person may suffer from constipation or may be stingy.

generalizable

Characteristic of a sample that refers to the degree to which findings based on the sample can be used to make accurate statements about the population of interest.

Principle of Serviceable Habits

Charles Darwin's thesis that emotional expressions are remnants of full-blown behaviors that helped our primate and mammalian predecessors meet important goals in the past -Ex: observable signs of anger (furrowed brow, tightened posture) are vestiges of threat displays and attack behavior observed in mammalian relatives

psychoactive drugs

Chemical substances that influence the brain, altering consciousness and producing psychological changes. These drugs usually work via the neurotransmitters. Cross the blood brain barrier

Cognitive Consequences of the Self as a Target of Prejudice

Cognitive Consequences: -Perceived prejudice can also interfere with our ability to learn & acquire new skills - Regardless of the outcome...positive or negative!!

Emergent norm theory

Collective behaviour is regulated by norms based on distinctive behaviour that arises in the initially normless crowd.

collectivistic cultures

Collectivistic cultures socialize people to think of themselves in terms of group goals, values and identity rather than personal or individual goals, values, etc. e.g. Asian or tribal cultures

Alfred Kinsey

College professor at Indiana University, Bloomington, author of "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male" and "Sexual Behavior in the Human Female;" collectively known as the Kinsey Report; report was controversial and inflammatory but well-received and immensely popular. Factored in the spurring of research for birth control. Took a sample of 10,000 men, data said that sexual orientation was diverse and many were bisexual. Had actually studied the genealogy of flies before this.

Upward comparison

Comparing yourself with people who do much better than you; can sometimes inspire us to do better and sometimes lower self esteem

Conversion

Complete and immediate persuasion

microcephaly

Condition in which the head is unusually small as a result of defective brain development( 2 Standard Deviations below the Mean) premature ossification of the skull

Aaron Beck

Considered the father of Cognitive Therapy, and the cognitive triad , he proposed that during childhood and adolescence some people undergo wrenching experiences such as the loos of a parent severe difficulties in gaining parental or social approval or humiliating criticism from teachers or other adults

Internal attributions

Control over what happens to an individual. Not dependent on environment

That's-Not-All technique

Customer is offered a deal at an initial inflated price; then immediately after the initial offer an incentive, or bonus, is offered to cinch the deal

Cialdini

Developed the 6 weapons of influence 1. reciprocity 2. commitment & consistency 3. social proof 4. authority 5. liking 6. scarcity

Ancel Keys

Developed the Laboratory of Physiological Hygiene at the University of Minnesota, , Led the hunger experiment where men were semistarved. The participants became food-obsessed, supports Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

What is locus of causality?

Dispositional attributions: Traits, motives, intentions, attitudes, personality Situational attributions: social context

Ingroup v. Outgroup (Us v. Them)

Dividing the world into "us" and "them" entails racism and war, but it also provides the benefits of communal solidarity; Group-bound species

Distinctiveness

Do they act this way in all situations? Y/N?

Frustration-Aggression hypothesis,

Dollard et al.(1939) limited amount of psychic energy if depleted leads to explosion, frustration can be relieved through aggression

Integrity versus despair

Erickson's final, eighth stage, where the person asks himself or herself: "After seventy, eighty, or ninety years of life, do I have anything of interest and value to say to the next generation? Or not?", A conflict in old age between feelings of integrity and the despair of viewing previous life events with regret.

Generativity versus stagnation

Erikson's seventh stage of psychosocial development, in which the middle-aged adult develops a concern with establishing, guiding, and influencing the next generation or else experiences stagnation (a sense of inactivity or lifelessness)

Minimal group paradigm

Experimental methodology to investigate the effect of social categorisation alone on behaviour. Tajfel-school boys in decision making experiment put in 2 groups based on painters their preference for Kandinsky or Klee. Identities were secret only through code numbers of both ingroup and outgroup boys. They then distributed money between groups. Tajfel found ingroup bias.

Entitivity

Extent to which a single group is defined in terms of boundaries

Interpretation of Dreams

Freud's crowning achievement, a book written in 1900 about the treatment of people with mental disorders that tried to garner support for his psychoanalytical theories. In this book, Freud first described his theories about the psychic apparatus (id, ego, superego), wish-fulfillment as a main goal of dreams, dream analysis, and concepts that would later become his theory of the Oedipus complex.

Reciprocal view of the appraisal-emotion relation

Frijda (1993) and Lewis (1996) both argue in which each factor informs and is informed by the other, "how events are appraised during emotions appears often to result from cognitive elaboration of the appraisal processes eliciting the emotion."

fMRI

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, A technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; these scans show brain function. Basically a combination of PET and MRI

Free-rider effect

Gaining the benefits of group membership by avoiding costly obligations of membership and by allowing other members to incur those costs.

Hermann von Helmholtz

German physiologist who demonstrated that the movement of impulses in the nerves and in the brain was not instantaneous, but instead took a small but finite amount of time. Against Vitalism, believed in the conservation of energy in animals and also modified the Tichromatic theory. Estimated the speed of nerve conduction at (apprx 90 ft/sec) , Also proposed that specific sound frequencies vibrate specific portions of the basilar membrane producing distinct pitches

Cultivating Happiness

Half of variation in happiness is due to genetic factors Identical twins are about twice as similar in levels of happiness as fraternal twins! 10 percent of variation in happiness is due to quality of current environment Remaining 40 is shaped by activities people choose, the patterns of thought they develop, and ways they handle stress and the relationship style they cultivate with others

Howard Gardner

Harvard researcher that has identified at least eight types of intelligences: linguistic, logical/mathematical, bodily/kinesthetic, musical, spatial (visual), interpersonal (the ability to understand others), intrapersonal (the ability to understand oneself), and naturalist (the ability to recognize fine distinctions and patterns in the natural world).

Tolman

He believed learning happened regardless of reinforcement and normal learning produces a cognitive map of the environment, Studied a rat's tendency to learn the course of a maze over time. He came up with the idea of latent learning and cognitive maps.

Edward Titchner

He introduced structuralism, and was a student of Wilhelm Wudnt; He also encouraged introspection. Broke onsciousness down into three elements: physical sensations, feeling, and images

Kitty Genovese

In 1964 a young women was attacked outside her NY apartment late at night . Despite fighting and shouting for help. No one came to her rescue and she was murdered. At least 40 neighbors heard he screams for help but nobody came to her aid. No one even called the police. When interviewed later the neighbors stated they felt it was lovers quarrel or none of my business. They passed the buck so to speak. This process is called diffusion of responsibility. Also example of Bystander Effect and pluralistic ignorance

libido

In Freud's theory, the instinctual (and sexual) life force that, working on the pleasure principle and seeking immediate gratification, energizes the id.

Sensorimotor Stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

Concrete Operational Stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events and the concepts of conservation.

Formal Operational Stage

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts(Like the manipulation of things that you have never actually seen. Not all people actually reach this stage. Einstein probably was the God of this Stage.Metacognition reached.

Passion levels during love

Increase greatly during the first 90 days; fall off shortly afterwards and slowly begin to increase throughout the relationship

Intimacy levels during love

Increase greatly during the first 90 days; level off

groupthink

Janis (1971, 1972, 1982) creating shared illusions thereby overlooking alternatives. Ths way groups start believing that there way is perfect

Supporting evidence for AOE

Jones and Harris -short essays on Castro's Cuba were written for and against -one group was told that the writer had the freedom to write what they wanted and the other had to write for against -even in the no choice condition: internal attributions were produced (they assumed the writer had written their true attitudes)

Correspondent inference theory

Jones and davis, attribution depends on the observed behavior: was it intentional, undesired, a direct effect, intendent to affect?

personal unconscious

Jung's term for an unconscious region of mind comprising a reservoir of the individual's repressed memories and impulses

Leon Festinger

Kurt Lewin's student. Social psychologists who studie cognitive dissonance (tension when holding inconsistent ideas in mind). Had a case study of a housewife who thought she was getting alien messages.believed we change our attitudes so behavior is sensible and justified. Also found that the more difficult it is to join a group, the more that group is valued, so the pain of joining was worthwhile.

state dependent memory

Long-term memory retrieval is best when a person's physiological state at the time of encoding and retrieval of the information is the same.

false negative

Not perceiving a stimulus that is present

false consensus effect

Observers' overestimation of the degree to which everybody else thinks or acts the way they do.

naturalistic observation

Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Relative deprivation

Only frustrated when other are better of (Brown, 1978) this also work for intergroup relations Runciman (1966) divided it into egoistic and fraternalistic

attitudes

Our feelings, opinions, and beliefs about people, objects, and ideas.

Accentuation effect

Overestimation of similarities among people within a category and dissimilarities between people from different categories.

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

Overly attribute stable traits to internal factors

L-dopa

Parent molecule for dopamine and is given to parkinson's disease patient as dopamine cannot cross the blood brain barrier while this parent molecule can cross

Authoritative Parents

Parents who set high but realistic and reasonable standards, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and independence

Ambivalent attachment

Pattern in which an infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely upset during his or her absence, and both seeks and resists contact on his or her return.

voyeur

Peeping Tom; person who derives sexual gratification from observing the sexual acts of others

Self awareness theory: problems

People often participate in maladaptive behaviors to escape the spotlight of consciousness such as drinking, binge eating or drug use

Who will help

Personality traits, hard to find Gender, Males help strangers, females volunteer more religious people more likely to donate

Climacteric

Physiological changes that occur during the transition period from fertility to infertility in both sexes

B. F. Skinner

Pioneer of operant conditioning who believed that everything we do is determined by our past history of rewards and punishments. He is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pigeons and rats.

group prejudice

Prejudice held out of conformity to group views

Algorithms

Problem-solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome, if correctly applied, Think Formulas in Mathematics

Attribution

Process of attributing traits and causes to observations

Arbitration

Process of intergroup conflict resolution in which a neutral third party is invited to impose a mutually binding settlement.

Conciliation

Process whereby groups make cooperative gestures to one another in the hope of avoiding an escalation of conflict.

Deindividuation

Process whereby people lose their sense of socialised individual identity and engage in unsocialised, often antisocial, behaviours. Festinger et al - 1952-individuation, a process of differentiation-gray coasts and darkly lit rooms more negative

Robert Sternberg

Proposed the triarchic theory that divides intelligence into three types: compnential, experiential, and contextual

axioms

Propositions built on fundemental truths that lead to the creation of theorems

Sternberg

Psychologist who developed the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (drew from the theories of Spearman and Thurstone); said that the underlying cognitive process is broken into metacomponents, performance components, and knowledge acquisition components

Levinson

Psychologist who did research on the supposed "mid-life crisis"; in general, 80% of any age group would describe themselves as "satisfied" or "very satisfied" with life. Theory base on organizing concept of individual life structure.

Simon LeVay

Psychologist who wrote Sexual Brain and Queer Science, completed research on the DNA and finding a gay gene, he found the gene INAH3 was more than twice as large in heterosexual men as in homosexual men, and also discovered that part of hypothalamus is larger in straight men than in gay men and women.

Organizational psychologists

Psychologists who study various aspects of the human work environment, such as communication among employees, socialization or enculturation of workers, leadership, job satisfaction, stress and burnout, and overall quality of life. Two main theoories: Theory X and Theory Y

Hans Eysenck

Psychology theorists who suggested that personality could be reduced to two polar dimensions introversion-extraversion and emotional instability-stability (neuroticism).

5 point of critique on experiments

Purpose of the experiment Decontextualization Generalizability Researching a subject that talks back influence of stress, deception and coercion

Attributions which protect the self-esteem or present a positive self-image are in the category of which bias?

Self-serving biases

General Adaptation Syndrome

Seylye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three stages--alarm, resistance, exhaustion (GAS)

the autokinetic effect

Sherif 1937 i white dot in darkness seems like it is moving. Sherif found that groups got to a consensus and the individuals would later adhere to the group consensus and forget about their own decision. this is known as emergnet normative influence

Realistic conflict theory

Sherif's theory of intergroup conflict that explains intergroup behaviour in terms of the nature of goal relations between groups.

risky shift

Stoner (1961) those predisposed to risky decisions will be more risky after group discussion Fraser, Gouge & Billig (1971) opposite is also true

Carl Jung

Student of Freud. Broke over Freud's emphasis of sexuality. Believed all people had a collective unconscious of the past generations, but the connection faded due to modernization., "the collective unconscious" and mythic "archetypes" Frued's follower. He also believed that Libido was all types of energy not just sexual. identified archetypes by studying dreams, visions, paintings, poetry, folk stories, myths, religions. Is also the Father of analytical psychologist.

posthypnotic amnesia

Supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis; induced by the hypnotist's suggestion.

Marriage gradient

Tendency for men to marry women who are slightly smaller, younger and lower in status, and women to marry men who are slightly older, larger and higher in status

Social comparisons

Tendency to compare self to people we perceive as lower than us to increase self-esteem

Relative homogeneity effect

Tendency to see outgroup members as all the same, and ingroup members as more differentiated.

Flynn effect

Term used to describe the steady and consistent rise in IQ test performance over time (approximately 3 points per decade) . Thought to be caused mostly by the environment. Because of this, IQ tests are periodically "renormed"

Individual tests

Tests administered to a single person at a time; interaction between the examiner and examinee is great. (Rorschach inkblot test)

Social identity

That part of the self-concept that derives from our membership of social groups.

psychosexual stages

The 5 childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.

Ebbinghaus

The Psychologist who created the "forgetting curve"- much of what we learn we may quickly forget, course of forgetting is initially rapid then levels off with time; learned lists of nonsense syllabus and measured how much he retained when relearning each lists

Interpersonal intelligence

The ability to apprehend the feelings and intentions of others.

Emotional Intelligence

The ability to perceive and express emotion, assimilate emotion in thought, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion. Might be morr important than IQ. (EQ)

Intrapersonal intelligence

The ability to understand one's own feelings and motivations.

Collective behaviour

The behaviour of people en masse - such as in a crowd, protest or riot. Or tulip mania in the 17th century!

Illusion

The condition of being deceived by a false perception or belief

Intrinsic motivation:

The desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures

Acoustic Encoding

The encoding of sound, especially the sound of words.

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Hans Seyle

The father of "modern stress theory." Defined eustress and distress. Stated that stress is a mutual action of forces in the body.General Adaptation Syndrome

Industry versus inferiority

The fourth of erison's eight psychosocial crises, during which children attempt to master many skills, developing a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent. Happens around the time you first enter school.

groupthink

The impaired group decision making that occurs when making the right decision is less important than maintaining group harmony.

compassionate love

The intimacy and affection we feel when we care deeply for a person but do not experience passion or arousal in the persons presence

What is victim blaming?

The justification for oppression of individual victims and marginalised groups in society according to their actions, this relates to the just world hypothesis

Short Term Memory

The memory stage with a small capacity (7 +- 2 chunks) and brief duration (< 30 seconds) that we are consciously aware of and in which we do our problem solving, reasoning and decision making.

Unconscious level

The mental level containing events and feelings that we find unacceptable for our conscious minds. We do not have access to it and these thoughts stay hidden (repressed) but make up most of who we are. As we will find out, the key to psychoanalytic therapy is to find ways to delve into the _______________

Weapons effect

The mere presence of a weapon increases the probability that it will be used aggressively.

median

The middle number in a set of numbers that are listed in order

threshold potential

The minimum potential shift at which an action potential is initiated (around -50mV usually).

Groupthink

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives (Think Kennedy's Advisors)

Groupthink

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives; when no one speaks strongly against an idea, everyone assumes there is consensus support; fed by overconfidence, conformity, self-justification and group polarization; prevented when a leader welcomes various ideas and invites critiques and identifies problems

Elaboration likelihood model

The model whereby a persuasive message is received and processed by two routes: central and peripheral. Central route is related to message quality and logic. Peripheral route is related to feelings and persuasive cues

Relative Size

The monocular cue that states that if an object seems larger, it is probably closer, and if an object is smaller, it is probably distant.

mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

The notion that the language a person speaks largely determines the nature of that person's thoughts (Benjamin Whorf)

tabulation

The orderly arrangement of data in a table or other summary format showing the number of responses to each response category; tallying.

Impression Formation

The process by which a person uses behavior and appearance of others to form attitudes about them.

social comparison

The process by which individuals evaluate their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and abilities in relation to those of other people.

Storage

The process by which information is maintained over a period of time

Self-Verification

The processes by which we lead others to agree with our views of ourselves; wanting others to agree with how we see ourselves -What about negative views? So committed to our intra-personal view we will go to lengths to correct someone that got a positive impression of us. -Self-verification vs. self-enhancement

Relevant questions

The questions asked by the polygraph operator during the lie-detection procedure that directly relate to the investigation or the reason for undergoing the test.

primary visual cortex

The region of the cerebral cortex that receives information directly from the visual system; located in the occipital lobe

Resistance

The second phase of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS) , in which the body mobilizes its resources(hormones, energy) to withstand the effects of the stress. If this stage goes to long a body can deplete its resources. (Hans Seyle)

Peripheral Nervous System

The section of the nervous system lying outside the brain and spinal cord. Composed of the *Somatic Nervous System (SNS) and the *Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Metacognitive skills

The student's skills where he is aware of whether or not his mind is engaged when he is reading, whether or not he understands what is being read, and what further strategies he needs to employ to gain meaning from the page.

Kinesics

The study of communication through body movements, stances, gestures, and facial expressions

Social psychology

The study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another; The study of how people's thoughts, feelings and actions are affected by others

Predictive Validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

predictive validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

memory construction

The surprising ease with which people form false memories best illustrates that the processes of encoding and retrieval involve:

ethnocentrism

The tendency to assume that one's own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others

fundamental attribution

The tendency to attribute other people's behavior primarily to internal factors such as personality, attitudes, and free will is known as the ( ) error.

What is correspondence bias?

The tendency to draw inferences about a person's unique and enduring dispositions from behaviors that can be entirely explained by the situations in which they occur

Other-race effect

The tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races (cross-race effect, own-race bias)

self-serving bias

The tendency to take credit for our successes and to deny responsibility for our failures.

What is the fundamental attribution error?

The tendency to underestimate attributions which are due to situational factors and to overestimate dispositional factors in controlling others behaviours

self theory

The theory according to Carl Rogers that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us, by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs

Self-perception theory

The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs

Purging

The use of vomiting, laxatives, excessive exercise, restrictive dieting, enemas, diuretics, or diet pills to compensate for food that has been eaten and that the person fears will produce weight gain

Appraisal Processes

The ways people evaluate events and objects in their environment based on their relation to current goals -not just about physiological component

causal theories

Theories about the causes of one's own feelings and behaviors; often we learn such theories from our culture (e.g., "absence makes the heart grow fonder")

Frustration-aggression hypothesis

Theory that all frustration leads to aggression, and all aggression comes from frustration. Used to explain prejudice and intergroup aggression.

System justification theory

Theory that attributes social stasis to people's adherence to an ideology that justifies and protects the status quo.

Intergroup emotions theory (IET)

Theory that, in group contexts, appraisals of personal harm or benefit in a situation operate at the level of social identity and thus produce mainly positive ingroup and negative outgroup emotions. Mackie and Smith and predicted that from IET, emotions felt by fellow ingroup members will quickly be felt by self-due to common identity bond.

How did Ekman and Friesen overcome the flaw in their study?

They went to Papua New Guinea -now one there had been exposed to western culture -findings: supported original hypothesis -still had vulnerability to: free response technique

Phallic Stage

Third stage of psychosexual development, marked by erotic attention on the phallic region and the development of the Oedipus complex(males) and Electra Complex(Girls)

Phineas Gage

Vermont railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that changed his personality and behavior; his accident gave information on the brain and which parts are involved with emotional reasoning

Carl Rogers

Very Important Humanistic psychologist who stressed the inportance of acceptance, genuineness, and empathy in fostering human growth through his Self Theory(Also called Client Centered Theory)

Social Identity Theory:

We dissociate ourselves from in-group members who perform poorly & stay close to in-group members who perform well

What is consistency?

Where an individual will respond in the same way, to the same stimuli at different times.

What is distinctiveness?

Whether an individual acts in the same way to different stimuli, or whether the individual's response distinguishes between the stimuli.

Stereotype

Widely shared and simplified evaluative image of a social group and its members.

Ivan Pavlov

a Russian researcher in the early 1900s who was the first research into learned behavior (conditioning) who discovered classical conditioning, by training dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell, simplest form of classical conditioning is reminiscent of what Aristotle would have called the law of contiguity

Convergence

a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object, the more of this the closer the object

Oxytocin and Trust

a chemical that possibly promotes long-term devotion, produced in the hypothalamus; activates touch and a calmer physiological state, enabling monogamy and giving rise to love and trust; increases in response to romantic love and not sexual desire -Oxytocin increases pair-bonding and caregiving behavior (injected into montane voles, making them want single partners when they are usually promiscuous)

mutual exclusivity

a cognitive bias shown by young children, who typically avoid labeling anything at more than one level of generality EX. refer to pet as a dog but not as an animal as well

Categorization

a cognitive process used to organize information by placing it into larger groupings of information

Hyperactivity

a condition characterized by excessive restlessness and movement

Mask emotion

a covering to disguise or conceal the face

Isolation

a defense mechanism in which memory of an unacceptable act or impulse is separated from the emotion originally associated with it

autism

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind

Reuptake Inhibitors

a drug that blocks the recycling of the neurotransmitter, thus making more of the neurotransmitter available at the synapse. This has the effect of leaving the neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft for a longer period of time, and makes the neurotransmitter have a greater effect. Example: Cocaine for Dopamine

Conditioning

a learning process in which an organism's behavior becomes dependent on the occurrence of a stimulus in its environment

"Emotion dialect"

a local variation on a more general universal theme.

Computerized Axial Tomography

a method of examining body organs by scanning them with X rays and using a computer to construct a series of cross-sectional scans along a single axis (CAT)

Texture Gradient

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; a gradual change from a coarse distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture signals increasing distance. objects far away appear smaller and more densely packed

dysthymic disorder

a mood disorder involving a pattern of comparatively mild depression that lasts for at least two years

agoraphobia

a morbid fear of open spaces (as fear of being caught alone in some public place)

Reticular Formation

a network of cells in the brainstem that filters sensory information and is involved in arousal and alertness. If it were cut off you would fall in a coma FOREVER, but if it were stimulated you would wake up and not be tired.

Hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

confederate

a person who joins with another in carrying out some plan (especially an unethical or illegal plan)

Nature

a person's inherited traits, determined by genetics

Determinism

a philosophy that says things are determined in ways that are out of human hands, most schools EXCEPT the Humanistic use this

Desensitization

a process by which viewers of media violence develop callousness or emotional neutrality in the face of a real-life act of violence

bystander intervention

a psychological phenomenon in which someone is less likely to intervene in an emergency situation when other people are present and able to help than when he or she is alone. Most Famous case is the Murder of Kitty Genovese

dissociative identity disorder

a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Also called multiple personality disorder.(DID)

causation

a relationship between variables such that change in the value of one is directly responsible for change in the value of the other

refractory period

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.

focus group

a small group of people who meet under the direction of a discussion leader to communicate their opinions about an organization, its products, or other given issues.

Hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur. Freud used this to enter the unconscious of his patients

Correlational Coefficient

a statistical measure expressing the relationship between two or more variables with a single number between 1 & 1, inclusive

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score(Spearman)

Correlation

a statistical relation between two or more variables such that systematic changes in the value of one variable are accompanied by systematic changes in the other, remember _____________ not causation.

Insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

Maintenance rehearsal

a system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain. (MRI)

Agitation

a violent stirring or movement; noisy confusion, excitement; a stirring up of public enthusiasm

independent view of the self

a way of defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people (individualist)

interdependent view of the self

a way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people; recognizing that one's behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others (collectivist)

Error

a wrong action attributable to bad judgment or ignorance or inattention, you probably have this if your correlation coeifcent is above 1 or below -1.

Manifest Content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).

self-fulfilling prophecy

act towards member of a group that encourages expected behaviour

3 forms of self

actual self ought self ideal self

Standardized

administered to large groups of people under uniform conditions to establish norms

ageism

aged-based discrimination that is usually toward the elderly, but can be against anyone

loose associations

aggregation of individuals that form spontaneously, have permeable boundaries, e.g. crowds, bystanders

social categories type

aggregations of individuals similar to one and other, e.g. women

Guilty Knowledge Test

alternative to the polygraph test often used after the test is a complete failure, that relies on the premise that criminals harbor concealed knowledge about the crime that innocent people don't

Electroencephalogram

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

posttraumatic stress disorder

an anxiety disorder associated with serious traumatic events and characterized by such symptoms as survivor guilt, reliving the trauma in dreams, numbness and lack of involvement with reality, or recurrent thoughts and images

Psychotherapy

an emotionally charged, confiding interaction between a trained therapist and someone who suffers from psychological difficulties

Charles Spearman

an english psychologist, known for his work in statistics,he argued that intelligence can be expressed by a single factor. He used factor analysis, a statistical technique that takes multiple items and meshes them into one number, to show that intelligence can be a single number he simply called g (generalized intelligence)

Primary Appraisal Stage

an initial, automatic positive or negative evaluation of ongoing events based on whether they are congruent or incongruent with our goals -triggered by stimuli significant to SURVIVAL -Ex: snakes, angry faces, unpleasant sounds

Alzheimer's Disease

an irreversible, progressive brain disorder, characterized by the deterioration of memory, language, and eventually, physical functioning, Causing apoptosis of the hippocampal and cortical neurons associated with neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaque

frontal lobotomy

an operation which involved sectioning or removing portions of the frontal lobes in an attempt to treat cases of bipolar mood disorder or chronic pain, later shown to be largely ineffective as a therapeutic procedure

prejudice

an opinion or strong feeling formed without careful thought or regard to the facts

Disuse

another name for decay, assuming that memories that are not used will eventually decay and disappear

necessities for groupthink

antecedents, symptoms and charachteristics see lecture 7 slide 36

"Top down" explanations

appeal to the influence of group norms on the ways in which members of a group appraise events and the ways in which they express their emotions.

overgeneralization

applying grammar rules in areas they don't apply ("I writed a story"; goed; comed)

frustration-aggression hypothesis

argues aggression comes from built up frustration (or any stress) triggered by an environmental aggression cue

Role of emotion in moral judgment and behaviors

automatic tendency to evaluate faces on trustworthiness and dominance.

Explicit memories

awareness of remembering, can be revealed by testing memory; AKA declarative memory. Semantic & episodic memory

Embarrassment

behavior that is incompatible with the identity that we want to project in a given situation.

situational attribution

belief that an individual's behavior is based on events in the environment rather than long-lasting personality characteristics.

dispositional attribution

belief that one's behavior is due to long-lasting personality traits rather than the current environment.

Central and peripheral traits

central traits influence other traits warm and cold give the term industrious another meaning. Peripheral traits are less influential (polite and blunt)

schema

cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus, including its attributes and the relations among those attributes" Fiske & Taylor (1991, p. 98) 4 types: person, role, scripts and self-schema

Personal fable

common belief among adolescents that their feelings and experiences cannot possibly be understood by others and that they are personally invulnerable to harm (Elkind)

intrusion error

congruent information is more likely to be attributed more to then there actually was,

entitativity

continuum in groupness - common fate, similarity, proximity

Appraisal Processes trigger different emotions, known as:

core-relational themes

Culture and Focal Emotions

cultures vary in which emotions are focal

standardization

defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.

mechanistic dehumanisation

denial of human nature attributes that distinguishes humans from objects

outcome dependency

dependent on another to obtain desired outcome

longitudinal

describes research that measures a trait in a particular group of subjects over a long period of time

inverted-U function

describes the relationship between arousal and performance. Both low and high levels of arousal produce lower performance than does a moderate level of arousal

Parasympathetic Nervous System

division of the ANS that is most active in ordinary conditions; it counterbalances the effects of the sympathetic system by restoring the body to a restful state after a stressful experience

motivated reasoning

do not follow objective and rational analysis - twist and fit information to satisfy own needs, wants, and desires

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

"Association network" model

emotion can serve as a "node" in a network of interlinked nodes, when an emotion node is activated by putting someone into an emotional state, this activation spreads to other nodes in the network that are linked to the emotional state.

Characterizing Emotion

emotions are a brief psychological and physiological responses that help humans meet goals, many of which are social -moods can last for hours or days -emotional disorders can last days or months

Law of concern

emotions arise in response to events that are important to the individual's goals, motives, or concerns.

"Bottom up" explanations

entail mutual influence between group members with respect to either emotional expression or the appraisal of events.

false positive

error of recognition in which people think that they recognize some stimulus that is not actually in memory

Availability Heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent

Reasons for similarities in group emotions

exposure to the same kinds of emotional objects and events, mutually influence each others appraisals, and shared norms and values, membership of the group.

Hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

Wundt

first true psychologist, all of nature including mind could be studied scientifically, introspection, methodology, beginnings of structuralism, many books=influential, trained many others (baldwin, titchener), "Principles of physiological psych"=first textbook on psych

Differential psychology

founded by Francis Galton; the field of psychology that studies individual differences in physical, personality, and intellectual characteristics

illusion of objectivity

friends and acquaintances with similar views

Transference

in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent).

resolution phase

in sexual intercourse, the stage of relaxation that follows orgasm. (Masters and Johnson)

Action tendencies

in shame people may feel like hiding, running away, or disappearing, in guilt people may be inclined to apologize and make amends.

Shame & guilt

in shame the entire self is judged to be bad, whereas in guilt a given behavior is judged to be bad.

life-change units

in stress research, the measure of the stress levels of different types of change experienced during a given period.Abreviated (LCUs) Made by (Thomas Holmes and richard rahe)

assimilation

in the theories of Jean Piaget: the application of a general schema to a particular instance

accommodation

in the theories of Jean Piaget: the modification of internal representations in order to accommodate a changing knowledge of reality

peripheral group members might engage in:

increased conformity (Wickland and Braun), more judgemental of ingroup (schmitt and Branscombe) and increase derogation of outgroup (Breakwell)

relative depriviation in crowds

individual acts of aggression follow from fraternalistic relative deprivation. This evoces a counter attack, upon which the entire group reacts. critique: not likely to act upon deprivation, its not sufficient to act collectively, looks like a simple version of social identity theory

"Group emotions"

individual moods are in relation to the moods of the group.

IQ

intelligence quotient; created by Lewis Terman based off of Binet's concept of mental age; numerical value given to intelligence that is determined from the scores on an intelligence test; average score is 100; MA/CA X 100 = IQ

practice effect

is an improvement in performance as a result of repeated practice with a task, repeated testing causes people to remember some of the test items; side effect of longitudinal studies

Lesser guilt as defense against threat

it is threatening to the identity of a group to acknowledge that it has been responsible for mistreating another group, and this threat is likely to be felt most keenly by those who are highly identified with the perpetrator group.

deindividuation

losing sense of personal identity and responsibility within the group, can lead to barbaric and antisocial acts

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory for events that occurred before the onset of amnesia; eg a soldier's forgetting events immediately before a shell burst nearby, injuring him

self-enhancement

maintain positive view of oneself by enhancing the positivity of self conceptions - see ourselves as better than most other people

foot in the door

make small request and then a larger request

maximum difference

maximise the difference in rewards given to the ingroup vs. the outgroup

Substance Abuses

misuse of drugs that damages an individual's health and ability to function

accuracy goals

motivation to correctly use stereotype - accountability or outcome dependency involved

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

illusory correlation

noting a co occurence: where were you at 9/11

masochist

one who enjoys his or her own pain and suffering

crystallized intelligence

one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Pons

part of the brain involved in sleep regulation (dreams) also connects a cerebellum to the cerebral cortex; sleep and wake cycles and involved in facial expressions.

social comparison theory

people are unsure about opinion of other. If common ground is found people will go into the extremes of that.. seems that people tend to look more for consensus then extremes

Le Bon's crowd theory

persons step down on the ladder of civilasation when they are in crowds. makes them barbarians. 3 attributes: atavistic unpredictable suggestible, contagious emotion in group

self-fulfilling prophecy

process in which a person's expectation about another elicits behavior from the second person that confirms the expectation; evidenced in a study by Rosenthal and Jacobsen at an elementary school where students performed to the teacher's expectation, AKA Pygmalion Effect

Displacement

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

displacement

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

Psychotic Disorders

psychological disorders of thought and perception, characterized by inability to distinguish between real and imagined perceptions.

realistic conflict

real conflict of interest between groups - competition for valued but scarce resources

Inductive Reasoning

reasoning from detailed facts to general principles. Ex. "All of the ice we have examined so far is cold.Therefore, all ice is cold."Personification assigning human qualities to inanimate objects or concepts. Wordsworth's "the sea that bares her bosom to the moon."

Babinski Reflex

reflexive fanning out and curling of an infant's toes and inward twisting of its foot when the sole of the foot is stroked

longitudinal studies

research method in which data is collected about a group of participants over a number of years to assess how certain characteristics change or remain the same during development, , follow the same children over different ages, Benefits: can track long-term effects, controls for differences over different people, Problems: time, money, drop-outs

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

performance-contingent rewards

rewards that are based on how well we perform a task

task contingent rewards

rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done

friendship

say yes to request from friend to maintain a positive relationship

social categories

schema about group of people, contains category based information which is activated by one component

American Psychological Association

scientific and professional society of psychologists and educators; world's largest association of psychologists; founded in 1892; made up of 53 divisions, each representing a specific area

bipolar cells

second layer of neurons in the retina that transmit impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells

defensive processing

see ambiguous information in the most positive light

Dispositional measure of shame and guilt proneness as related to hostility

shame prone individuals are more likely to react to setbacks with hostile thoughts and behaviors, whereas there was no relationship between guilt proneness and hostility.

field theory

situation affects behaviour

intimacy groups

small group, large level of interaction between members who value group membership, e.g. families

Achievement

something done successfully; something gained by working or trying hard

integrative model of subgroup relations

subgroup identity is important because it makes up the self-concept of persons. To look for a superordinate group or decategorization will lead to a loss of self, and might increase conflict(Hornsey & Hogg, 2000)

relative deprivation

subjective threat greater than material - what we have depends on objective circumstances + how we feel we are doing compared to others

Unconscious emotions

subliminal exposure to emotional stimuli (drink bad tasting drink, facial expressions).

Constructed Memory

suddenly recovered, perhaps after being repressed; sometimes true, but often very inaccurate, and leading questions often change the nature of the memory

foot-in-the-door effect

technique to ensure conformity; strategy that states once a person grants a small request, they are more likely to comply with a larger one; Example: once a sales pitch begins the odds of the sale increase because the individual is listening to the request

Validity

the ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure

Musical Intelligence

the ability to perceive, produce, and appreciate pitch and rhythm, and our appreciation of the forms of musical expressiveness

zero correlation

the absence of a relationship between two or more variables as determined by a correlational statistic. Often abbreviated as 'r=0.'

Ekman's (1973) "neurocultural theory"

the activation of certain emotions triggers a neural program that produces both the subjective experience of the emotion in question and patterned changes in the face and body (happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, contempt).

High infusion strategies (heuristic processing & substantive processing)

the affect has a larger influence.

Low infusion strategies (direct access & motivated processing)

the affect has little impact on them.

Repression

the classical defense mechanism that protects you from impulses or ideas that would cause anxiety by preventing them from becoming conscious

Discrimination

the cognitive process whereby two or more stimuli are distinguished

Depression

the condition of feeling apathetic, hopeless, and withdrawn from others. When it is major it is an emotionally crippling depressed state linked to physical causes; it may be, at the extreme, a suicidal state.

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

Somatic Nervous System

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system

Intergroup emotion theory (IET, Smith, 1993)

the experience of emotions that are shaped by concerns and appraisals that are group based.

Axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages ARE GIVEN to other neurons or to muscles or glands

Content Validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest (such as a driving test that samples driving tasks).

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

validity

the extent to which the data collected address the research hypothesis in the way intended

life-span psychology

the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span.

free will

the human ability to make decisions without being forced to choose or act in one specific way, a key of the humanistic school

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

the hypothesis that language determines, or at least influences, the way we think (Benjamin Whorf)

Mood congruent theory

the idea that you are more likely to recall an item if you are in the same mood when you encoded the item (if you are in a happy mood then you remember happy events).

retrieval failure

the inability to recall long-term memories because of inadequate or missing retrieval cues

Taste aversions

the intense dislike and/or avoidance of particular foods that have been associated with nausea or discomfort, Type of Classical Conditiong

Cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

Synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

Law of situational meaning (Frijda, 1988)

the kind of emotion that someone experiences in a given situation will depend on the meaning they attach to it.

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Midbrain

the middle division of brain responsible for hearing and sight; location where pain is registered; includes temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and most of the parietal lobe, also includes most importantly the reticular formation.

Brainwashing

the most extreme form of attidude change, accompanied through peer pressure, physical suffering, threats, rewards for compliance, manipulating of guilt, intensive indoctrination, & other psychological means.

Concordance rate

the percentage of instances in which both members of a twin pair show a trait when it is present in one pair member, used to study the contribution of heredity to emotional and behavior disorders

Frontal Lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Recall

the process of remembering (especially the process of recovering information by mental effort)

"Affect infusion model" (AIM, Forgas, 1992, 1995)

the relation between emotion and social cognition.

Duration Neglect

the relative unimportance of the length of an emotional experience, be it pleasurable or unpleasant, in judging the overall experience -same for negative emotions

Long Term Memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

role conflict

the situation that occurs when incompatible expectations arise from two or more social positions held by the same person

universal ethical principles

the sixth and highest stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development

Phonemes

the smallest units of sound in a language that are distinctive for speakers of the language, like constants vowels in english, about about 44 different

ganglion cells

the specialized cells which lie behind the bipolar cells whose axons form the optic nerve which takes the information to the brain

One-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

diffusion of responsibility

the tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for their actions when they are surrounded by others who are acting the same way

Belief bias

the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid

Opponent-Process Theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Cognitive Dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes

Social Learning Theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

Attribution theory

the theory that we tend to give a casual explanation for someone's behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina

accommodation

the visual process by which lenses become rounded for viewing nearby objects and flatter for viewing remote objects

theory of cognitive dissonance

theory based on the premise that a state of tension is created when beliefs or behaviors conflict with one another; people are motivated to reduce this inconsistency (or dissonance) and thus eliminate unpleasant tension

Chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

integrated threat theory

threat to the values and principles central to in-group identity, fear that other cultures will override the in-groups way of life

Critical Periods

times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant

cornea

transparent anterior portion of the outer covering of the eye

Paranoid Schizophrenia

type of schizophrenia characterized by hallucinations and delusions of persecution or grandeur (or both), and sometimes irrational jealousy.

Disorganized Schizophrenia

type of schizophrenia characterized by severely disturbed thought processes, frequent incoherence, disorganized behavior, and inappropriate affect. Usually found in Homeless people.

Frames of Mind

types of intelligence according to Gardner

"Hot topics"

unconscious emotion, the role of embodiment in emotion perception, and the role of emotions in moral judgments and behaviors.

"Affect-as-information" model

under certain conditions people make use of their current affective state when making evaluative judgments, such as judgments about life satisfaction or evaluations of consumer products.

"Motivationally relevant"

unless something is at stake, unless an object or an event concerns us, we do not become emotional.

Embarrassment and temporary loss of social esteem

unsure if necessary for embarrassment to occur.

Aggression

violent action that is hostile and usually unprovoked

social validation

when in doubt go with majority opinion, e.g. canned laughter

Spillover effect

when one emotion continues from one situation to another; more happy about getting job after running as opposed to just waking up

Common sense approach

when presented a stimulus, ou experience the conscious feeling of arousal, followed by he actual physical, autonomic arousal

social loafing

when working together individuals work less hard Cottam et al. (2010)Ringelmann (1913) tug-o-war; Ingham (1974) Steiner (1972) latané et al. (1979) shouting

Objective

without bias or prejudice; detached

Dyslexia

word blindness; learning disorder marked by impairment of the ability to read

Immanuel Kant

wrote "Critique of Pure Reason"; 12 Innate categories of thought (faculties) superimposed on sensory experience.His central thesis—that the possibility of human knowledge presupposes the active participation of the human mind. The categorical imperative

Prejudice

Unfavourable attitudes towards a social group and its members

group decision

better when there is one right answer Hastie (1986) worse when brainstorming Muller et al. (1991)

terror management theory

reminders of own mortality evoke existential anxiety causing a retreat into familiar cultural values and in-group favoritism

progesterone

responsible for the development of female secondary sex characteristics and the regulation of reproduction

experimental realism

situation is involving - has an impact on the participants

Thematic Apperception Test

(TAT) A projective test consisting of drawings of ambiguous human situations, which the test taker describes; thought to reveal inner feelings, conflicts, and motives, which are projected onto the test materials.

Group polarization

The enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Insider vs outsider view of self

-Outsider view of the self-viewing self through how others see you (collectivist) -Insider view-focusing on internal experiences rather than how people see them (individualist) *Mirror bothers those with an insider view more when filling out a survey

What are the types of biases in attribution theory?

-Self-serving biases -Actor-observer biases -Fundamental attribution error -Victim blaming

Helping behaviour

An act that intentionally benefits someone else

feelings of disgust

-amplify/intensify judgements that impure actions are morally wrong -feelings of disgust tend o heighten prejudice toward groups that might be construed as impure (ex: homosexuals), but not other groups

Latency Stage

Freud's fourth stage of psychosexual development where sexuality is repressed in the unconscious and children focus on identifying with their same sex parent and interact with same sex peers. 5 - Puberty. Think COOTIES

Emotions and Social Relationships

-emotions are the basic elements of warm attachments between parents and children, sibling play and conflict, flirtations between young women and men, and encounters of dominance and submissiveness between rivals -expression of emotion coordinate social interactions -emotions a kind of social language

Emotions provide information for judgements

-feelings-as-information perspective -serious judgements complex -people were happier when called on sunny days than when called on overcast, gray days, and they also indicated greater life satisfaction -when participants were initially asked about the weather, they tended to discount the relevance of their feelings related to the weather and thus reported equivalent levels of life satisfaction whether the day was sunny or gloomy

Genital Stage

Freud's last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence).

Rational Emotive Therapy

A Cognitive Therapy based on Albert Ellis' theory that cognitions control our emotions and behaviors; therefore, changing the way we think about things will affect the way we feel and the way we behave.

Valium

A Drug that can be used(along with Xanax) post delivery after a HARD labor or in very early stages, had anesthesia effect and decreases anxiety

Clever Hans

A German horse that was claimed to have been able to perform math and other intellectual tasks. It was determined that the horse wasn't actually performing these mental tasks but was watching the reaction(cues) of the human observers.

APA

American Psychology Association

John B. Watson

American psychologist who founded behaviorism, emphasizing the study of observable behavior and rejecting the study of mental processes

Alturism

An act of helping behaviour simply to help

Prosocial behaviour

An act that has positive social consequences

Implicit memories

Are memories of skills, preferences and dispositions. These memories are evidently processed, not by the hippocampus, but by a more primitive part of the brain, the cerebellum. They are also called procedural or nondeclarative memories.

Zajonc's (1980) critique of appraisal theory

Argues that affective reactions to stimuli could be independent of (and even precede) cognitive responses.

Natural intelligence

As opposed to 'symbolic AI',is goal-directed, autonomous and ordered problem solving within a complex system, without the need for explicit representation, planning and search.

conformity

Asch 1955,(Allen & Levine, 1971)(Allen, 1975) group of confederates stated that the lines were as long as each other, althoug this was clearly untrue the participant goes along with the group 76 percent of the time. Limitations is that the task is meaningless

Sigmund Freud

Austrian neurologist who originated psychoanalysis (1856-1939); Said that human behavior is irrational; behavior is the outcome of conflict between the id (irrational unconscious driven by sexual, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking desires) and ego (rationalizing conscious, what one can do) and superego (ingrained moral values, what one should do).

aspect of prior knowledge

Availibility: is the information stored? accesibility: chronic: frequently activated so acessible ...................Temporary : recently activated more accesible

Display Rules

Culture-specific rules that govern how, when, and why expressions of emotion are appropriate, facial expressions of primary emotions; -fairly constant from one culture to another, yet people still get confused; refer to circumstances which it is appropriate for people to show emotions; ex. during surgical procedure Americans show true emotions but Japanese withhold emotions can: -de-intensify (interdependent culture) -intensify (independent) -mask (polite smile) -neutralize (poker face)

What does correspondent inference theory say about socially desirable behaviour impacting on type of attribution made?

Behaviours which are judged by the observer to be not socially desirable are more informative than socially desirable behaviours This is because this type of behaviour is unexpected and does not align with reasons for why behaviour occurs in society: dispositional factors are favoured more than situational (FAE) and because dispositional factors are seen as more likely, a conclusion of behaviour can be deduced even if incorrect.

Social change belief system

Belief that intergroup boundaries are impermeable. Therefore, a lower-status individual can improve social identity only by challenging the legitimacy of the higher-status group's position.

Social mobility belief system

Belief that intergroup boundaries are permeable. Thus, it is possible for someone to pass from a lower-status into a higher-status group to improve social identity.

Cognitive alternatives

Belief that the status quo is unstable and illegitimate, and that social competition with the dominant group is the appropriate strategy to improve social identity.

Primary motives

Biological needs that must be met for survival: hunger, sleep, thirst, pain.

situational effects on helping

Bystander effect others helping, money in the jar of a collector Time pressure, Darley & Batson (1973) Similarity, with the one in need (Levine, Prosser, Evans & Reicher 2005) Manchester united jersey test (Levine & Thompson 2004) european or english nationality made salient

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Condition of being almost, but not quite, able to remember something; used to investigate the nature of semantic memory

What is considered during attribution according to Kelley (1967, 1972)?

Consensus, consistency and distinctiveness

What are the three factors of Kelley's of covariation model?

Consistency, distinctiveness and consensus

seasonal affective disorder

Controversial disorder in which a person experiences depression during winter months and improved mood during spring. Can be treated using phototherapy, using bright light and high levels of negative ions.

Gilligan

Did moral development studies to follow up Kohlberg. She studied girls and women and found that they did not score as high on his six stage scale because they focused more on relationships rather than laws and principles. Different reasoning, not better or worse, also published "The Porcupine and the Moles"

Max Wertheimer

Founder of Gestalt who studied "phi phenomenon." Believed that some complex perceptions cannot be reduced to simpler sensory experiences and that the mind operated on general organizing principles to perceive some complex sensory stimuli based on properties like proximity, similarity and closure

Cryonic suspension

Freezing deceased tisuues for revival in the future, or until a natural cure can be found.

Sartre

French existentialist who said human beings simply eist "they turn up, appear on the scene" where they have to define themselves because they are alone in a meaningless life with no God; man is condemned to be free, influenced the phenomenological approach

Binet

French psychologist who wanted to identify French schoolchildren needing special attention; devised 'mental age'

latency stage

Freud's fourth stage of psychosexual development where sexuality is repressed in the unconscious and children focus on identifying with their same sex parent and interact with same sex peers.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

German psychologist who conducted the first extensive experiments on memory, used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well, from this he was able to develop his "forgetting curve"

Neo-Freudians

Group of psychologists who agree with Freud's emphasis on the impact of childhood on one's life, but move away from a sole focus on sex and aggression, Include Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson

Social competition

Group-based behavioural strategies that improve social identity by directly confronting the dominant group's position in society.

Social cognition

How cognition is affected by wider and more immediate social contexts and how cognition affects our social behaviour

Social encoding

How social stimuli are represented in the mind

Identity versus role confusion

In Erik Erikson's theory, the fifth stage of development in which adolescents explore who they are and how they fit into society.

Happiness

In psychology it has three components: positive emotion and pleasure, engagement in life, and a meaningful life. -americans likely to associate happiness with personal achievement -east asian cultures->happiness-> harmony

withdrawal symptoms

unpleasant physical or psychological effects following discontinued use of a drug, can include shakes or tremors, vomiting, blood pressure/heart rate changes or death

Social facilitation & social inhibition

One acts better in the presence of others Triplett (1898) cyclists, Social inhibitions is when one acts worse in presence of others

Chi Square

One of the most basic tests for statistical significance that is particularly appropriate for testing hypotheses about frequencies arranged in a frequency or contingency table., sum of (observed-expectated)^2/expected, if your value is above the expected value then you reject your null hypothesis, if below or equal you except you null hypothesis

self-serving bias

unrealistically positive views of self

Fritz Perls

Originator of Gastalt theory. Considered most dreams a special message about what is missing in our lives, what we avoid doing, or feelings that need to be "re-owned." Believed that dreams are a way of filling gaps in personal experience. Method of analyzing dreams involved speaking for characters and objects in your dreams.

Self-concept

Our knowledge about who we are

Constructive processing

Re-organizing or updating memories on the basis of logic, reasoning, or the addition of new information

Grief

Reaction to an unfortunate outcome; a deep distress caused by bereavement, a loss, or a perceived loss.

6 categories of social influence tactics

Reciprocity, regan 1971 classic coke study Commitment & Consistency, foot-in-the-door, low bal Social Proof, salting the tip jar, laugh tracks Liking Authority, milgram Scarcity, Reactance (Brehm, 1966) cookie jar (Worchel, Lee, & Adewole, 1975

Social loafing

Reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task

Ego Dystonic

Refers to thoughts and behaviors which are in conflict with how someone sees their ideal self. These people are motivated to seek treatment themselves.

Sucking Reflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to make sucking motions when a finger or nipple if placed in the mouth

Theory of planned behavior Ajzen

Same as the reasoned action, only here all stages are influenced by the percieved behavioral control i.e. can i do it

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Schachter and Singer's theory that emotion is the interaction of physiological arousal and the cognitive label that we apply to explain the arousal

Womb Envy

The envy of pregnancy, childbirth, and motherhood, which results in the unconscious depreciation of women. Mens impulse toward creative work may be an over-compensation for their small role in procreation.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

What is the just world hypothesis?

The belief that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people

Humanistic school

The branch of Psychology that focuses on a person's capacity for personal growth, freedom to choose a destiny(Free Will), positive qualities, and self actualizing tendencies. Includes critical concepts like Client- centered therapy- Born good; free will, Incongruence, Basically (Think you can be the change you want in the world)

psychopathology

The branch of medicine dealing with the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders

Heinz

The case of this person was used by Kohlberg as a moral dilemma. He has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why

visualization

The process of producing visual images in your mind

Entitativity

The property of a group that makes it seem like a coherent, distinct and unitary entity.

Metacontrast principle

The prototype of a group is that position within the group that has the largest ratio of 'differences to ingroup positions' to 'differences to outgroup positions'.

How does social identity theory relate to attribution theory?

This extends a social motivational account of attributions by considering how group memberships, social identifications and intergroup relations affect what sorts of attributions people make Social groups will perceive things differently and have different versions of the world which reflect their group's history, power and interests

zoophilia

Using sexual contact with animals as the primary means of achieving sexual gratification

Aptitude

capacity for learning; natural ability

Cortisone

glucocorticoid hormone that is isolated from the adrenal cortex; used as an anti-inflammatory agent

out-groups

groups other than those with which one identifies

3 case studies

hooligan Stott et al, 2001; Stott, 2003 escalation of violence Stott & Drury, 2000 the m11 protest (Drury & Reicher, 2005; Drury et al., 2005

melatonin

hormone produced in the pineal gland that targets the brain to control circadian rhythms and circannual rhythms, and may be involved in maturation of sex organs

contact theory

if members of two opposing groups are brought together in an emergency situation, group cooperation will reduce prejudicial thinking.

social facilitation definition

improvement in the performance of a well-learned/easy task and a deterioration in the performance of a poorly-learned/difficult task in the mere presence of the same species

generativity

in Erikson's theory, a process of making a commitment beyond oneself ex:to family, work, or future generations

control group

in an experiment, a group that serves as a standard of comparison with another group to which the control group is identical except for one factor

Free Association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing, allowing some of the unconscious to come through.

Descriptive research

is any type of research that describes the "who, what, when, where" of a situation, not what caused it

"Mere exposure effect"

is is shown that the more frequently people have been exposed to stimulus, the more they like the stimulus, even when the prior exposure was subliminal.

Appraisal criteria (relevance, congruence, responsibility, control, and power)

is it important to us, positive congruent or negative incongruent based on consistence or inconsistent to our goals, who is responsible for the event, level of power and control depends on the emotion.

Latent Learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Anterograde amnesia

loss of memory for events that occur after the onset of the amnesia; eg, see in a boxer who suffers a severe blow to the head and loses memory for events after the blow

anterograde amnesia

loss of memory for events that occur after the onset of the amnesia; eg, see in a boxer who suffers a severe blow to the head and loses memory for events after the blow

source context elaboration

low --> heuristic processing medium --> majority vs. minority high --> systematic processes

Social emotions

shame, guilt, embarrassment, envy, and jealousy.

attitude

relatively enduring organisation of beliefs, feeling, and behavioural tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events, or symbols

hypothesis

possible explanation for a set of observations or possible answer to a scientific question

Radical Empiricism

pragmatist doctrine put forth by William James. James' factual statement is that our experience isn't just a stream of data, it's a complex process that's full of meaning. We see objects in terms of what they mean to us and we see causal connections between phenomena

social status

prestige and reputation in the eyes of others

Anorexia

self starvation, a refusal to maintain minimum body weight

Overdisclosure

self-disclosure that excees what is appropriate for a relationship or social situation

Stuttering

serious speech difficulty that occurs when a person speaks with sporadic repetition or prolonged sounds. Damage to Broca Area

Group polarization

tendency of group members to move to an extreme position after discussing an issue as a group

Self-serving bias

tendency often in individualistic cultures to attribute our own successes to dispositional factors and our own failures to situational factors

Brain Plasticity

the ability of other parts of the brain to take over functions of damaged regions(Reroutes dendrites to avoid damaged areas. Declines as hemispheres of the cerebral cortex lateralize.

social tuning

the process whereby people adopt another person's attitudes

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

Social Psychology

the scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings and behaviour of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others

Psychology

the scientific study of mental processes and behavior

Cognitive Psychology

the scientific study of mental processes, including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning

Plateau phase

the second phase of the sexual response cycle, during which physical arousal continues to increase as the partners bodies prepare for orgasm

Suggestion

the sequential mental process in which one thought leads to another by association

Semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning

Forebrain

top of the brain which includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex; responsible for emotional regulation, complex thought, memory aspect of personality

Amygdala

two almond-shaped neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion

group

two or more people, involves interaction between people, demands an awareness of some sort of common fate or goal

drive theory

zajonc (1965) If one percieves oneself as being good the presence of the others increase that feeling also works the other way around Michaels et al. (1982) test with shooters

Homogamy

Tendency to maintain a relationship with someone who is similar in age, race, education and religion

ALS

"Lou Gherig's Disease" - progressive neurological disease in which the motor neurons degenerate to the point of total loss of motor function. The intelligence, memory, and personality is unaffected. Stephen Hawking has this.

Stanley Milgram

- Studied obedience - Shocking experiment with teacher and learner and word pairs - Most psychiatrists predicted that most people would stop once they heard the other person scream; the test subjects predicted the same thing - 63% of the people complied fully with the experimenter, right up to the last switch - Use of deception and stress triggered a debate over his research ethics (Milgram said that after the experiment and the people learned of what was going on, none of them regretted participating) - Learned that subtle details greatly influenced the situation - Obedience was highest when: the person giving orders was a legitimate authority figure, the authority was from a prestigious institution; victim was depersonalized or at a distance; there were no role models for defiance

Fear

- perceive greater risk in their environment, pay more attention to those threats, and offer pessimistic estimates about the bad things that are likely to happen to them in the future

Darwins Principle of Serviceable Habits generated three Hypothesis:

1) universality of emotion: -all humans have same 30-40 facial muscles and have these muscles to communicate similar emotions 2) Similarity between our emotional expression and that of our primate and mammalian ancestors -our emotional expression should resemble the emotional expressions of other species 3) Blind individuals still display the same facial expressions that relate to the emotion

3 ways to overcome intergroup conflict schema

1. Depersonaliation (Brewer & Miller, 1984) We're all individuals 2. Recategorization (Gaertner & Dovidio, 1986) We're all one single group 3. Mutual Intergroup Differentiation We're different groups playing on the same team (Hewstone & Brown, 1986)

5 funtions of intergroup categorization

1. Enhances ingroup similarities 2. Accentuates intergroup differences beyond that which originally differentiated two groups 3. Raises motives to ingroup distinctiveness 4. Increases emotional significance 5. Motivates social comparisons

figure-ground relationship

A Gestalt principle of perceptual organization that states that we automatically separate the elements of a perception into the feature that clearly stands out and its less distinct background.

conformity

A change in a person's behavior to coincide more closely with a group standard.

Experiential intelligence

A component of Sternberg's Triarchic theory; AKA creative intelligence; refers to the ability to adjust to new tasks, use new concepts, combine information in novel ways, respond effectively in new situations, gain insight and adapt creatively.

mental age

A measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.

Hyperactivity

A motor pattern involving abnormally energized physical activity, often characterized by quick movements and fast talking. In children, behavior characterized by fidgeting, restlessness, running about inappropriately, talking excessively, and feeling incapable of playing quietly.

Robert Sternberg

A professor at Yale and the author of Successful Intelligence, the concept of successful intelligence contrasts with the more narrow academic intelligence measured by IQ tests and other standardized examinations". evised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative)

ADHD

A psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity

schemas

According to Jean Piaget , cognitive structures that influence how information from the environment is perceived, stored, and remembered

Self-actualization

According to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

self-actualization

According to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

analytical intelligence

According to Sternberg, the ability measured by most IQ tests; includes the ability to analyze problems and find correct answers. (book smart)

Albert Ellis

An early psychoanalyst and a pioneer in Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET), focuses on altering client's patterns of irrational thinking to reduce maladaptive behavior and emotions

dissociation theory

According to this theory, hypnotized subjects dissociate, or split, various aspects of their behavior and perceptions from the "self" that normally controls these functions. Developed by (Ernest Hilgard)

Structuralism

An early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind. (Edward Titchner)

obsessive-compulsive disorder

An anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsession) and/ or actions (compulsions).

Broca's Aphasia

An aphasia associated with damage to the Broca's area of the brain, demonstrated by the impairment in producing understandable speech.

Mentalism

An approach to explaining behavior that assumes that a mental, or "inner," dimension exists that differs from a behavioral dimension and that phenomena in this dimension either directly cause or at least mediate some forms of behavior, if not all.

Eclectic approach

An approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy.

John Locke

Believed people were born like blank slates and the environment shapes development, (tabula rasa). Wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding, and Second Treatise of Government.

Alfred Kinsey

College professor at Indiana University, Bloomington, author of "Sexual Behavior in the Human Male" and "Sexual Behavior in the Human Female;" collectively known as the Kinsey Report; report was controversial and inflammatory but well-received and immensely popular. Factored in the spurring of research for birth control., 1) Publishes a study based on male sexuality 2) Took a sample of 10,000 men, data said that sexual orientation was diverse and many were bi

social loafing

Each person's tendency to exert less effort in a group because of reduced accountability for individual effort.

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Evaluative self-disclosure

People communicate information about personal feelings

Optimal distinctiveness

People strive to achieve a balance between conflicting motives for inclusiveness and separateness, expressed in groups as a balance between intragroup differentiation and intragroup homogenisation.

Donnerstein

Psychologist who showed men shown neutral, erotic, or rape film. Men shown the rape film administered greater shocks to females who made mistakes in nonsense tasks.

ascribed roles

Roles that people are born into or that are thrust on them without any effort or desire on their own particular

6 influences on the notion of self

Roles we play social identities social comparisons successes and failures other's judgement Culture & society

the accentuation effect

Tajfel & Wilkes (1963) labelling lines. if label is associated with short or long line the length of line is either under or overestimated

Logical-mathematical intelligence

The ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. Most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking

Logical/Mathematical Intelligence

The ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. Most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking

Emotional intelligence

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions, involves Gardner's interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence and also known as EQ. (David Goleman). Studies actually show that having a higher EQ IS BETTER THAN HAVING A HIGHER Iq (at least in terms of money)

Spatial intelligence

The ability to use images that represent spatial relations (for example, imagining whether a new sofa will fit in your living room)

Kinesthetic Intelligence

The ability to use one's mind to control one's bodily movements. This challenges the popular belief that mental and physical activity are unrelated.

erogenous zone

The area of the body where the id's pleasure seeking energies are focused during a particular stage of psychosexual development.

Superego

The drive of your psyche that develops last(around the age of 8) and is located in the preconscious. It is the our morals and our sense of right and wrong, and also future aspirations. Like a Conscience

Abnormal Psychology

The field of psychology concerned with the assessment, treatment, and prevention of maladaptive behavior.

Lateral hypothalamus

The part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals, if destroyed an animal may starve to death.

Autonomic Nervous System

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

Foot-in-the-Door technique

The target of social influence is first asked to agree to a small request, but later asked to comply with a larger one

Just-world phenomenon

The tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

cognitive dissonance

The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

Contralateral control

The typical pattern in vertebrates in which movements of the right side of the body are controlled by the left hemisphere, while movements of the left side are controlled by the right hemisphere.

Altruism

The unselfish regard for the welfare of others; became a major concern of social psychologists after Kitty Genovese murder - Social Exchange Theory - Reciprocity of favors - an expectation that people will help those who have helped them - Empathy - Social Responsibility Norm - When to help: Notice --> Interpet --> Assume Responsibility

Strict behaviorism

The view that only overt behavior can be studied scientifically.

Elizabeth Loftus

This psychologist discovered the misinformation effect: After exposure to subtle misinformation, many people misremember; as memory fades with time following an event, the injection of misinformation becomes easier, research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony, Along with John Palmer, showed people a filmed automobile accident, asked how fast cars were going when they smashed or bumped or contacted, asked if they had seen broken glass in the film (there was none) to study the tendency of people to construct memories based on how they are questioned.

Bem Self Perception Theory

We make inferences about our attitudes by perceiving and examining our behavior and the context in which it occurs, which might involve inducments to behave in certain ways

James Coleman

Who suggested four areas to reform through which colloar crime might be effected. These four areas consisted of Ethical, Enforcement, Structural, and Polical. Social Capital.

Sympathetic division

a branch of the autonomic nervous system and prepares the body for quick action in emergencies; fight or flight; busiest when frightened, angry, or aroused; increases heart rate, increases breathing rate, enlarges pupils, stops digestion; connects to all internal organs; sudden reaction

mannerisms

a gesture or way of speaking which is a characteristic of a person.

Myelin Sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next, also called Schwann cells in PNS and Oligodendrocytes in CNS

Classical Conditioning

a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning.

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

Aggression

behaviour that is destructive in some way, causes harm or injury to persons or objects.

stereotype threat

belief that others have negative expectancies of the group - group members perform below their actual ability because they feel threatened

delusions of prosecution

belief that somebody is out to get you

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

locus of control

can be either internal or external. either you think you have power over the outcome or think that an external force is responsible

ID

contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. Theoperates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification

Medulla Oblongata

contains centers that control several visceral functions, including breathing, heart and blood vessel activity, swallowing, vomiting, and digestion.

Major depression

disorder causing periodic disturbances in mood that affect concentration, sleep, activity, appetite, and social behavior; characterized by feelings of worthlessness, fatigue, and loss of interest

Dissociative Disorders

disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings

paired distinctiveness

distinctive events that co-occur stand out

Emotions Influence Reasoning

emotions feed into people's judgements by acting as guides to how good or bad something is, about how fair things are, and about whether there is risk to worry about -also influence the processes we use in reasoning -> processing style perspective

Focal Emotions

emotions that are especially common within a particular culture -ex: individuals from cultures that value honor, sexual and family insults are highly charged events and trigger higher levels of anger than in members of cultures that do not prioritize honor

active listening

empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy, the form of psychological treatment that if you get people are most likely to make fun of you for paying for it.

outgroup homogeniety

less variability of habit and opinion seen among members of the outgroup leads to more homogeneous perceptions

3 ways to avoid social loafing

make people accountable, make the task interesting, make people resposible

self serving biases

motivated biases self-enhancement with succes: internal self-protecting with failure: external or handicaping

key issues for retrieval

motivation ability to process

Reaction Formation

psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. Thus, people may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.

Approach-avoidance

psychological conflict that occurs when a person must choose ONE goal that has both attractive and unattractive features

Personality Disorders

psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning

obsessions

repeated, intrusive, and uncontrollable irrational thoughts or mental images that cause extreme anxiety and distress

replicated

research is reliable when it can be ___________

Display of embarrassment as a communicative function

shows acknowledgment of performance failure and a commitment to the norms that have been violated.

authoritarian personality

simplistic cognitive style, rigid regard for social conventions, and submission to authority figures

stereotypes

simplistic generalisations about a specific group of people (schema) learned from others and personal experiences

Negative Symptom

symptom that reflects insufficient functioning, functions that have been lost (ex: social withdrawal, slowness of thought/speech)

Positron Emission Tomography

technique combining nuclear medicine and computed tomography to produce images of brain anatomy and corresponding physiology; used to study stroke, Alzheimer disease, epilepsy, metabolic brain disorders, greater accuracy than SPECT but is used less often because of cost and limited availability of the radioisotopes

out-group homogeneity

tendency to view all individuals outside our group as highly similar. Ex: view all michigan fans as stupid.

plateau phase

the Second phase of the sexual response cycle, during which physical arousal continues to increase as the partners bodies prepare for orgasm. (Masters and Johnson)

Hypnotic suggestibility

the degree to which a subject is responsive to suggestions, suggestions can involve making or not making appropriate motor movements in response to imagined situations, cognitive suggestions involveing changes in perception, thought and memory can also be made, higher among people who have rich fantasy lives( Do you play World of Warcraft, Star Wars etc.etc.)

Visual Encoding

the encoding of picture images

Broaden-and-build Hypothesis

the hypothesis that positive emotions broaden thought and action repertoires, helping us build social resources -increases intellectual resources->build social resources->friendships, social network -positive emotion: >rate themselves more similar to outgroup members >greater overlap between their self-concepts and the self concepts of their friends/partner

cognitive appraisal

the idea that to feel stress you need to perceive a threat and come to the conclusion that you may not have adequate resources to deal with the threat.

phenomenological approach

the view that to fully understand the causes of another person's behavior requires an understanding not of the physical or objective reality of the person's world, but of how he or she subjectively experiences that world

Schemata

theoretical knowledge that guides information processes: Trait schemata, psychological variables (trustworthy) Person schemata, about concrete persons Stereotype, about groups Script, sequence of behavior (how are you? fine.)

appraisal theories of emotion

theories holding that emotions result from people's interpretations and explanations of events, even in the absence of physiological arousal EX=friend tells you she just got into med school (no previous arousal). How you interpret this depends on how you interpret this event. If you are worried about your own acceptance-you might feel envious

nondirective

therapy style in which the therapist remains relatively neutral and does not interpret or take direct actions with regard to the client, instead remaining a calm, nonjudgmental listener while the client talks,

Identical twins

twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.

Fraternal Twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.

acceptance

Conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure.

Commitment levels during love

Increase during the first 90 days; levels off with a slight decrease

Group

Two or more individuals interacting with each other

Downward social comparison:

A comparison of the self to another who does less well than or is inferior to us - Boosts self-esteem

Delusions

false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders

mere exposure

familiarity produces liking - strong at lower levels of awareness with unfamiliar stimuli

Francis Galton

English scientist (and Founder of Eugenics) (cousin of Charles Darwin) established differential psychology AKA "London School" of Experimental Psychology and who explored many fields: heredity, meteorology, statistics, psychology, anthropology. Maintains that personality & ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance; compared identical & fraternal twins, hereditary differences in intellectual ability

Stimulus motives

Motives that cause humans and other animals to increase stimulation when the level of arousal is too low (examples are curiosity and the motive to explore).

psychosexual stages

The childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.

Compassionate love

The deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined

Cohesiveness

The degree of attraction members have to each other and to the group's goal

Incongruence

The degree of disparity between one's self-concept and one's actual experience.

Passive euthanasia

The deliberate disconnection of life support equipment, or cessation of any life-sustaining medical procedure, permitting the natural death of the patient.

Depersonalisation

The perception and treatment of self and others not as unique individual persons but as prototypical embodiments of a social group.

Noam Chomsky

United States linguist whose theory of generative grammar redefined the field of linguistics , language development; he also disagreed with Skinner about language acquisition, stated there is an infinite # of sentences in a language, and humans have an INBORN native ability to develop language, children can deduce the structure of their native languages from "mere exposure". Supporting evidence from the mistakes children do, and do not make, in lang acq process, also there is a critical-period hypothesis for language acquisition.

confounding variables

factors that cause differences between the experimental group and the control group other than the independent variable, you DO NOT want these at all.

Edmund Husserl

father of phenomenology, method of bracketing: excluding from further interest elements that do not belong in universal essence

William Wundt

father of psychology, first psychology research lab in Leipzig, Germany; research on workings of senses; applied scientific method to psychology; used Introspection

Encopresis

involuntary defecation not attributable to physical defects or illness

Retrograde amnesia

loss of memory for events that occurred before the onset of amnesia; eg a soldier's forgetting events immediately before a shell burst nearby, injuring him

Affective Forecasting

predicting future emotions -- for example whether an event will result in happiness or anger or sadness and for how long

Applied research

One of the two main types of research, conducted specifically to solve practical problems and improve the quality of life.

prototype and exemplars

Prototypes: the abstract representation of a category Exemplars: actual persons that have the prototypical features

Impression Management

The attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen (self-presentation)

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

3 central ideas of social identity theory

categorisation, identification and comparison

accountability

held responsible for one's impressions

Grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Does attribution relate to social identity?

-social, cultural and political identifications are shaped by our attributions

Elkind

who developed the theory of: -adolescent egocentrism -imaginary audience -personal fable

Averaging

A(t)/N = +/- C

Social Exchange

Blood-donor study (Piliavin 2003) Give when one expects to get something from it, might be external or internal. Some norms might explain helping behavior: reciprocity and social-responsibility norm

evolutionary attachment

Bowlby's theory of attachment as an innate process ensuring survival

Visual/Spatial Intelligence

ability to visualize objects and spatial dimensions and create mental images

downward comparison

comparing yourself with those who are not as good as yourself although our performance or lives are not ideal... it could be worse

Clark Moustakas

is an American psychologist and one of the leading experts on humanistic and clinical psychology. He helped establish the Association for Humanistic Psychology and the Journal for Humanistic Psychology. He is the author of numerous books and articles on humanistic psychology

expectation effects

subtle and unintentional transmission of the hypothesis to the participants by the researcher

psychosurgery

surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior

Brightness Constancy

the tendency for a visual object to be perceived as having the same brightness under widely different conditions of illumination

defense mechanisms

In psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

Spearman-Brown formula

In psychometrics, a methematical formula that predicts the degree to which the reliability of a test can be improved by adding more items. The longer the test the more reliable it is .

misinformation effect

Occurs when participants' recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post event information

Ageism

discrimination against middle-aged and elderly people

conversion disorders

Somatoform disorders in which a dramatic specific disability has no physical cause but instead seems related to psychological problems

Serial position effect

Tendency for items at the beginning and end of a list to be learned better than items in the middle

Immune Neglect

Tendency of people to overestimate the intensity and duration of their emotions. People fail to realize that emotions will pass relatively quickly, and people neglect that they have a pretty good affective immune system. -leads them to overestimate the extent to which life's difficulties will reduce their personal well-being -immune related processes: finding the humor, insight, growth in setbacks and traumatic experiences -fail to consider immune related processes -assume we will be devastated by the traumatic negative event

fovea

area consisting of a small depression in the retina containing cones and where vision is most acute

Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence

the ability to use words and language both written and spoken

Pituitary gland.

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, this gland regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

Reminiscence bump

the enhanced memory of people over 40yrs old for events from adolescence and early adulthood, compared to other periods of their lives

Speed of processing

the speed at which elementary information-processing tasks (such as reaction-time tests) can be carried out. This speed improves as children grow older.

Puberty

the stage of development at which individuals become physiologically capable of reproducing

norming

the stage of group development during which the group solidifies its rules for behavior, especially those that relate to how conflict will be managed

Kinsey Report

"Sexual Behavior in the Human Male & Female": scientific study by Alfred Kinsey, turned traditional presumptions about sex and marriage on its head. high counts of homosexuality, masturbation, extramarital affairs, sexuality more fit to a continuum, homosexual tendencies are higher than expected, homosexual thoughts higher than expected. However, began interviewing people about their sexual behaviors in 1938. 17500 individuals, most of them were from University of Indiana and the surrounding community (White well educated individuals) FAILED to obtain a Representative sample.

Metacognition

"Thinking about thinking" or the ability to evaluate a cognitive task to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task. Reached during the Formal Operational Stage.

Personal vs. Social Identity Continuum

* Personal level - As a unique individual *Group level - A member of a group *Where we place ourselves on this continuum influences our self identity -Whether we feel a part of a group or as an individual influences our social responses

Money and Happiness

*Wealthier countries have higher levels of life satisfaction than poorer countries ->Problem of third variable because national wealth is confounded with many other variables that influence well-being such as health care services *In very poor countries once people can afford life's basic necessities increasing one's financial status matters very little to one's well-being *affluent socieities further boosts in economic growth are not necessary accompanied by rises in life satisfaction among the population *Paradox: How can poverty be associated with such negative outcomes (highest rates of depression, infant morality, and homicide) but income be unrelated to happiness-->Solution: Threshold of income: Level of income below which a person is very unlikely to be happy, at least in the U.S. Once a person is above this threshold the notion that having more moeny would make one happier does not seem to hold *Absence of health or wealth can bring misery but their presence is no guarantee happiness will follow *Lottery winner study showed that lottery winners were no happier than non-lottery winners 6 months after lottery which suggests that external life circumstances have a small effect on happiness

Philip Zimbardo

- Role playing affects attitude - Stanford Prison Study - Took students and randomly assigned some to be guards (outfitted accordingly) and some to be prisoners (outfitted accordingly) - Guards began to develop disparaging attitudes, and some devised cruel routines - He had to call off the experiment early - Some people succumb to the situation and others do not; some people will not change in the situation, while some will (following the change of others)

What purpose does attribution have?

-we can direct behavior if we understand if people are dispositionally or situationally attributing in certain contexts -explaining social behaviours of self and others -develops causal explanations of own and others actions

Emotions and Moral Judgements

1) people experience gut feelings that orient them to the nature of the moral wrongdoing 2) people then rely on more deliberative process (assessments of costs and benefits, causal attributions, considerations of prevailing social norms) to arrive at a final moral judgement of right or wrong -several emotions guide moral judgement: >self-critical emotions >other-praising emotions >harm-related emotions >other-condeming emotions

Set-point theory

1. Human bodies are programmed to maintain weight. 2. The lateral(hungry) and ventromedial hypothalamus(full) acts to cancel each other out. 3. Our fatty cells have a set-point they want to maintain 4. Heredity influences set points and therefore, body type also 5. If weight is lost, food intake is increased and energy expenditure(metabolism) decreases or vice versa.

Strategies for Cultivating Happiness

1. Write down narrative (gives structure to emotions, gives perspective; reduces distress associated with not expressing emotions) -helps develop perspective. In counseling, this enhances awareness by helping person organize their thoughts and feelings, provide cathartic emotional release, and contributing to personal integration and self-validation. Beneficial for older and younger individuals. Ie's include: correspondence, journal writing, creating writing, structured writing. 2. Cultivate positive relationships

4 underlying processes of contact hypothesis

1. contact makes one learn about the outgroup which reduces prejudice, however contact has to be frequent and consistently inconsistent with prejudice. 2. Outgroup contact changes behavior which changes the attitude 3.affective ties are created with the outgroup 4. ingroup reappraisal, contact with outgroup makes one reflect on the ingroup

Secure Attachments

66%; constantly explored when parent was present; distressed when they left and came to parents when they returned

Benjamin Whorf

A linguist/psychologist who noticed that the more words that you have for a certain type of thing, the more subtle the distinctions you recognize in it. Also came up with a concept called linguistic relativity hypothesis, based partially on the relization that the the Hopi Indian tribe in North America had very few words in their language for past tense, and never ever thought about the past.

Rational Emotive Therapy

A Cognitive Therapy based on Albert Ellis' theory that cognitions control our emotions and behaviors; therefore, changing the way we think about things will affect the way we feel and the way we behave., The therapist ACTIVELY challenges the patient's irrational beliefs.

Harry Harlow

A Psychologist who specialized in higher animal development, contact comfort, attachment; experimented with baby rhesus monkeys and presented them with cloth or wire "mothers;" showed that the monkeys became attached to the cloth mothers because of (contact comfort)

Upward social comparison:

A comparison of the self to another who does better than or is superior to us - Lowers self-esteem!

superiority complex

A complex when one Overcompensates for feelings of normal inferiority..... a means of inflating one's self-importance in order to overcome inferiority feelings, according to Adler

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

A conflict arising from having to choose between undesirable alternatives. (Like Raising Taxes or Reducing Spending).

isomorphism

A constraining process that forces one organization to resemble others that face the same set of environmental conditions. (Kohler)

Psychologist's fallacy

A fallacy that where someone confuses his own standpoint with that of the mental fact about which he is making his report

Resistant attachments

A form of attachment pattern that is the LEAST prevalent(11%) according to Mary Ainsworth characterizing infants who remain close to the parent and fail to explore before separation, are usually distressed when the parent leaves, and combine clinginess with angry, resistive behavior when the parent returns.

Eidetic imagery

A form of memory, often called photographic memory, which consists of especially vivid visual recollections of material.

Schizophrenia

A group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions. Is an example of a disease that is mutlifactorial. Treatment of this disease with antipsychotics and dopamine may lead to Tardive Dyskinesia

Door-in-the-Face technique

A large request, to which refusal is expected, is followed by a smaller one

prototypes

A mental image that incorporates the features we associate with a category

Bipolar Disorder

A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. (Formerly called manic-depressive disorder.)

Karen Horney

A neo-Freudian psychologist that criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends; concept of "basic anxiety", also said that men exhibit womb envy.

Alfred Adler

A neo-Freudian psychologist that introduced concept of "inferiority complex" and stressed the importance of birth order and agreed with Freud that childhood is important but believed that childhood social, not sexual, tentions are crucial for personality formation. inferiority complex, our behavior is driven by efforts to conquer childhood feelings of inferiority.

overlearning

A technique used to improve memory where information is learned to the point that it can be repeated without mistake more than one time.

Humanism

A theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth

Taste Aversion

A type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation (John Garcia).

Weighted averaging

A(wt)/N = +/- C

accomodation

According to Jean Piaget, mental processes that restructures existing schemas so that the new info is better understood ex:a child's schema of a bird includes any flying object, until they learn that a butterfly or a plane is not a bird

archetypes

According to Jung, emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning.

personal unconscious

According to Jung, the level of awareness that houses material that is not within one's conscious awareness because it has been repressed or forgotten.

ACTH

Adrenocorticotropic hormone, produced by the anterior pituitary gland that stimulates the adrenal cortex regulates the production of cortisol(steriod hormone) from anterior pituitary

Bottom-Up Processing

Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.

ABC of attitude

Affective, (Zajonc, 1968) the more exposure the more someone likes something Cognetive, Fishbein and Ajzen's (1975): one's attitude is a summary of everything believed about something weighted by the importance attached to those beliefs. Behavior, Self perception theory and embodied cognition Brinol & Petty (2003)

self-concept

All our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" In order to reach self actulization it must be positive.

Glucose

Along with having neuron's fire faster and increased integration, higher performing brains usually use LESS glucose than average brains.

Masters and Johnson

Among the first to use laboratory experimentation and observation to study the sexual response cycle (1950s-60s); levels include excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution.brought hundreds of volunteers into their lab and observed them having various types of sex. They used tools to measure penile length and blood flow and vaginal expansion and lubrication. They perform thousands of trials and their results over a twenty year period were extensive. They even tried to "cure" homosexuality and claimed a 30% failure rate.

Passionate love

An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning (first 90 days) of a love relationship 1. Emotions have two ingredients - physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal 2. Arousal from any source can enhance one emotion or another, depending on how we interpet and label the arousal

cultural bias

An aspect of an intelligence test in which the wording used in questions may be more familiar to people of one social group than to another group.

resting potential

An electrical potential established across the plasma membrane of all cells by the Na+/K+ ATPase and the K+ leak channels. IN most cells, the resting membrane potential is approximately -70 mV with respect to the outside of the cell.

Charles Spearman

An english psychologist, known for his work in statistics, as a pioneer of factor analysis and for Spearman's rank correlation coefficient. He also did seminal work on models for human intelligence, including his theory that disparate cognitive test scores reflect a single general factor and coining the term g factor. Most importantly if you do good on one part of the test you will most likely do well on the other parts.

stereotype threat

An individual's fast-acting, self-fulfilling fear of being judged based on a negative stereotype about his or her group.

blind study

As a way to avoid the placebo effect in research, this type of study is designed without the subject's knowledge of the anticipated results and sometimes even the nature of the study. The subjects are said to be 'blind' to the expected results.

Hostile aggression

Behavior intended to harm another, either physically or psychologically, and motivated by feelings of anger and hostility (One of the 2 Types of Aggression)

Theory Y

Assumes that, given a challenge and freedom, workers are motivated to achieve self-esteem and to demonstrate their competence and creativity

Covert behavior

Behavior that can be subjectively perceived only by the person performing the behavior. Thoughts and feelings for example.

obedience

Behavior that complies with the explicit demands of the individual in authority.

Overt Behavior

Behavior that has the potential for being directly observed by an individual other than the one performing the behavior.

nucleotides

Basic units of DNA molecule, composed of a sugar, a phosphate, and one of 4 DNA bases

Menarche

Beginning of menstrual function, FIRST PERIOD

3 Theories to exaplain aggression

Biological, instinct theory and genetics Biosocial Social Learning

blood brain barrier

Blood vessels (capillaries) that selectively let certain substances enter the brain tissue and keep other substances out

Korsakoff

Brain damage to the mammillary bodies resulting in anterograde amnesia, caused by a lack of vitamin B1 thiamine in the brain, typically the result of severe alcoholism

LaPierre's attitude experiment 1934

Chinese couple in discriminative america, only once were they denied. questionaires revealed that hotel owners dont like chinese, so no predictive value with attitudes.

Fundamental attribution error

By overestimating the influence of personality and underestimating the influence of situations; The tendency of observers, when analyzing another's behavior to: underestimate the impact of a situation (nurture) and overestimate the impact of personal disposition (nature)

self theory

Carl Rogers's theory of personality, which emphasizes the individual's active attempts to satisfy his needs in a manner that is consistent with his self-concept.

Secondary Sexual Characteristics

Characteristics that develop during puberty that are not directly associated with reproduction, such as pubic hair and growth spurts.

Psychodynamic

Characterized by conflict among instincts, reason, and conscience; describes the mental processes envisioned in Freudian theory

experiential intelligence

Component of Sternberg's Triarchic theory; AKA creative intelligence; refers to the ability to adjust to new tasks, use new concepts, combine information in novel ways, respond effectively in new situations, gain insight and adapt creatively.

Affective Disorders

Conditions is which feelings of sadness or elation are excessive, and not realistic, given the person's life conditions.

What is an example of the covariation model being applied for a situational attribution?

Consistency: If an individual responds in the same way at different times (high consistency) For example, Alison smokes every time she is out with friends: consistency is high Distinctiveness: An individual will show similar responses to this particular stimulus (distinctiveness is high) For example, Alison only smokes when she is out with friends: high distinctiveness. Consensus: An individual will act in the same way that most other people will (consensus is high) For example, Alison smokes a cigarette when she goes out for a meal with her friend. If her friend smokes: consensus is high.

3 errors in attribution

Correspondence/fundamental bias, attribute it to the person although it is due to external factors, quizmaster effect Actor-observer bias, Self-serving biases,

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner (Being abnormally tolerant to and dependent on something that is psychologically or physically habit-forming)

What has cross-cultural research found for attribution theory?

Demonstrated how FAE/ correspondence bias is not a universal cognitive phenomenon and is specific to cultures and societies dominated by individualism

double slit experiment

Demonstrates the inseperability of the wave and particle natures of light. It proved how waves diffract around an object, and through destructive and constructive interference create black and white patterns of light. Black being the destructive interference and the more bright the whites are the more constructive interference there was. (Thomas Young)

William James

Developed pragmatism(Functionalism). One of the founders of modern psychology, and the first to attempt to apply psychology as a science rather than a philosophy. Wrote first psychology textbook "The Principles of Psychology" and was interested in the the Meaning of Truth, (influenced by Darwin!)

Lawrence Kohlberg

Developmental psychologist who contends that moral thinking progresses through a series of stages: Preconventional, Conventional, Postconventional, by presenting boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions Most Famous is " Heinz"

Inappropriate effect

Display of emotions that are unsuited to the situation; a symptom of schizophrenia.

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence is defined by four skills: 1) an ability to accurately perceive others emotions 2) an ability to understand one's own emotions 3) an ability to use current feelings in making decisions 4) the ability to manage one's emotions in ways that are fitting to the current situation people with high levels of emotional intelligence: -are able to put their emotions to good use -enjoy strong relationships -individuals experience healthier social relationships when they are able to perceive their own and others' emotions and to put them to good use in social interactions

psychosocial development

Erikson described eight stages of development in which the individual moves between two opposing themes, this is called:

generativity versus stagnation

Erikson's seventh stage of psychosocial development, in which the middle-aged adult develops a concern with establishing, guiding, and influencing the next generation or else experiences stagnation (a sense of inactivity or lifelessness)

Intimacy versus isolation

Erikson's sixth stage of development. Adults see someone with whom to share their lives in an eduring and self-sacrificing commitment. Without such commitment, they risk profound aloneness and isolation.

role diffusion

Erikson's term for lack of clarity in one's life roles (due to failure to develop ego identity).

Ethnocentrism

Evaluative preference for all aspects of our own group relative to other groups.

commonsense psychology

Everyday, nonscientific collection of psychological data used to understand the social world and guide our behavior.

Yerkes-Dodson Law.

Evidences arousal theory; the more complex a task, the lower level of arousal that can be tolerated without interference before the performance deteriorates; ex. used in class-driving to school, driving angry, finding a new location, boiling an egg

Rollo May

Existiential humanist who embrassed free will and the in herently difficult and tragic aspects of the human condition, authored the influential book Love and Will

lost-letter

Experiment conducted by Stanley Milgram to test how helpful people are to strangers not present, and their attitudes towards various groups

Social-Cultural Psychology

Field of Psychology that deals with the influence of socialization of enculturation on behaviors which shape movements of a group based of cultural mores.

continuity vs discontinuity

Focus is on whether developmental change is smooth and constant or choppy through stages (For Some reason it is a GREAT Controversy)

How does discursive social psychology relate to attribution theory?

Focuses on people's situated discursive practises in every day discourse and social interaction Attributions are viewed as things that people do in their conversations to accomplish social actions such as blame Non-cognitivist epistemology - description of an event is not neutral - every account carries attributional inferences and implications - it is discursively constructed - everyone's description of an event will be interpreted differently

Alfred Binet

French Psychologist who published the first measure of intelligence in 1905. The purpose of his intelligence test was to correctly place students on academic tracks in the French school system.

wish-fulfillment

Freud's belief that dreams were an expression of the id's impulses, superego commands ego to convert wishes into symbols

Anna Freud

Freud's daughter, his favorite daughter, she became a psychoanalysis following the footsteps of her father, Focused on the ego's ability to adapt and function; more focus on normal behavior than on pathological behavior, described ten different defense mechanisms by the ego to defend against anxiety and also, felt that you couldn't analyze children until they were mature enough to form a transference, disagreed with her father about woman (Neo-Freudian)

oral stage

Freud's first stage of personality development, from birth to about age 2, during which the instincts of infants are focused on the mouth as the primary pleasure center.

genital stage

Freud's last stage of personality development, from the onset of puberty through adulthood, during which the sexual conflicts of childhood resurface (at puberty) and are often resolved during adolescence).

Anal Stage

Freud's second stage of psychosexual development where the primary sexual focus is on the elimination or holding onto feces. The stage is often thought of as representing a child's ability to control his or her own world.

Theory of multiple intelligences

Gardner's theory, which proposes at least 8 independent intelligences on the basis of distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to engage in a wide range of culturally valued activities

Intensification

Give the impression of having stronger feelings than one really has.

Superordinate goals

Goals that both groups desire but that can be achieved only by both groups cooperating.

Glial cells

Greek for glue; forms myelin sheath; holds neuron in place; provides nourishment and removes waste; prevents harmful substances from entering bloodstream; may play important role in memory and learning; affects brain's response to new experiences, support and protect and an regenerate new neurons.

Weschler

He published the first high-quality IQ test designed for adults -Weschler-Adult Intelligence Scale -made test less dependent on verbal ability -formalized the computation of separate scores for verbal IQ, performance( nonverbal), and full scale IQ -new scoring scheme based on normal distribution

Regulatory focus theory

Higgins 1997 Actual/ideal discrepancy - promotion system Actual/ought discrepancy - prevention system

basic anxiety

Horney's theory of the deep-seated form of anxiety in children that is associated with feelings of being isolated and helpless in a world perceived as potentially threatening and hostile.

Limbic system

How we begin to love and attract mates; a brain system that plays a role in emotional expression, particularly in the emotional component of behavior, memory, and motivation.

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychologist who developed a theory of motivation that emphasized psychological (Hierarchy of Needs)-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied; self-actualization, transcendence

Carl Rogers

Humanistic psychologist who stressed the inportance of acceptance, genuineness, and empathy in fostering human growth. , Developed "client-centered" therapy, self theory, and also unconditional positive regard

Cretinism

Hyposecretion of thyroid hormone during growth years, characterized by a low metabolic rate, retarded growth and sexual development, and possible mental retardation. Adult years: weight gain, loss of hair, and myxedema.

Social influence

Identification, sampling, and combining of info to form impressions

Normative social influence

Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval; we are sensitive to social norms because the price we pay for being different may be severe

Personal vs social identity: Intragroup vs intergroup

If we focus on our personal identity: - Likely to compare ourselves to other individuals *Comparisons within our group = intragroup comparisons If we focus on our group membership: - Likely to compare our group to other groups * Comparisons between groups = intergroup comparisons

Columbine

In 1999, two students in Littleton, Colorado, brought weapons to school and killed 12 students and wounded many others before killing themselves. The tragedy was one of seven such shootings in the US that year, and led to changes in gun control, school safety measures, and the monitoring of media violence. Shows how one case study can have powerful, unnecessary and dangerous effects.

Initiative versus guilt

In Erikson's theory, the psychological conflict of early childhood, which is resolved positively through play experiences that foster a health sense of initiative and through the development of a superego, or conscience that is not overly strict and/or guilt-ridden

initiative versus guilt.

In Erikson's theory, the psychological conflict of early childhood, which is resolved positively through play experiences that foster a healthy sense of initiative and through development of a superego, or conscience, that is not overly strict and guilt-ridden.

Penis Envy

In Psychoanalytic Thought, the desire of girls to posses a penis and therefore have the power that being male represents.

Extended contact effect

Knowing about an ingroup member who shares a close relationship with an outgroup member can improve one's own attitudes towards the outgroup.

Trust Game

In the trust game, there are two players: decision maker 1 (DM 1 ) and decision maker 2 (DM 2 ). DM 1, also called the investor, is given a sum of money (e.g., $ 10). This money can be kept or invested. If invested, the money is moved to DM 2 , also called the trustee. Any money received by the trustee is increased by a known and predetermined factor (e.g., multiplied by 4). DM 2 then decides how much money to transfer back to DM 1. In the case of mutual trust and repeated games with the same individual, it would be in both players' interest for DM 1 to invest the entire sum and for DM 2 to return half of the proceeds. However, if DM 1 does not trust DM 2 to return a fair share, DM 1 is less likely to invest as much of the initial endowment. Additionally, in a one-shot game where each player will make only a single decision with the other player, it is considered irrational for DM 2 to return any money to DM 1.

Little Albert

In which famous experiment did Watson condition a child to fear small white animals after pairing them with a loud bang? Showed Classical Conditioning.

Neurons

Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit information in electrical and chemical forms. Are the fundamental building blocks of the nervous system. COMPOSED OF THE CELL BODY(soma), AXON, AXON Hillock, and Dendrite

Stigmatization

Individuals who deviate from their ascribed categories and roles are excluded, humiliated, and ostracized.

Assimilation

Interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas.

Alcohol

Is a depressant that affects all areas of your brain and impairs coordination; decreases your reaction time; disrupts your voluntary muscle control; and inteferes with your reasoning, decision making, and judgement

Primary Sexual Characteristics

Is any of those anatomical parts of the body which are involved in sexual reproduction and constitute the reproductive system in a complex organism

Co-variation model

Is behaviour dispositional or situational?

familial retardation

Is usually mild and lacks an obvious genetic or environmental cause; it results from a complex interaction between heredity and environment

Kinsey Scale

Kinsey 's rated sexuality on a 7-point scale ranging from exclusively heterosexual behavior (0) to exclusively homosexual behavior (6) (7 being asexual) Problem is he only looked at sexual behavior, not fantasies.

Sensory Cortex

Located in the front of the parietal lobe (directly behind the sensory cortex in the frontal lobe), this structure is responsible for us feeling touch sensations from our body. Every time you feel a type of touch sensations (both pleasurable and pain) the information is sent up by sensory neurons to the thalamus and sent to the sensory cortex so we can feel it. Strangly the top part of it controls the bottom half of the body and the bottom half controls the top half of our body

Gestalt Psychology

Looks at the subjective representation rather than the objective stimuli

Amnesia

Loss of memory that occurs as a result of physical or psychological trauma

Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts

MORE than two goals to options( have both positive and negative aspects) to consider, making the decision even more difficult and stressful (i.e. college students deciding on a career)

intergroup emotions theory

Mackie & Smith, 2002a, 2002b) in group context people identify with as the group so appraisal work at group level. this makes intergroup emotions work

neologisms

Made-up words that typically have only meaning to the individual who uses them. Typical of disorganized schizophrenic person

Martocchio

Maintains that there is no single correct way (nor timetable) by which a person progresses through the grief process

Cultural differences in defining the self

Masako Owada, 29 Japanese woman-diplomat in the foreign ministry, educated at Harvard and Oxford, speaks 5 languages. Owada married the Crown Prince and chose the more traditional role of housewife. She gave up any independent view of the self.

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's Theory of Motivation which states that we must achieve lower level needs, such as food, shelter, and safety before we can achieve higher level needs, such as belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's Theory of Motivation which states that we must achieve lower level needs, such as food, shelter, and safety before we can achieve higher level needs, such as belonging, esteem, and self-actualization.

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

organic retardation

Mental retardation because of some identifiable biological cause associated with hereditary factors, diseases, or injuries. Contrast with cultural-familial retardation.

Drive theory

Mere presence increases arousal, which, in turn, increases the dominant response

Behavior modification

Method of changing abnormal behavior thru systematic program based on the learning principles of CLASSICAL conditioning, OPERANT Conditioning, or OBSERVATIONAL Learning.

Lawrence Kohlberg

Moral development; presented boys moral dilemmas and studied their responses and reasoning processes in making moral decisions. Most famous moral dilemma is "Heinz" who has an ill wife and cannot afford the medication. Should he steal the medication and why?

How does social representation theory related to attribution theory?

Moscovici This elaborates on the social perspective by locating causal attributions in the cultural meaning systems shared by collectivities and groups - argues that cognitive schemas do not produce causal attributions as cultural expectations and beliefs will require a more in-depth search for causality - information that is inconsistent with expectations = more in-depth search for causality - learned process: communicated through language - people don't always need to actively search for explanations of behaviour cognitively

Garcia Effect

Named after researcher John Garcia, it is basically food aversion that occurs when people attribute illness to a particular food.

Erik Erikson

Neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

inferential statistics

Numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance.

Permissive Parents

Parenting style consisting of very few rules and allowing children to make most decisions and control their own behavior.

Zimbardo

Performed prison simulation and used concept of deindividuation to explain results, When one takes on a role, they will often change their behavior in order to fit the perceived set of expectations for that role.

Authoritarian personality

Personality syndrome originating in childhood that predisposes individuals to be prejudiced.

Physical attractiveness

Predicts frequency of dating, their feelings of popularity, and others' initial impressions of their personalities; unrelated to self-esteem and happiness; few people view themselves as unattractive; beauty is a cultural thing

personal prejudice

Prejudicial attitudes held toward persons who are perceived as a direct threat to one's own interests

Mediation

Process of intergroup conflict resolution where a neutral third party intervenes in the negotiation process to facilitate a settlement.

Self-Depreciating

Putting ourselves down to imply that we are not as good as someone else - Communicate admiration - Simply lower audience's expectations of our abilities

Hallucinogens

Psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, PCP, METH, or Heroin that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

Freudian theory

Psychoanalysis; emphasizes unconscious determinants of behavior, sexual and aggressive instinctual drives, and the enduring effects of early childhood experiences on later personality development

Cognitive Maps

Psychological representations of locations that are created from people's individual ideas and impressions, mental representations that enable people to navigate from a starting point to an unseen destination (Tolman)

E.J. Gibson

Psychologist famous(along with Richard WalK) for his VISUAL CLIFF EXPERIMENT: used to determine whether infants could perceive depth; infant placed on glass table to create appearance of a cliff, found that infant won't crawl across-it has depth perception

Janis

Psychologist who developed the concept of groupthink to explain how group decision making can sometimes go awry Example: Bay of Pigs.

LaPiere

Psychologist who found that behavior conflicts with cognition.1934, conducted an early study that illustrated the difference between attitudes and behaviors.A classic study of attitude-behavior consistency: This man toured the United States in 1934 with a Chinese couple, stopping at hotels and restaurants along the way. They were refused service at only one establishment. However, 92% of the institutions later said in a letter that they would refuse to accept Chinese people as guests. Hotel employees may have biases based on secondhand information. When they see them up close, their biases go away. Social norm: you don't want to look bad in front of a caucasian person.

Bookkeeping

Pulling receipts

John Garcia

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

Paul Ekman

Researcher who developed neuro-cultural theory which stated brain and culture effects emotions and the universality of the seven basic emotions

triarchic theory

Robert Sternberg's theory of intelligence that suggests that there are three aspects to intelligence: componential (e.g., performance on tests), experiential (creativity) and contextual (street smarts/business sense).

G factor

SPEARMAN'S term for a general intellectual ability that underlies all mental operations to some degree

Two-factor theory of emotion

Schachter and Singer's theory that emotion is the interaction of physiological arousal and the cognitive label that we apply to explain the arousal, The idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it.

Social psychology

Scientific investigation of how thoughts, feelings, and behaviours of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others

Sexual Response

Series of psychological and physiological changes that occur in the body during sexual behavior., its four stages are excitement, plateau, orgasm and resolution. (Masters and Johnson)

How can we change the way we attribute?

Situational attributions are more likely if: - perceivers are made accountable for their inferences - perceivers are not cognitively busy - when situational attributions are important, relevant and accessible

What are the implications of FAE?

Situational attributions are more likely to occur if: -perceivers are made accountable for their behaviours/actions -perceivers are not cognitively busy/ distracted by pursuing other goals - when situational attributions are made more important and accessible - not applicable in other cultures as they do not have the same sense of individualism as western cultures

3 theories of helping behavior

Social Exchange Evolution Genuine Altruism

Which approach is adopted by attribution theories?

Social cognitive perspective

Stanley Milgram

Social psychologist that conducted studies in an effort to understand some of the vast horrors of World War II., obedience to authority; had participants administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants; wanted to see if Germans were an aberration or if all people were capable of committing evil actions., Did studies with humans where someone has charge over a button and is instructed to press it to punish the other volunteer for a wrong answer. In most cases, the person pressed the button well after the other subject could have died because a person will follow instructions to a fault from authority figures.

Initial excitement

Stage One of Sexual Response Cycle: Heart rate increases, Breathing increases, Erection occurs, and the cliterus swells with blood

Preconventional level

Stages 1 and 2 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning. Children think about moral questions in terms of external authority; acts are wrong because they are punished or right because they are rewarded.

Conventional Level

Stages 3 and 4 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning. Children see rules as necessary for maintaining social order; they internalize them to be considered virtuous and to win approval from authority figures.

Lewis Terman

Standford Professor who revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of young geniuses and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Sternberg's theory, which identifies three broad, interacting intelligences - analytical, creative, and practical - that must be balanced to achieve success according to one's personal goals and the requirements of one's cultural community

Practical intelligence

Sternberg- intelligence that is learned primarily by observing others and modeling their behavior

Cognitive behavioral therapy

Treatment involving the combination of behaviorism (based on the theories of learning) and cognitive therapy (based on the theory that our cognitions or thoughts control a large portion of our behaviors). (CBT)

distress

Stress that stems from acute anxiety or pressure

Luria

Studied how brain damage leads to impairment in sensory, motor, and language functions, also studied eidetikers ,and developed a Probability Distribution scheme for localizing cortical areas responsible for language systems

Ebbinghaus

Studied memory using nonsense syllables and the method of savings, created the "Forgetting Curve".

Schachter

Studied the relationship between anxiety and the need for affiliation; The greater the anxiety the greater desire to affiliate ,Developed "Two-Factor" theory of emotion; experiments on spillover effect

Jean Piaget

Swiss psychologist remembered for his studies of cognitive development in children., Four stage theory of cognitive development: 1. sensorimotor, 2. preoperational, 3. concrete operational, and 4. formal operational. He said that the two basic processes work in tandem to achieve cognitive growth-assimilation and accomodation.

Piaget

Swiss psychologist who says children's cognitive development depends on their ability to organize, classify, and to adapt to their environments

Piaget

Swiss psychologist who says children's cognitive development depends on their ability to organize, classify, and to adapt to their environments, also object permanence.

Laboratory experiments

Studies that take place under controlled conditions where the researcher deliberately manipulates the independent variable to see its effect on a dependent variable.

T/F: People who attribute a criminal defendant's immoral action to contextual causes are more likely to feel sympathy and recommend less severe punishment

TRUE

social identity theory

Tajfel's theory that our social identities are a crucial part of our self-image and a valuable source of positive feelings about ourselves.

categorization and memory

Taylor et al. (1978) easier to remember the right category than the right speaker.

Pygmalion in the Classroom

Teacher expectation and pupils' intellectual development (1968)- found out that when teachers expected students to succeed, the students indeed tended to improve. Vice-versa.

Id

The drive of the psyche that contains animalistic and most basic instincts, and also develops first( A baby psyche is all of this drive), it is also located in your unconscious so you are largely unaware of it. It also works on the pleasure principle.

Trichromatic theory

Visual theory, stated by Young and Helmholtz that all colors can be made by mixing the three basic colors: red, green, and blue; a.k.a the Young-Helmholtz theory.

Axon Hillock

The conical region of a neuron's axon where it joins the cell body; typically the region where nerve signals is generated.

symbolization

The conscious use of an idea or object to represent another actual event or object; often, the meaning is not clear because the symbol may be representative of something unconscious.

Psyche

The conscious(Ego) unconscious(Id), and preconscious(Superego) drives in an individual that influence thought, behavior and personality

Extrinsic motivation:

The desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting

range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Ecological fallacy

The fallacy of deducing a false relationship between the attributes or behavior of individuals based on observing that relationship for groups to which the individuals belong (Stereotypes)

Stranger anxiety

The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age. Makes sense from an evolutionary standpoint because that is when babies start to become more mobile.

ovaries

The female gonads, paired almond-sized organs located in the pelvic cavity, and produce two steroid hormone groups the estrogns and pregesterone. The endocrine and exocrine functions do not begin until the onset of puberty.

Environmental psychology

The field of psychology that studies the ways in which people and the environment influence each other.

Abraham Maslow

The first humanistic psychologist ; created the hierarchy of needs-needs at a lower level dominate an individual's motivation as long as they are unsatisfied; self-actualization is the highest transcendence

industry versus inferiority

The fourth of Erikson's eight psychosexual development crises, during which children attempt to master many skills, developing a sense of themselves as either industrious or inferior, competent or incompetent.

Forgetting Curve

The graphic pattern representing the relationship between measures of learning and the length of the retention interval: As the retention interval gets longer, memory decreases. (Ebbinghaus)

Exhaustion

The harmful third stage of the general adaptation syndrome(GAS) , stress exceeds body's ability to recover.The parasympathetic nervous system returns our physiological state to normal., If the crises is not resolved, resources become depleted, immunity drops, sometimes causing illnesses, ulcers, depression, or death

null hypothesis

The hypothesis that states there is no difference between two or more sets of data. Stating opposite of what you expect to find

Self-awareness theory:

The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values

Alfred Binet

The indvidual that published the first measure of intelligence(based on "mental age") in 1905. The purpose of his intelligence test was to correctly place students on academic tracks in the French([specifically Parisan) school system.

informational social influence

The influence other people have on us because we want to be right

Conscious level

The level at which mental activities that people are normally aware of occur

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity; abandoning normal restraints to the power of the group; to be less self-conscious and less restrained when in a group

Rorschach inkblot test

The most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

Semantic memory

The part of declarative memory that stores general information such as names and facts.

Ventromedial hypothalamus

The part of the hypothalamus that produces feelings of fullness as opposed to hunger, and causes one to stop eating. If destroyed an animal will become obese.

Mere exposure effect

The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli (i.e. a person) increases liking them

mere exposure effect

The phenomenon that the more we encounter someone or something, the more probable it is that we will start liking the person or thing even if we do not realize we have seen it before.

engram

The physical changes in the brain associated with a memory. It is also known as the memory trace

reciprocal inhibition

The presence of one emotional state can inhibit the occurrence of another, such as joy prevent fear or anxiety inhibiting pleasure. (Wolpe - mainly)

Sexology

The scientific study of sex, especially of sexual dysfunctions.

Linguistic intelligence

The sensitivity to words and their connotations. The ability to influence others and manipulate.

group polarization effect

The solidification and further strengthening of an individual's position as a consequence of a group discussion or interaction.

risky shift

The tendency for a group decision to be riskier than the average decision made by the individual group members.

Bystander effect

The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present; diffusion of responsibility Sources: - Ought to help v. Out to do what others are doing, i.e. Ingroup v. Outgroup - Notice --> Interpret --> Assume Responsibility

Social Loafing

The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

Emotional Mimicry

The tendency for people to imitate and mimic the emotions of others and to synchronize their actions with the actions of others -EX: People tend to touch their own faces when they see others doing the same. -Our tendency to to mimic the emotions of others is one way we come to understand what other people feel. -Emotional mimicry produces closeness; Nonverbal mimicry produces likeness between strangers -establishes similarity between individuals increases closeness and liking

interpersonal attraction

The tendency of one person to evaluate another person (or a symbol or image of another person) in a positive way.

Ingroup bias

The tendency to favor our own group

Cannon-Bard theory

The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion, especially in the autonomic nervous system and emotional experience in the brain

Scapegoat theory

The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

measure of central tendency

The three measures are: mode, median, and mean. They usually fall in the middle of the distribution and tell us certain facts about it.

attribution theory

The view that people are motivated to discover the underlying causes of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior.

Harry Helson

Theorist who endorses the life events model rather than the normative-crisis model for middle adulthood because timing of particular events in adults life, NOT the age, determine the course of personality development

operant conditioning

Theory of Behaviorist BF Skinner, that is one of the way that explains why kids acquire language, , a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Social identity theory

Theory of group membership and intergroup relations based on self-categorisation, social comparison and the construction of a shared self-definition in terms of ingroup defining properties.

Triarchic Theory

Theory proposed by Robert Sternberg that states that intelligence consists of three parts including Analytic = the ability to solve problems, Creative = the ability to deal with new situations, and Practical = the ability to adjust and cope with one's environment

Dual memory

Theory suggesting that information coded both visually and verbally is remembered better than information coded in only one of those two ways.

Decay

Theory which states that memory fades and/or disappears over time if it is not used or accessed.

concepts of conservation

These concepts demonstrate how the different aspect of objects are conserved even when their arrangement changes. 3 main (volume, area and number)

Masters and Johnson

These two authors wrote a book called "Human Sexual Response" which proved that sex isn't just pleasurable for men., among the first to use laboratory experimentation and observation to study the sexual response cycle (1950s-60s); 4 levels include excitement, plateau, orgasm , and resolution

Social Readjustment Rating Scale

Thomas homes and richard rahe created this scale measuring the stress rating of certain life changing events by using life changing Units (LCUs), whether good or bad. 150 or more units and you were having a stressful year. Not very accurate. (SRRS)

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Thanatologist

Those who study dying & death --- EX: Kubler-Ross's stages of dying & Martocchio's manifestations of grief.

Daniel Goleman

Thought of Emotional Intelligence : able to manage own emotions, is capable of self-motivation and self direction, recognizes emotions in others, and is able to handle various types of relationships.

suicidal ideation

Thoughts of hurting or killing oneself. Has thoughts of hurting or killing self, but may or may not be planning to act on these thoughts. (Aaron Beck)

How do attributional biases come about?

Through the distortion of information from our social environments, we construct our attributions in order to boost our self-esteem so we seem socially desirable "it's not my fault, he was just an idiot"

halo effect

To generalize and perceive that a persona has a whole set of characteristics when your have actually observed only one characteristic, trait or behavior

Uncertainty-identity theory

To reduce uncertainty and to feel more comfortable about who they are, people choose to identify with groups that are distinctive, clearly defined, and have consensual norms.

emergent norm theory

Turner & Killian (1957) three stages in crowds: milling, keynoting and surveying. meaning first noone acts, then one acts others react this creates a norm upon which collective action is build. critique: doesnt acount for all behavior, why do some follow and some lead. some crowds do have histories

Self-categorisation theory

Turner and associates' theory of how the process of categorising oneself as a group member produces social identity and group and intergroup behaviours.

Gestalt school

Unlike Structuralism this school prefers to look at the whole rather than small parts of the thing in order to comprehend it (The sum is greater than the parts).

Joseph Wolpe

Used classical conditioning theory in psychotherapy and introduced Systematic Desensitatization and concepts of reciprocal inhibition which he applied to reduce anxiety. In treatment he paired relaxation with an anxiety -provoking stimulus until the stimulus no longer produced anxiety.

personal space

Usually 18 inches to 4 feet, the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies

Cognitive dissonance theory

We often bring our attitudes into line with out actions; rationalization; the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent 1. We act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two or more thoughts are inconsistent 2. The more responsible we feel for doing a troubling act, the more discomfort we feel. 3. The more discomfort we feel, the more we try to find consistency (change attitudes). - Rationalize our actions - Change belief to feel better - Could lead to more discomfort

Reward theory of attraction

We will like those whose behavior is rewarding to us and that we will continue relationships that offer more rewards than costs

What is consensus?

When an individual responds to the same stimulus the behaviour of others will determine how their response is viewed.

Black Sheep Effect

When someone in our in-group acts in a way that threatens the value of the group identity, that person is rejected in an effort to protect the group identity (Beyonce giving her speech time to Taylor Swift)

Retinal Disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

Theodore Simon

Working with Binet, he published a test of general mental ability that was loaded with items that required abstract reasoning skills rather than sensory skills. Helped figure out mental Age

Simon LeVay

Wrote Sexual Brain and Queer Science, completed research on the DNA and finding a gay gene, he found the gene INAH3 was more than twice as large in heterosexual men as in homosexual men. Also found that certain brain regions (specifically, a cluster of cells on the hypothalamus) is different in homosexual(smaller) versus heterosexual men

Internal cause

a cause of behavior that is assumed to lie within a person- for instance, a need, preference, or personality trait.

Proximity

a Gestalt principle of organization holding that (other things being equal) objects or events that are near to one another (in space or time) are perceived as belonging together as a unit

Closure

a Gestalt principle of organization holding that there is an innate tendency to perceive incomplete objects as complete and to close or fill gaps and to perceive asymmetric stimuli as symmetric

Continuity

a Gestalt psychology principle which states that the observer tends to see a line or shap as continuing in a particular direction rather than making a turn

Similarity

a Getalt principle of organization holding that (other things being equal) parts of a stimulus field that are similar to each other tend to be perceived as belonging together as a unit

Rooting Reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

Behavioral Consequences - Stereotype Threat:

a belief that one's performance may be judged based on a negative stereotype of their group - May confirm & reinforce the negative stereotype - Especially if one values their ability in a stereotypically negative area - When reminded of the stereotype, performance suffers

Test Anxiety

a combination of physiological, emotional, and cognitive components that are caused by the stress of taking exams and that may interfere with one's ability to think, reason, and plan,Yerkes-Dodson Law says it is not necessary to get rid of all this anxiety to do well on a test.

DNA

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

Catatonic Schizophrenia:

a condition marked by striking motor disturbances, ranging from muscular rigidity(stupor) to random motor activity, also parrot behavior

Negative Correlation

a correlation where one two variables tend to move in the opposite direction (example: the number of pages printed and the amount of ink left in your printer are negatively correlated. The more pages printed, the less ink you have left.) Middle Graph

Free-Response Critique

a critique of Ekman and Friesen's emotion studies based on the fact that researchers provided the terms with which participants labeled facial expressions rather than allowing the participants to label the expressions with their own words -however when participants in different cultures are allowed to use their own words to label facial expressions, they show high degrees of similarity

"Honor cultures" and supporting research study

a culture in which self-esteem is shaped powerfully by the standing of the individual and his or her group in the eyes of others, male american students grown up in south and those grown up in north responses, southerners acted more aggressively.

reaction formation

a defense mechanism in which a person unconsciously develops attitudes and behavior that are the opposite of unacceptable repressed desires and impulses and serve to conceal them

Stagnation

a discontinuation of development and a desire to recapture the past

Oxytocin

a hormone released by the pituitary gland of the brain during childbirth, breastfeeding, and intercourse, causing emotional bonding between persons in whom it is released.

Mental Age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.

Echo

a mental representation of an auditory stimulus (sound) that is held briefly in sensory memory

image

a mental representation of an event or object

Lithium

a metal that provides an effective drug therapy for the mood swings of bipolar disorders

Serotonin

a neurotransmitter that affects hunger,sleep,arousal,and mood. appears in lower than normal levels in depressed persons

fetishism

a paraphilia in which a nonhuman object is the preferred or exclusive method of achieving sexual excitement

Binging

a period or bout, usually brief, of excessive indulgence, as in eating, drinking alcoholic beverages;bender, blast, jag, tear, bust, toot; orgy

Histrionic personality disorder

a personality disorder characterized by excessive emotionality and preoccupation with being the center of attention; emotional shallowness; overly dramatic behavior

Secure attachment

a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver

experimental method

a research technique in which an investigator deliberately manipulates selected events or circumstances and then measures the effects of those manipulations on subsequent behavior to try an determine if there is a cause an effect relationship.

orgasm phase

a series of rhythmic contractions of the muscles of the vaginal walls or the penis, also the Third and shortest phase of sexual response. (Masters and Johnson)

role

a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

superordinate goal

a shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people's differences from one another

self-fulfilling prophecy

a situation in which a researcher's expectations influence that person's own behavior, and thereby influence the participant's behavior

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score

Focalism

a tendency to focus too much on a central aspect of an event while neglecting to consider the impact of ancillary aspects of the event or the impact of other events -once we achieve that goal (LSAT, get married, etc.) we think we will be truly happy

statistically significant

a term used to describe research results when the outcome of a statistical test indicates that the probability of those results occurring by chance is small

Signal Detection Theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue.

feelings-as-information perspective

a theory that since many judgments are too complex for us to thoroughly review all the relevant evidence, we rely on our emotions to provide us with rapid, reliable information about events and conditions within our social environment -people in a bad mood are more likely to arrive at negative judgements about consumer products, political figures, and economic policies -recalling angry event in past can cause people to rely on that emotion to blame others for current problems and to assume that unfair things will happen to them in the future

Charles Darwin believed emotions are defined by their

accompanying expressive behaviors, their gestures, facial muscle movements, vocalizations, and postural movements -these behaviors and movements signal to others the nature of the individual's internal state -helps coordinate smooth or effective interaction

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

unconditional positive regard

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person.

embryo

an animal organism in the early stages of growth and differentiation that in higher forms merge into fetal stages but in lower forms terminate in commencement of larval life

generalized anxiety disorder

an anxiety disorder characterized by chronic free-floating anxiety and such symptoms as tension or sweating or trembling of light-headedness or irritability etc that has lasted for more than six months

panic disorder

an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations

Bulimia Nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

Anorexia Nervosa

an eating disorder in which a normal-weight person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15 percent or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve.

placebo

an inert substance given to the control group in an experiment

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen

argued the facial-feedback hypothesis and found considerable cross-cultural agreement in the identification of the 6 fundamental emotions: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust based on facial expressions -took more than 3000 photos of people with different emotional facial expressions -gathered from japan, brazil, argentina, chile, united states -supported Darwin's Theory -flaw in study: all exposed to western media

reasons-generated attitude change

attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one's attitudes; people assume their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalize -If a reason we are with someone is difficult to verbalize, we might then focus on their annoying habits

Do people spontaneously attribute?

attribution theory exaggerates the extent to which people seek causal explanations for everyday occurrences and events

dissociation model

automatic activation of stereotype does not automatically lead to stereotypic responding - if aware, motivated to correct, and have the cognitive capacity

right-wing authoritarian

basis lies in attitudes and norms rather than personality

Self-schemas

beliefs people hold about themselves that guide the processing of self-relevant information Example: A person that is concerned with their weight is schematic about their weight and thus susceptible to triggers such as going to the beach (mundane every day events)

ethnocentric

believing in the superiority of one's own ethnic and cultural group, and having a corresponding disdain for all other groups

normal distribution

bell-shaped curve that results when the values of a trait in a population are plotted against their frequency

Infrahumanization

castano. refers to the denial of an individual or group of human characteristics, rendering the target less human. -most likely to occur when one's ingroup is reminded of violence perpetrated against an outgroup. -primary emotions are seen as both applicable to animals and human (happiness, sadness, fear). -secondary emotions that are more complex are seen as uniquely human (love, jealousy). -infrahumanization leads ingroup to be much less likely to ascribe secondary emotions to outgroup.

reputation

casts helper as good, positive person, and confers benefits in a social situation

Peer influence

caused by attempting to fit into a group by conforming, learning to cooperate with others to gain popularity,

observational learning

change in behavior due to watching other people behave(Albert Bandura)

behavior modification

changing one's choices or actions by manipulating the cues that trigger the actions, the actions themselves, or the consequences of the actions

Endorphins

chemical inhibiting the transmission of pain, often experienced during exercise, i.e. "runner's high"; discovered in 1970s when trying to find out how opiates were (morphine, heroin);

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

Antagonists

chemical substances that block or reduce a cell's response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters

Agonists

chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell

Somatoform Disorders

class of psychological disorders involving physical ailments or complaints that cannot be explained by organic causes

Pica

compulsive eating of nonnutritive substances such as clay or ice; this condition is often a result of an iron deficiency

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

control of one's bodily motions and capacity to handle objects skillfully

Broca Area

controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Broca's Area

controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Wernicke's Area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.

Emotion Accents

culturally specific ways that individuals from different cultures express particular emotions, such as the tongue bite as an expression of embarrassment in India

stereotype application

decision whether to use stereotypes in judgements - possible to control

Flashbulb Memories

detailed memory for events surrounding a dramatic event that is vivid and remembered with confidence, 9/11 , JFK shooting

fugue

dissociative disorder in which a person forgets who who they are and leaves home to creates a new life

Hindbrain

division which includes the cerebellum, Pons, and medulla; responsible for involuntary processes: blood pressure, body temperature, heart rate, breathing, sleep cycles

Stimulants

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

jigsaw classrooms

educational approach designed to minimize prejudice by requiring all children to make independent contributions to a shared project

confirmation bias

everyday have information that supports and contradicts stereotype - acceptance of supporting evidence at face value, critical/discounting of contradictory evidence

Biopsychologists

explain human thought and behavior strictly in terms of biological processes

proscriptive moral regulation

expressing strong disapproval and strict

mundane realism

extent to which the experiment is like the real world

Facial displays and expression of social motives (Fridlund, 1994)

facial displays that we usually think of as expressing emotion are in fact expressions of social motives.

The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals (Darwin, 1872/1998)

facial movements had evolutionary history and served as an adaptive function.

Turner's syndrome

genetic sex linked disorder, XO No Barr Bodies, phenotypically female, short, neck webbing, leading cause of primary amenorrhea from ovarian dysgenesis

frequency polygon

graph of a frequency distribution that shows the number of instances of obtained scores, usually with the data points connect by straight lines

Schizophrenia

group of disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions

Guilt as a social function

guilt stems not from judgments of our own behavior made by the self but rather from judgments of our behavior made by another person in the context of a relationship.

Evolution

helping behavior is to safe own genes. Problems are with adopted children, and altruism to complete strangers

sex hormones

hormone produced in the adrenal cortex that targets the gonads, skin, muscles, and bones to stimulate reproductive organs and bring about sex characteristics

Common sense theory

idea held by most people that a stimulus leads to the subjective experience of an emotion which then triggers a physiological response

autonomy

immunity from arbitrary exercise of authority: political independence

social facilitation

improved performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered

Top-Down Processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

tardive dyskinesia

involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs; a possible neurotoxic side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic drugs(Haldol, Thorazine) that target D2 dopamine receptors, kinda like Parkinson's

relearning effect

it will take less time to relearn material we previously encoded, even if we have "forgotten" what we learned previously

Decay theory of memory

loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used.

social impairment

lowering of performance on a given task in the pressence of others - usually a task that is not well reshearsed

black sheep effect

marques, yzerbyt & leyens (1988) ingroup deviants are liked less then outgroup deviants does not happen when critisism is seen as constructive and when it is appropriate

Context dependent

memory, the environment acts as a retrieval cue. This means that it is easier to remember information when you are in the location (context) where you originally learned that information.

concepts

mental categories for classifying events, objects, and ideas on the basis of their common features or properties

conversion theory

minority influence triggers a validation process whereas majority influence triggers a comparison process which is resolved with compliance

2 processes to control stereotyping

monitoring, searching for undesired thoughts (unconscious thoughts) Operating, surpressing the stereotype consciously based on motivation and ability, if this is unsuccesful might be counter productive. Macrae, Bodenhausen, Milne, & Jetten (1994)

social identity in crowds

one sees oneself as part of the group so there is social identity not no-identity. Conflict is part of group processes. the group identity is responsible for behavior. so intergroup action is identity driven Reicher (1984, 1987; Reicher & Potter, 1985; Potter & Reicher, 1987) st pauls riots exemplary

Mood-state dependent memory (how emotion influences the way information is processed)

people are better able to recall information when they are in the same emotional state as the one in which they were when first exposed to the information.

sociometer theory

people monitor social and environmental cues relevant to acceptance and rejection

Ekman and Friesen (1971) research

people of the same culture recognize similar emotions.

Emotions such as love, compassion, and jealousy enable

people to form and maintain reproductive relationships just as critical to gene replication

Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder

personality disorder defined by a pervasive pattern of orderliness, perfectionism, and mental and interpersonal control. workaholics, intolerant of emotional behavior of other people.

prescriptive moral regulation

present something as approval for acceptance, not strict

sensory adaptation

reduced responsiveness caused by prolonged stimulation

Sex Drive

refers to the strength of one's motivation to engage in sexual behavior

OCD

repetive behaviors, mental attacks, behaviors, preventing, reducing distress, prevented some dreaded event, reconizes obsessions are excessive or unreasonable, not apply to kids

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

perspective taking

see world through anothers eyes - empathize with what they are feeling, and think and react in same way

social identity

self categorisation makes up a social identity, social identity theory and self categorization theory ingroup is seen as more influential Ellemers , Doosje & Spears (2004) looked at compliments of ingroup and outgroup

motives for social identity

self-esteem distinctiveness motive to belong, Knowles & Gardner (2008) symbolic immortality, Castano et al. (2002 uncertainty reduction, Campbell (1958); Hamilton & Sherman (1996)

person perception

social intent and personal ability

social functions of emotion (adaptive advantage)

social systems benefit from the capacity of individuals within these systems to experience and express emotion (ex. mothers face to baby on glass).

sadist

someone who obtains pleasure from inflicting pain or others

low bal

start of with low promise then change it last minute, people will still say yes because they are already committed.

foot-in-the-door

start with a small request to get one comitted and then move up. Commitment should be:active, public, effortful, freely chosen

Life events model

the approach to personality development that is based on the timing of particular events in an adult's life rather than on age per se (Helson). Is the opposite of Normative Crisis Model.

Genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

Social Psychology

the branch of psychology that studies persons and their relationships with others and with groups and with society as a whole

Social psychology

the branch of psychology that studies persons and their relationships with others and with groups and with society as a whole

Dendrites

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that RECIEVE messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Creativity

the capacity to use information and/or abilities in a new and original way

zygote

the cell resulting from the union of an ovum and a spermatozoon (including the organism that develops from that cell)

Credibility Factor

the factor applied in ratemaking to adjust for the predictive value of loss data and used to minimize the variations in the rates that result from purely chance variations in losses

Resolution phase

the fourth phase of the sexual response cycle, following orgasm, during which the body returns to its resting, or normal state. However ONLY the MALE enters the refractory period.

syntax

the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences

Intergroup emotion and guilt

the guilt that members of one group feel in relation to the mistreatment by members of their group of an outgroup.

Cerebral Cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected unmyelinated neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information processing center, lots of fissures, is WHAT makes us human. Divides into the left and right hemispheres.

Ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

Archetype

the original pattern or model; a perfect example

External Locus of Control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal control determine one's fate.

Memory

the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

Sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system

Encoding

the processing of information into the memory system--for example, by extracting meaning

Nurture

the properties acquired as a consequence of the way you were treated as a child

rigidity

the quality or state of being unyielding or stiff

psychopharmacology

the study of the effects of drugs on the mind and behavior, also called drug therapy or chemotherapy

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

courtesy bias

the tendency of those being surveyed to provide responses that will please and/or not offend the interviewer, moderator, or other participants

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments. (

false-consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

Shape Constancy

the tendency to perceive the shape of a rigid object as constant despite differences in the viewing angle (and consequent differences in the shape of the pattern projected on the retina of the eye)

Size Constancy

the tendency to perceive the vertical size of a familiar object despite differences in their distance (and consequent differences in the size of the pattern projected on the retina of the eye)

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving, thinking of penny to spend only etc etc etc..

Cannon-Bard theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion, or a theory about the relationship between emotional experience and physiological activity suggesting that a stimulus simultaneously triggers activity in the autonomic nervous system and emotional experience in the brain

moderation

there is a different relationship between two variables at different levels of a third variable

"Minimal universality"

there is more consistency across cultures than would be expected if there was no shared meanings of facial expressions but less consistency than would be expected if the meaning of facial expressions were the same across all cultures.

"function" (ex. fear-escape-survival)

they increase the probability of the individual's survival and/or reproductive success, help individuals address or overcome problems.

Critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

divergent thinking

thinking that moves away in diverging directions so as to involve a variety of aspects and which sometimes lead to novel ideas and solutions, seen as being more creative than convergent thinking

Retrieval

third stage of the memory process; in it stored memories are brought into consciousness

psychogenic amnesia

this is when a person cannot remember things and no physiological basis for the disruption in memory can be identified

Selective attention

this term describes the situation when you are focused on certain stimuli in the environment while other stimuli are excluded (Cocktail Party Effect)

Twins

two children born at the same time to the same parents, The best way to study the Nature vs. Nurture Debate in Developmental Psychology

Lungs

two spongy organs, located in the thoracic cavity enclosed by the diaphragm and rib cage, responsible for respiration, last to develop fully as a fetus

social comparisons

upwards, mostly with successes downwards, mostly with failures

Social Cognitive Perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons (and their thinking) and their social context.

social influence

ways that people around us can change our behaviour

Heider's theory of naive psychologists

we belief our own behavior is motivated so other must have the same. We want to predict and control so we look for stable properties. Both internal and external factors have an influence

complementary need theory

we're attracted to others for what they can provide for us - Exchange of skills between you and another person - Working together is better than being alone - How do you balance each other out?

achievement tests

Tests that gauge a person's mastery and knowledge of various subjects. (AP, ACT, SAT)

Flat effect

Abnormality of mood and affect., lack of emotional response; no expression of feeling; voice monotonous and face immobile

aptitude tests

Tests that measure the general ability or capacity to learn or acquire a new skill.

Power tests

Tests where people are given significant amounts of time to finish the work, but the questions become increasingly more difficult.

Outgroup

"Them" - Those perceived as different or apart from the ingroup

Ingroup

"Us" - People with whom we share a common identity

Kurt Goldstein

(neuropsychiatrist) studied/treated brain-injured soldiers; developed holistic approach.

Evaluation of attribution theories

- Deterministic: most theories predict causal attributions as an intra-individual phenomenon - Reductionist: individudals are information processors who select information from their environment, process it and causally analyse the behaviour/event - Social representation theory provides a more complete theory of attribution, taking into account social factors

Stereotype Threat

- Effects are difficult to control or diminish... but...extremely easy to induce or initiate! *One common stereotype threat effect: - Women's performance in math & sciences - Can be easily induced by: - Putting a woman in a room with men to take the exam -Simply verbally "noticing" that she is a woman

Conditions that strengthen conformity

- Feel incompetent or insecure - Group has at least three people - Unanimous group - Person admires group status - Person made no prior commitment to any response, i.e. not sure what to do - Others in group observe person's behavior, i.e. watching you - Culture encourages respect for social standards

Social roots of prejudice

- Social inequalities, i.e. discrimination - Us v. Them, Ingroup v. Outgroup

Albert Bandura

- Studied behavior patterns and aggression - Bobo doll experiment - Hoped that Social Learning Theory could explain aggression - Adult would show aggression towards a Bobo Doll in one corner of a room while the child would be with other toys in the other corner; The kid was then moved into a different room, but then quickly moved back into the original room (to frustrate the kid) - Judged the kid's aggression towards the Bobo doll - Bandura also found that the children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to act in verbally aggressive ways than those who were not exposed to the aggressive model. - The boys and girls who observed the nonaggressive model exhibited far less non-imitative mallet aggression than in the control group, which had no model. - The experimenters came to the conclusion that children observing adult behavior are influenced to think that this type of behavior is acceptable thus weakening the child's aggressive inhibitions. - The evidence strongly supports that males have a tendency to be more aggressive than females.

obedience studies

- Studies that focus on participants' willingness to do what another asks them to do. - Milgram (1974) found that over 60 percent of participants obey experimenters' orders, even when the orders involve potentially hurting someone else. Participants' compliance is decreased when they are in close contact with those people whom they are being ordered to harm. - When the experimenter left in the middle of the experiment and was replaced by an assistant, obedience also decreased. - When other people were present in the room and they objected to the orders, the percentage of participants who quit in the middle of the experiment skyrocketed. - Milgram's research has been severely criticized on ethical grounds.

What is Weiner's model of attribution?

- looked at attribution success and failure - emotions play a role in directing efforts to achieve goals - attributions people make elicit different emotional CQs - attributions characterised by locus, stability and control Locus = internal or external Stability = stable or unstable Controllability = control over cause or not attributions link different emotions to various behavioural CQs

nativist theory of language acquisition

-Chomsky -there is an infinite number of sentences in language, therefore it is impossible for a child to learn purely from imitation -children learn the rules of language -humans are equip with a language acquisition device..thus just like birds learn to fly, we learn to talk

What attribution theories are there?

-Naive psychology (Heider) -Correspondent Inference (Jones & Davis) -Covariation Model (Kelley) -Social Representation (Moscovici & Hewstone) -Self Perception (Bem) -Attribution theory (Weiner) -Three stage model (Gilbert et al)

Interdependent Cultures and Emotion

-shame and embarrassment focal emotion -helps maintain social collective -maintain harmony and be mindful of others -may express shame and embarrassment in more intense, nonverbal behavior displays

Prosocial behavior Helping Altruism

1. acts that are thought of positively by society 2. intentional act that benefits another 3. someone else benefits more than you

3 Basic Symptoms of Imposter Phenomenon

3 Basic Symptoms of IP 1. The sense of having fooled other people into over-estimating one's ability. 2. The tendency to attribute success to some factor other than one's intelligence or ability. 3. The fear of being exposed as a fraud.

Orgasm

3rd phase of sexual response cycle. The highest point of sexual excitement, marked by strong feelings of pleasure

Albert Ellis

A Cognitive Psychologist, founder of school of psychology known as Rational Emotive Therapy (REBT). Became one of the first psychologists to specialize in sexual and marital problems. Believes strongly in the individual's power over his or her own life. Looks to expose and confront the dysfunctional thoughts of their clients

Kohler

A Gestalt psychologist who helped developed insight learning based on experiments with a chimp (Chip "Sulton") trying to get bananas, and also came up with the theory of isomorphism

Adrenaline

A catecholamine secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress (trade name Adrenalin)

delusions of grandeur

A false belief that one is a famous person or a powerful or important person who has some great knowledge, ability, or authority. Schizophrenia.

frequency distribution

A summary chart, showing how frequently each of the various scores in a set of data occurs

DSM-IV-TR

Abbrevation for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision; the book published by the American Psychiatric Association that describes the specific symptoms and diagnostic guidelines for different psychological disorders

reality principle

According the Freud, the attempt by the ego to satisfy both the id and the superego while still considering the reality of the situation.

What definition best describes situational attribution

An external attribute such as context and social pressure

pseudo-psychology

Any false and unscientific system of beliefs and practices that is offered as an explanation of behavior. Ex: Palm readers, psychics etcetera.

field experiments

Applies the scientific method to experimentally examine an occurence in the real world (or in naturally-occurring environments) rather than in the laboratory.

Remembering

Being able to retain information and recall it when needed

actualizing tendency

Carl Roger's concept; The innate inclination toward growth that motivates all human behavior.

Interneurons

Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate( and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Ritalin

Central nervous system stimulant (trade name Ritalin) used in the treatment of narcolepsy in adults and attention deficit disorder in children

Configuration model

Central traits (warm vs cold) and peripheral traits (polite vs blunt)

Instrumental aggression

Cognition-based and goal-directed aggression carried out with premeditated thought, to achieve specific aims(One of the 2 Types of Aggression)

Illusory correlation

Cognitive exaggeration of the degree of co-occurrence of two stimuli or events, or the perception of a co-occurrence where none exists.

Prototype

Cognitive representation of the typical/ideal defining features of a category.

Impression Management & Cognitive Load

Cognitively busy = less impression management

What theory did Jones and Davis propose?

Correspondent Inference -Certain situations allow people to display a strong tendency to infer that other people's actions correspond to their intentions and dispositions -Freeley chosen? - principle of non-common effects: when behaviour is freely made, behaviour is informative (cognitive factor) -Unusual behaviour / socially desirable behavior? (motivational factor) -Serving actors own interests? (cognitive factor) -Impacting highly on us personally? (motivational factor) If so: the behaviour reflects dispositions

Jones and Davis (1965) proposed which theory?

Correspondent inference theory

What theory did Kelley propose?

Covariation Model -Consistency -Distinctiveness -Consensus

The Lucifer Effect

Created by Philip Zimbardo. Demonstrated that ordinary people could behave in "evil" ways under the right circumstances.

Core-relational Themes

Distinct themes, such as danger or offense or fairness, that define the essential meaning for each emotion -fairly similar across cultures -ex: appraisals of loss trigger sadness in most parts of the world

Central Nervous Systems

Division of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord

Excitation - Transfer model

Dolf Zilman (1979) Believed there was a direction in: Learned aggressive behavior then arousal from another source and a interpretation of the arousal as aggression.

tricyclic antidepressants

Drugs used for treating depression, as well as in chronic pain management and in the treatment of ADHD, Examples: (Adapin or Elavil), monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors (Nardil or Marplan) and serotonin reuptake inhibitors drugs (Prozac)

visual cliff experiment

Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk placed infants of various ages on a fabric-covered runway that ran across the center of a clever device called a visual cliff. The visual cliff consists of a sheet of plexiglas that covers a cloth with a high-contrast checkerboard pattern. On one side the cloth is placed immediately beneath the plexiglas, and on the other, it is dropped about 4 feet below. Since the plexiglas alone would easily support the infant, this is a visual cliff rather than an actual cliff. In the Gibson and Walk study, the majority of infants who had begun to crawl refused to venture onto the seemingly unsupported surface, even when their mothers beckoned encouragingly from the other side.

The Self as a Target of Prejudice

Emotional Consequences (frequency matters) - Depends on the attribution made for it...When the negative outcome is attributed to prejudice and... - More harm: The prejudice is seen as pervasive and internal factor (you fail test thus are uniquely unable to form task due to lack of intelligence) - Less harm: The prejudice is seen as isolated or rare (failed due to the professor not liking me)

Intrinsic motivation

Engaging in activities because they are personally rewarding or because they fulfill our beliefs and expectations

Subtyping

Exceptions to the rule

Schachter and Singer

Experiment with humans where they are injected with adrenaline and either told there will be no symptoms, wrong symptoms or told the exact symptoms. Supports ____________'s two factor model of emotion

mid life crisis

Feelings of boredom and stagnation in middle adulthood; time when adults discover they no longer feel fulfilled in their jobs or personal lives and attempt to make a decisive shift in career or lifestyle(formed in Erikson's 7th Stage)

face /content validity,

Form of validity where a researcher determines if the measure appears to be measuring the appropriate construct by examining the specific questions.

John Watson

Founder of behaviorism, the view that psychology should restrict its efforts to studying observable behaviors, not mental processes, amous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

pleasure principle

Freud's theory regarding the id's desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain in order to achieve immediate gratification.

Iceberg theory

Freud's theory that the conscious was only a very small part of the mind and did not account for most of the psychological factors that affect behavior. Instead most of the psychological factors that effect behavior are found in the unconscious. There is also a a preconscious level.

phallic stage

Freud's third stage of personality development, from about age 4 through age 7, during which children obtain gratification primarily from the genitals.

Biosocial models of aggression

Frustration-Aggression hypothesis, Excitation-Transfer Model, Relative deprivation,

Group

Group members do not need to interact or be in one another's presence - they simply have to identify as a group and perceive themselves as 'us' in contrast to 'them' Turner (1987,)

Intergroup emotion theory

Group members experience emotions through other groups according to their identification with their own groups and their feeling of strength or weakness with the other group -People feel anger and contempt toward outgroups that are seen as less powerful, but feel fear if the outgroup is seen as more powerful -found that anger and contempt are felt toward outgroups when group members feel that their group is stronger than the outgroup and when the members are passionately identified with their own group -ex: after 9/11 attack people that identified as americans felt that america was much stronger than the terrorists

Social creativity

Group-based behavioural strategies that improve social identity but do not directly attack the dominant group's position.

Self

Hard to define... *Self's Main Parts: -Self-knowledge -Interpersonal self -Agent self

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

Kübler-Ross

Her theory proposes that the terminally ill pass through a squence of 5 stages: 1. denial, 2. anger/resentment, 3. bargaining with God, 4. depression, and 5. acceptance

empathy

Identification with and understanding of another's situation, feelings, and motives

Frontal Lobe Damage

Impulsiveness, decreased attention span, difficulty in logical reasoning and following instructions, anti-social behavior

Avoidant Attachments

Infants may resist being held by the parents and will explore the novel environment. They do not go to the parents for comfort when they return after and absence (21%)

Informational social influence

Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality/views on a situation

tabula rasa

John Locke's concept of the mind as a blank sheet ultimately bombarded by sense impressions that, aided by human reasoning, formulate ideas. (Empty Slate)

External attributions

Little control over what happens to an individual. Completely dependent on environment

group polarization

Moscovici & Zavalloni (1969) between risky shift and the opposite, group discussion will go in the way it already went Myers & Bishop (1970) race related proof Maccoby (2002) real life proofof sel segregation in children

Control questions

Non-threatening questions used on people when attached to a polygraph to establish baseline levels of arousal ( Like have you ever been tempted to steal?)

What is significant about the covariation model?

Perceivers make use of the information from across times, situations and actors Higher external validity Takes account of alternative causes for behaviour

Distraction-conflict

Other people are distractions, which increases conflict

Genuine Altruism

People will help out of empathy and distress. They can imagine someone elses situation. Those who feel empathy dont always help (Schaller and Cialdini, 1988). However they will also help when no one will know Fultz et al. (1986), Batson & Weeks (1996)

What are the explanations for actor-observer biases?

Perceptual explanation: - argues that actors and observers have different points of view - actors and observers may possess different information about events, leading to different attributions Linguist practises explanation: different linguistic categories convey different information about an event Language constructs attributions Semin and Fiedler: 4 linguistic categories 1. descriptive action verbs 2. interpretative action verbs 3. state verbs 4. adjectives - actors use more concrete linguitics (factors 1 & 2) - observers use more abstract forms (factors 3 & 4) = dispositional factors

Social facilitation

Performance is improved on easy/dominant response tasks when people are around

Loftus

Person who studied false memories (confabulations) and impact on eyewitness testimony; and the effects of leading questions, Conclusion was that memories had to be validated by physical evidence.

Emotional Expression among the Blind

Pride Study: People carefully analyzed blind and sighted people in Olympic competition to compare emotional expression and body language. Both sets of people exhibited the same kind of emotion when they won and when they lost. Participants hailed from 20 different countries, illustrating that shame and pride emotions are universal.

Operationalize

Process by which we make a theoretical variable one that we can measure

Big-Five Model

Psychological view based on factor analytic studies suggesting the existance of 5 basic components of human personality; openess, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism, OCEAN

Judith Langlois

Psychologist that tested babies on their preference of attractive people compared to unattractive people, babies preferred attractive.

Grasping Reflex

Reflex that causes a newborn to grasp vigorously any object touching the palm or fingers or placed in the hand

Bystander effect

Responsibility is shared by all bystanders so no one acts if there are alot of people. Kitty Genovese 1964 New York.

Lewis Terman

Revised Binet's IQ test and established norms for American children; tested group of young geniuses and followed in a longitudinal study that lasted beyond his own lifetime to show that high IQ does not necessarily lead to wonderful things in life. he test then became the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test. He is also known for his longitudinal research on gifted kids.

Social Exchange Theory

Self-interest underlies all human interactions, that our constant goal is to maximize rewards and minimize costs

Polygraph Test

Test that measures respiration, blood pressure, and perspiration while person is asked a series of questions; outcome is a diagnostic opinion about honesty. (Criticised as Pseudoscience)

Fraternalistic relative deprivation

Sense that our group has less than it is entitled to, relative to its aspirations or to other groups.

Metatheory

Set of interrelated concepts and principles concerning which theories or types of theory are appropriate.

gender bias

Stereotypical views and differential treatment of males and females, often favoring one over the other

Gould

Studied people between the ages of 16-60, labeling the central theme for the adult years as transformation.

Little Albert study

Study by John Watson and Reyner (1920), in which a little boy(11 months( became afraid of white fuzzy objects, especially white rats because he associated them with a loud clang after seeing a bunny and hearing a loud clang at the same time.

Wilhelm Wudnt

Study the structure of the mind through introspection, developed the FIRST psychological lab inn Leipzig. Teacher of Edward Titchner.

Gestalt psychologist

Study the ways the WHOLE brain perceives and interprets information from the senses

Ingratiation:

The process whereby people flatter, praise, and generally try to make themselves likable to another person, often of higher status -If I stroke your ego, you'll like me more! -Generally effective if not over done!!

Speed tests

Timed test; difficulty is more in how quickly questions can be answered than in the content.

altruism

Unselfish interest in helping another person.

The Strange Situation

Used to study parenting styles and infants' reactions to these styles. It tests the reactions of toddlers to a period of temporary absence on the part of the caregiver, during which the child is left alone with a stranger. The study has frequently been replicated. (Mary Ainsworth) Also called Ainsworth's Stranger Paradigm

Evaluation apprehension model

When the people who are watching are there to evaluate, arousal increases

Cognitive dissonance

When we become aware that our attitudes and actions don't coincide, we experience tension

in-group

a social group toward which a member feels respect and loyalty

practical intelligence

according to Sternberg, the ability to cope with the environment; sometimes called "street smarts"

mental sets

barriers to problem solving that occur when we apply only methods that have worked in the past rather than trying new or different strategies

Two word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

Babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

social posturing

behavior that establishes the degree to which an individual belongs to a particular-often socially desired group. This can also reflect an individuals "staus" in a given social hierarchy

need for control

desire to be effective in our relationship with our environment

accentuation

dividing a continuous distribution into two groups

intergroup emotion theory

emotions are experienced as members of social groups

self monitoring

getting up social cues to change behavior. high self monitors are a cameleon low sel monitors are insencitive

debriefing

giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed

persuasive argument theory

group discussion will give the members more insights which are argueably truthfull which polarizes the group. not a lot of proof and polarization occurs without discussion(Cotton & Baron, 1980)

emotional communication ("social referencing")

how we construct appraisals of emotional situations, using others as a resource to help us interpret whether the circumstances are benign or threatening.

Coolidge effect

if animal is presented with a normal partner they will engage in sexual behaviour even when they have been just previously sexually satiated with another partner

functionalism

if having a mind entails functioning like something has an internal state then objects and animals can have internal states (anthropomorphism)

reciprocity

if someone does you a favour, you are obligated to repay it

intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.

Preoperational Stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic ordo NOT yet understand the concepts of conservation in this stage (that is that objects remain the same even when their shapes change).

split brain patients

individuals who have had the corpus callosum surgically severed, usually as a treatment for severe epilepsy

Individualistic vs. collectivistic cultures in emotional expression

indiviualistic cultures promote personal agency and autonomy, collectivistic cultures attach importance to group goals and interpersonal relations.

Moro Reflex

infant startle response to sudden, intense noise or movement. When startled the newborn arches its back, throws back its head, and flings out its arms and legs.

Avoidant attachment

infants who seem unresponsive to the parent when they are present, are usually not distressed when she leaves, and avoid the parent when they return

mentalizing

inferring the mental state of another

Serial Positioning Effect

information at the beginning and at the end of a list is remembered better than material in the middle

Information processing model

information comes in and is processed by the working memory which stores and retrieves form the long term memory upon which a judgement is made and a response follows. So there is encoding storing and retrieval

neural networks

interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. Computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning.

mediation

one variable completely explains the relationship between two variables

Crystallized Intelligence

one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

identity

one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Visual Constancy

our tendency to perceive objects as keeping their size, shape, and color even though the image that strikes our retina changes from moment to moment.

social identity

part of self-concept is at the group level - has value and emotional significance attached to it

axon terminal

terminal button, synaptic knob; the structure at the end of an excellent terminal branch; houses the synaptic vesicles and neurotransmitters

experiment

tests causal relationships between variables in a controlled environment

socialization

the adoption of the behavior patterns of the surrounding culture

Thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

Soma

the cell body of the neuron responsible for maintaining the life of the cell

RIGHT hemisphere

the cerebral hemisphere to the right of the corpus callosum that controls the left half of the body, hemisphere of brain that specializes in visual-spatial processing and quick thinking (abstract)

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them (Again it is bigger in Girls than in Guys, important in Gender Development). Loss of this will lead to split brain patients

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

Nature vs. nurture

the long-standing controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives

Experienced emotion and the social context

the nature of the experienced emotion is shaped the social context, your perceptions of how relevant others are feeling is likely to have an impact on your own emotional experience.

social contract

the notion that society is based on an agreement between government and the governed in which people agree to give up some rights in exchange for the protection of others

Instinct Theory

the now-outmoded view that certain behaviors are completely determined by innate factors ex:instincts

mere-exposure effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

Parietal Lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve

Shows that we lose 2/3 of information in first hour of learning; rate of forgetting levels off after a few days. , Meaningless material decays rapidly, then reaches a plateau, after which little is forgotten. (Ebbinghaus), hegave himself lots of material to study went over 14,000 practice repetitions to memorize 420 nonsense syllables and tested his memory at different time intervals to create this which plots forgetting as a function of time.

normative social influence

The influence others have on us because we want them to like us.

mere exposure

the phenomenon by which the greater the exposure we have to a given stimulus, the more we like it

deindividuation

The reduction in personal identity and erosion of the sense of personal responsibility when one is part of a group.

Hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) SUGGESTS to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

conformity

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Ernest Hilgard

Researched hypnosis and its effectiveness as an analgesic (reduction of pain) effect; studies showing that a hypnotic trance includes a "hidden observer," (arm in ice water test) suggesting that there is some subconscious control during hypnosis.Also called the dissociation theory of split consciousness-hynotized part of brain and an independent observer which works independently., Also created the Stanford hypnotic susceptibility scale.

Basilar membrane

A structure that runs the length of the cochlea in the inner ear(supporting the organs of Corti) and holds the auditory receptors, called hair cells. The fibers of this are short and stiff near the oval window and long and fleaxible near the apex of the cochlea. This difference in structure allows the basilar membrane to help transduce pitch and initiating a chain of events that results in a nerve impulse traveling to the brain

Milgram Obedience Study

A 50-year old man, the learner, is strapped into a chair. The experimenter makes it look as if a shock generator is being connected to his body through several electrodes. The "teachers" were told to shock the man if he answered a question incorrectly, increasing the number of volts each time. Almost 2/3s were willing to deliver the full 450 volts to the old man.

Albert Bandura

A behavioral psychologist who is famous for work in observational or social learning. Stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others., He also believed that personlaity is not just acquired through direct reinforcement but also is a result of observational learning. Conducted the famed Bobo doll Experiment

empathy

A feeling of oneness with the emotional state of another person.

Avoidant attachments

A form of attachment that is the 2nd most common (22%) according to Mary Ainsworth, where infants may resist being held by the parents and will explore the novel environment. They do not go to the parents for comfort when they return after an absence

Secure attachments

A from of attachment that is the most common(66%) according to Mary Ainsworth, where a child displays confidence when the parent is present, shows mild distress when the parent leaves, and quickly reestablishes contact when the parent returns good balance between exploration and attachment

Solomon Asch

A social psychologist that studied conformity; showed that social pressure can make a person say something that is obviously incorrect ; in a famous study(line length study) in which participants were shown cards with lines of different lengths and were asked to say which line matched the line on the first card in length, even when people knew that it was wrong they were more likely to pick it if another person said it was right. Also did the Impression Formation Study

Philip Bard

A very prominent American psychologist who developed an alternative arousal theory with Cannon bard, known as the Cannon-Bard theory . Was also the chairman of the APA during WW2.

inferiority complex

Adler's conception of a basic feeling of inadequacy stemming from childhood experiences, a sense of personal inferiority arising from CONFLICT between the desire to be noticed and the fear of being humiliated

affectionate love

Also called companionate love; love that occurs when individuals desire to have another person near and have a deep, caring affection for the person.

romantic love

Also called passionate love; love with strong components of sexuality and infatuation, often dominant in the early part of a love relationship.

cognitive dissonance

An individual's psychological discomfort (dissonance) caused by two inconsistent thoughts.

The strange situation

An observational measure of infant attachment that requires the infant to move through a series of introducions, separations, and reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order used by Mary Ainsworth. Also called the STRANGER PARADIGM.

Asch's Conformity Experiment

Asch gave volunteer participants in a group two cards, one with one line on it and another with 3 lines, and then asked each participant which of the three lines matched the length of the line on the other card. All but one of them was intructed to pick an incorret line. Asch found that the participants conformed to the incorrect answers 35% of the time

Vitalism

Belief in a life force outside the jurisdiction of physical & chemical laws; eventually crumbled after lab synthesis of complex organic molecules

Philip Zimbardo

Conducted the famous Stanford Prison experiment. It was conducted to study the power of social roles to influence people's behavior. It proved people's behavior depends to a large extent on the roles that are asked to play

John Garcia

His experiments in injecting animals with drugs that made them nauseous after feeding them a certain food helped to establish the idea that organisms learn best behaviors that affect survival., Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance. Also showed that taste preferences were established by biological predispositions.

social contagion

Imitative behavior involving the spread of actions, emotions, and ideas.

positive illusions

Positive views of the self that are not necessarily rooted in reality.

Howard Gardner

Laid out the theory of multiple intelligences (MI) in his book Frames of Mind. Claimed that pencil and paper IQ tests do not capture the full range of human intelligences, and that we all have individual profiles of strengths and weaknesses across multiple intelligence dimensions. He identified at least eight types of intelligences: linguistic, logical/mathematical, bodily/kinesthetic, musical, spatial (visual), interpersonal (the ability to understand others), intrapersonal (the ability to understand oneself), and naturalist (the ability to recognize fine distinctions and patterns in the natural world)

Alfred Adler

Neo-Freudian who thought social tensions were more important than sexual tensions in the development of personality, Developed the inferiority inferiority/ superiority complexes. He would have said that people developed their personalitys because they didn't want to be inferior. Actually excluded from the Vienna School of thought by Freud for this.

fundamental attribution error

Observers' overestimation of the importance of internal traits and underestimation of the importance of external situations when they seek explanations of an actor's behavior.

Harry Harlow

Psychologist who researched the relationship of body contact and nourishment to attachment, using Rhesus monkeys and artificial mothers. Wire Mother vs. Cloth mother)> Babies would get food from Wire mother, but would cling to and imprint on cloth mother. Showed that they needed contact as well as nurishment. Also proving that monkey preferred the soft cloth mother and due to isolation they never learned how to mate.

self-objectification

The tendency to see oneself primarily as an object in the eyes of others.

Normative crisis model

The traditional approach to adult personality development is which views personality development in terms of fairly universal stages, tied to a sequence of age-related crises.

social exchange theory

The view of social relationships as involving an exchange of goods, the objective of which is to minimize costs and maximize benefits.

social identity

The way we define ourselves in terms of our group membership.

Cognitive Therapy

Therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions.

Festinger Cognitive Dissonance Theory

We are motivated toward consistency between attitudes and behavior and away from inconsistency