Psychology Chapter 1

Variable

any characteristic or factor that can vary/change. Any measure, event, or state that can vary Age, sex, height, hair color, GPA, income, happiness, chocolate consumption Vary between different people; may also vary within a given person over time

4 Goals of Psychology

Describe how people and animals behave Explain and understand the causes of these behaviours Predict how people and animals will behave under certain conditions Influence or control behaviour through knowledge and controlling the causes in order to enhance human welfare

Neuroscience

Neuroscience focuses on brain processes & regions

Directionality Problem

it is uncertain which variable causes changes in the other e.g. positive correlation between amount of TV watched & number of playground fights in a year Does watching violence on TV cause kids to fight? Or, does fighting wear them out and cause them to watch TV?

Psychodynamic Perspective

looks at causes of behaviour at the unconscious level Method: psychoanalysis, individual interviews Psychoanalysis = analysis of internal, usually unconscious psychological forces Sigmund Freud

Use statistics

helps determine whether small differences are just random fluctuation or "real differences"

Control Group

receives no treatment, drugs, etc... "zero-level" of the independent variable the "nothing" condition

Experimental Groups

receives some treatment, drugs, etc... Can be multiple levels of the experimental condition (e.g. different drugs, different doses, etc)

Inferential Statistics

Also allow us to determine whether differences between groups or levels of the independent variable are "real" and "big enough" differences

Experimental Method Steps

1. Manipulate one (or more) variables Independent variable: any variable that is manipulated by the experimenter Experimenter varies it between people or across time 2. Measure the effect on other variable(s) Dependent variable: the variable that is measured to see if the I.V. influences it. The "outcome" variable - it depends on the I.V. 3. Control extraneous factors Control things that can affect the D.V. other than the I.V.

Code of Ethics for Psychologists

1. Must protect & promote welfare of participants 2. Must avoid doing harm to participants 3. Must not carry out any studies unless the probable benefit is greater than the risk 4. Must ensure privacy and confidentiality 5. Must provide informed consent a) Must explain all aspects of the procedure and make sure that it is understood. b) People can withdraw without penalty c) Parent or guardian consent required for children, others d) Consent given freely (not under coercion)

Correlation Method:

1. Researcher measures one variable e.g. hours of violent TV programs watched per week 2. Researcher measures a second variable e.g. number of playground fights per semester 3. Researcher statistically determines whether the two variables are related

Placebo Effect

A type of research participant bias Placebo: a substance with no pharmacological effect

Gather empirical evidence

Administer the same test to individuals of different ages (or to the same individuals every 5 years)

Applied Science

Applied research is designed to solve specific practical problems Applied research places more emphasis on goal #4 How do we improve reliability of eyewitness testimony? How do we help depressed individuals?

Evolutionary Psychology

Applies the theory of natural selection to behavior Certain heritable traits make us more likely to survive and reproduce. This trait will then become more common over generations Essentially, says humans evolved physically, but also mentally and behaviorally

Measuring Variables: 1. Self-Report and Reports by Others

Ask people to report their own knowledge, beliefs, feelings, experiences, behavior, etc Interviews, questionnaires Hinges on participant's honesty Social Desirability Bias: Tendency to respond in a socially acceptable manner, rather than admitting how one truly feels/behaves

Radical Behaviorism

B.F. Skinner: Radical Behaviorism: Should never resort to internal events (e.g. "thinking" or "feeling") as explanations of behavior Food (stimulus) Eating (response) Can describe, understand, and predict behavior without guessing about animal "feeling hungry" Behavior is governed by lawful principles "A person does not act on the world; the world acts upon him." i.e. past experiences dictate future responses

Basic Science

Basic research is a quest for knowledge purely for its own sake e.g. How accurate are our memories? What factors predict likelihood of depression? etc...

Correlation

Basically, how well can one variable can be predicted by another? e.g. If I know how much (violent) TV a child watches, how well can I guess their aggressiveness?

Behavioral Perspective

Behavioral perspective: emphasizes the study of overt, observable behaviors Directly opposes "mentalism" of structuralism, functionalism, and psychodynamics Someone else's consciousness/mind is not observable, so no way to study it empirically (scientifically)... e.g. can't introspect someone else's mind ...so Psychology should focus only on behavior Our environment (past & present) governs behavior J.B. Watson is the Father of Behavioralism

Levels of Analysis

Biological Level: e.g. brain processes, genetic influences, hormone levels, basic needs Psychological Level: Personal thoughts, feelings, motives Environmental Level: past and current physical and social environment

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking involves taking an active role, rather than simply receiving "facts" When someone makes a claim like this, you should ask yourself: What is the claim, exactly? Are other explanations possible/probable? What empirical tests (if any) have been made? What was the quality of tests? Who did them? Is the source credible or trustworthy? What is the evidence, and how good is it?

Operational Definition

Defines a variable in terms of the specific procedures used to measure (or produce) it Defines how our experiment will observe/measure abstract concepts

Descriptive Research

Describes how people and animals behave (especially in natural settings, 'real life') Methods: Case Studies Naturalistic Observation Survey

Clinical Psychology

Examine mental disorders and help people to overcome these disorders What treatments work best for phobias (irrational fears)? How can we support people with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?

Industrial Organizational Psychology

Examines behavior in the workplace. Focus more on business-related topics e.g. leadership, teamwork, job satisfaction, work motivation, performance, and stress) What kinds of tests will help us identify the best applicant for a job? How can we increase motivation for our employees?

Cross-Cultural Psychology

Examines how culture is passed on, and looks at the similarities and differences between people from different cultural backgrounds

Behavioral Genetics

Examines how genetics can influence behavior e.g. Twin studies Identical twins have identical DNA, but fraternal twins are no more similar than regular siblings Greater behavioral similarities are found for identical twins, even when raised in different homes and dissimilar environments

Developmental Psychology

Examines human physical, psychological, and social development across the entire lifespan How do different parenting styles psychologically affect children? How old does a child have to be before they can reliably be used as a witness in court? How does impulse control change through adolescence and into adulthood? Does mental capacity change in the elderly?

Cognitive Neuroscience

Focus on brain regions involved in different mental tasks Combines Cognitive & Biological

Experimental Psychology

Focuses on basic processes like basic learning, sensation & perception, motivation Much of the research done in this area is with non-human animals (rats, pigeons) Is vision different in animals that live entirely in rooms with horizontal versus vertical stripes? Are phobias caused by classical conditioning?

Evolutionary Psychology

Focuses on how evolution shaped our minds and behaviours (e.g. mate choice, problem solving)

Personality Psychology

Focuses on personality traits Are there core personality traits? e.g. outgoing/shy, conscientious/impulsive, sympathetic/cold...? How do different traits relate to one another? Can we develop tests that measure personality?

Biopsychology

Focuses on the biological basis of behaviour. How brain processes, genes, and hormones influence our actions, thoughts, and feelings What's going on in the brain when someone "hears voices"? Do hormones affect aggression? Ability to think clearly?

Case Study:

In-depth analysis of one individual, a (small) group, or an event Can use any of the methods of measuring variables Advantages: Great for rare phenomena, Can generate new ideas & hypotheses to be tested, Can challenge validity of scientific theories Disadvantages: Not good for Cause & Effect, Specific location of brain damage? or the fact that he got an iron rod to the face? Not Easily Generalized Measurement/Observer Bias

Measuring Variables: 4. Physiological Measures

Includes heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, hormones, brain function, etc... We don't always know what these mean, though e.g. what is the link between heart rate and emotion? is it Love? Fear? Excitement? Stress?

Survey Research

Information is obtained by administering questionnaires, surveys, interviews e.g. Political polls Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected Advantages: Efficient way of collecting lots of data, Can reveal changes in beliefs/habits over time Disadvantages: Cannot determine Cause and Effect, Based on Self-Reports

Radical Behaviorism developed behavior modification techniques

Manipulate the environment to increase positive behaviours and decrease negative ones e.g. Can teach pigeons to play ping-pong!

Philosophy: 1. Mind-Body Dualism

Mind and body are fundamentally different. Mind = immaterial, spiritual entity Body = physical portion (including brain) No research on the brain could ever unravel the mysteries of the non-physical mind René Descartes (1596-1650)

Incomplete Disclosure

Mislead participants about purpose of study Violates ethical principle #5 How can you provide informed consent if you don't know what's going to happen??

Philosophy: 2. Monism

Monism Mind and body (brain) are one Mental events = Brain events Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) British Empiricists Scientific observation is how we gain knowledge John Locke (1632-1704) If the mind and body are one, we can scientifically study the brain/behavior to understand the mind!

Cognitive Behaviorism

More moderate, modern version of behaviorism that continues today Suggested that cognitive processes (thoughts) were not completely off-limits Albert Bandura (1925-) Learning experiences and the environment govern our behavior... ...because they affect our thoughts/expectations the "cognitive" part of "Cognitive Behaviorism"

Experimental Method

One (or more) variables is manipulated to determine if it influences other variables Manipulation makes this the only method that allows for conclusions about causes

Measuring Variables: 2. Measures of Overt Behavior

Record directly-observable behavior Errors in learning a list of words Reaction time to brake (drinking & driving test) How quickly you seek help for someone having a seizure How long an infant stares at something "interesting" Measures of Overt Behavior should be unobtrusive We behave differently when we know we're watched Observer Effect. So researchers can disguise their presence, use hidden camera Habituation may also help: process by which animals eventually ignore researcher presence

Naturalistic Observation

Researcher observes behavior in its natural setting Typically relies on measuring overt behavior Requires an observational record (notes, video...) Advantages: Provides rich description of behavior in "real world" Disadvantages: Not good for Cause & Effect, Too many variables to know, Measurement/Observer bias, Presence of researcher may affect behavior, Possible Anthropomorphic error when researching animals

Measuring Variables: 3. Psychological Measures

Specialized tests that measure different variables e.g. Personality tests "T/F: I prefer to be alone rather than attend social gatherings" This psychological measure may also be considered a special type of Self-Report "What do you see in this (ambiguous) picture?" This is NOT self-report; the person is not telling you directly about themselves or their emotional state e.g. Intelligence Tests We score intelligence based on test performance

Modern Psychodynamic Theory

Still looks at the interaction of the unconscious & conscious mind Less emphasis on childhood sexuality and aggression, more on family/caregiver relationships Sometimes called "Neo-Freudian" Perspective

Cognitive Psychology

Studies "higher" mental processes Memory, judgment & decision making, problem solving, mental imagery, attention, creativity How do I best remember info for a test? Is creativity really a eureka phenomenon? What kinds of mental "short-cuts" do people use when making decisions?

Social Psychology

Studies how people think about, feel about, and behave toward other people Focus on how people influence one another, behave in groups, and form impressions and attitudes Why do we like some people and not others? What are the root causes of racism? What makes a good advertisement?

Systematic observation

Use some sort of specific test that is scored objectively as possibly (e.g. IQ test), in a controlled environment

Confounding Variables

Variables that are intertwined with the IV Prevents us from knowing whether it was the I.V. or the confounding variable that actually caused the effect

Introspection

Wilhelm Wundt invented new method: Introspection ("looking within") Trained people to reflect on own sensations, thoughts His student, Edward Titchener, brought it to the US

Structuralism

Wilhelm Wundt opens 1st Psychology Lab (1879) the mind can be studied by breaking it down into its tiniest components What are the basic elements of consciousness, and how do they combine? Like chemistry's elements, atoms, protons/neutrons/electrons...

Correlation Method

a research technique in which two (or more) variables are measured to determine if they are related in a systematic way We don't manipulate anything!

Correlation Coefficient (r)

a statistical measure of a) the direction of the relationship between 2 variables and b) how strong that relationship is r can be any number from -1.00 to +1.00 Positive vs. Negative numbers tell us the direction of the relationship Positive Correlation: When one variable increases, the other variable tends to increase as well. Also, when one variable decreases, so does the other Negative Correlation: when one variable increases, the other tends to decrease. Or, when one variable decreases, the other increases

Between Subjects Design:

a.k.a. Between Groups Design Different groups of participants are assigned to each "level" of the independent variable e.g. 50% of people control group 50% of people experimental group

Within-Subjects Design

a.k.a. Repeated Measures Design Each participant is exposed to all the levels of the independent variable e.g. test all people talking and not talking on cell

Psycholinguistics

an area within cognitive that studies language processes What is the best way for people to learn to read?

Researcher Bias

changes in participant behavior caused by the unintended influence of researcher

Research Participant Bias

changes in participant behavior caused by the unintended influence of their expectations

Third Variable Problem

correlated variables may both be caused by another, 3rd variable. This leads to spurious (artificial) correlations e.g. the amount of violence watched on TV correlates with the number of playground fights in a year Perhaps the children who fight a lot have a naturally violent temperament. This might cause them to fight a lot AND cause them to be drawn to violent TV shows We cannot know for certain what causes the relationship!

Humanistic Perspective

emphasizes free will, personal growth, and self-actualization Self-actualization: overcoming obstacles to reach one's individual potential Directly opposes the "determinism" of Psychodynamics and Behaviorism

Cognitive Perspective

emphasizes thinking, and mental processes Directly opposes radical behaviorism Humans are "Information Processors" whose behavior is governed by thought Mind is a system that processes, stores, and retrieves information Modern Cognitive Psychology focuses on "higher level" mental processes

Empirical Evidence

evidence gained through experience and observation

Biological Perspective

examines how brain processes, genes, bodily functions, and evolution regulate behavior Behavioral Neuroscience: Examines brain processes underlying behaviour, thoughts, feelings, etc. Karl Lashley Found that lesions (damage) in specific brain regions impaired specific functions (e.g. memory) Suggests that specific areas are specialized for specific functions

Sociocultural Perspective

examines how the social environment and culture influence behavior, thoughts, and feelings Other perspectives usually assume behaviors are more-or-less universal Social Component: How does the presence of other people affect behavior, thoughts, and feelings?

Systemic Evidence

performed consistently, according to specific rules or conditions - so they'll be objective

Functionalism

wanted to describe the adaptive (evolutionary) function of the mind William James (1842-1910) Influenced by Darwin's theory of evolution Stressed how adaptations helped organisms survive and reproduce Method: naturalistic observation