psychology exam four

what are the big five personality traits? why do we believe that they are universal?

(OCEAN) 1. openness to experience 2. conscientiousness 3. extraversion 4. agreeableness 5. neuroticism we believe they are universal bc the same 5 traits emerge in studies of people in different cultures & at different ages

what are examples of psychotropic medications?

- anti-anxiety drugs: xanax, ativan; temporary relief from anxiety. - antidepressants: MAO inhibitors, SSRIs (prozac) - antipsychotics: clozapine, risperdal; used to treat schizophrenia and other disorders that involve psychosis, not always effective

how is treatment effectiveness assessed?

- for medical treatments: need to compare drug effectiveness against a placebo. patients are unaware of placebo. only drugs that out-perform placebos and have acceptable levels of side effects. -for psychotherapy: need a well-designed control condition. results suggest that talking with a therapist who is empathetic is generally helpful.

what approaches are used in psychodynamic therapy, cognitive therapy, behavior therapy, and cognitive-behavioral therapy?

- psychodynamic therapy: helping people understand what happens in their unconscious mind such as understanding your dreams.o -cognitive therapy: treat the behaviors and emotions by addressing distorted patterns of thought. (ex: cognitive restructuring- helping a client identify maladaptive thoughts and replace them with different thoughts that better fit reality) - behavior therapy: exposure therapy for anxiety-producing stimuli (presenting stimuli in the absence of negative consequences) - cognitive-behavioral therapy: MOST COMMON. Very effective for mood/emotion related disorders. (ex: social anxiety disorder- encourage client to reconsider other people's reactions to her; spend time teaching new social skills)

what is electroconvulsive therapy? how might it be used today?

administer electrical current to scalp to produce seizure; still sometimes used to treat severe depression (under anesthesia and muscle relaxants)

described as "psychopath." peaks in late adolescence and improved by age 40. behave in socially undesirable or illegal ways without remorse. very hedonistic; bright & verbally skilled- can talk themselves out of things. have to be 18+ and displayed antisocial behaviors before age 15.

antisocial personality disorder

restlessness, inattentiveness, impulsivity. trouble following directions, maintaining social relationships, must exhibit several symptoms over a prolonged period of time in multiple settings since a young age.

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (adhd)

feelings, opinions, and beliefs about objects, events, ideas, or other people

attitude

explanations for events or actions (including other people's behavior)

attribution

deficits in social interaction; impaired communication; restricted interests. varies in severity of deficits. very routine.

autism spectrum disorder

uses principles of conditioning to encourage the "unlearning" of maladaptive behavior

behavior therapy

You see Jill (age 24) in the emergency room of a hospital where her parents have brought her for evaluation. They are worried because she is giving away all of her possessions and says she is planning to move to Seattle so she can "save the world." Her parents say that she has hardly been sleeping at all, but she seems very energetic. They say she has appeared to be "in a frenzy" lately. When you interview Jill you notice that she speaks very rapidly. It is hard to get her to be quiet long enough for you to ask questions. She seems agitated, and has difficulty sitting still.

bipolar disorder

characterized by extreme variation in mood: extreme depression and mania

bipolar disorder

initially seen as being on border between normal and psychotic; hate to be alone, have fear of abandonment; can be very manipulative and controlling in relationships; emotionally unstable; impulsive

borderline personality disorder

what are the central and peripheral routes to persuasion?

central route: receiver pays careful attention to message; considers all of the relevant information; engages in rational evaluation and leads to stronger attitudes; peripheral routes: receiver pays minimal attention, influenced by aspects of message (attractiveness of person making argument), may lead to impulsive attitude formation, attitudes tend to be weak and are likely to change.

typically have phd or psyd; work in hospitals, private practice, or academic settings

clinical psychologists

uncomfortable mental state resulting from a contradiction between two attitudes or between an attitude and a behavior

cognitive dissonance

helping identify maladaptive thoughts and replace them with different thoughts that better fit reality

cognitive restructuring

premised on distorted thoughts that can produce maladaptive behaviors and emotions

cognitive therapy

negative thoughts about-yourself, situations, and the future

cognitive triad

simultaneously correct distorted ways of thinking and teaching new behaviors

cognitive-behavioral therapy

many psychological disorders frequently occur together, even though they are sen as separate disorders

comorbidity

how stable is personality across lifespan? how and why might it change?

data suggest that personality traits are quite stable across the lifespan. behaviors can change over time based on basic tendencies or characteristic adaptations. change occurs in particular between ages 20 - 40, suggests life events encourage these changes (ex. marriage, children, jobs)

via surgically implanted electrodes; success in treating parkinson's disease

deep brain stimulation

used to protect the mind from this anxiety

defense mechanisms

false beliefs based on incorrect inferences about reality; persist despite the evidence that contradicts the belief

delusions

Morris has been referred to you for psychotherapy following a suicide attempt. When you interview him he is very teary. He speaks slowly and looks down at the ground as he speaks. He reports difficulty in falling asleep and staying asleep for the past month. Morris states that he hasn't had much of an appetite and has lost 15 pounds. He reports that things he used to like just don't seem enjoyable anymore, and he thinks that life is not worth living. Morris doesn't expect things to improve in the future, which is why he tried to kill himself.

depressive disorder

sad, empty, irritable feelings that persist over time. accompanied by bodily symptoms and cognitive problems/interferes with daily functioning. must have experienced major depressive episode: disinterest in things for over 2 weeks. must have other symptoms: loss of energy, change in appetite, loss of life. "common cold" of psychological disorders.

depressive disorder

the inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people as a result of prejudice

discrimination

speaking in an incoherent fashion; involves frequently changing topics and saying strange or inappropriate things

disorganized speech

partly conscious; tries to satisfy the id and superego at once

ego

administer electrical current to scalp to produce seizure

electroconvulsive therapy (ect)

the factors that contribute to the development of a psychological disorder; includes environmental and biological factors

etiology

what sorts of evidence should be considered when making a careful assessment of a psychological disorder?

examination of cognitive, behavioral, or emotional functioning. most effective assessments are evidence based

attitudes that one is aware of having and can report (ex: liking mexican food)

explicit attitudes

presenting stimuli in the absence of negative consequences

exposure therapy

characterized by negative focused outward (includes alcoholism, conduct disorders, antisocial personality disorder)

externalizing disorder

what are potential uses of transcranial magnetic stimulation and deep brain stimulation?

for treating depression and ocd

when evaluating someone else's behavior we overemphasize personality factors and underestimate role of situational behaviors

fundamental attribution

Amy, age 38, is a worrier. She is restless, irritable and has difficulty concentrating. She worries that she worries so much and isn't always sure what it is that she is worried about. She can't let her husband or children leave the house without making them call her regularly to reassure her that they are ok. Her husband is growing weary of her fretting. Her children can't understand what all the fuss is about. Their impatience with her only makes her worry more.

generalized anxiety disorder

anxiety that is diffuse (not focused on specific perceived threat) and is always present; associated symptoms: fatigue, irritability, sleep, headaches, restlessness

generalized anxiety disorder

false perceptions that are experienced without an external source

hallucinations

according to freud's psychodynamic theory, what is the basis of a person's personality?

he described the model of how personality is organized, based on three structures: id, ego, and superego. he says that these structures and how they work together is what determines your personality.

entire unconscious; operates on pleasure principle

id

not consciously held, may conflict with consciously held attitudes, but may influence behavior and evaluations (ex: old people are a drain on resources)

implicit attitudes

what is the diathesis-stress model?

individual has a vulnerability to a psychological disorder- genetic predisposition or childhood trauma/environmental factor. some stressful event or circumstance that can trigger the development of the disorder. encompasses role of both biology and environmental factors.

how do attitudes form?

influenced by experience and it is quicker to form negative attitudes than more positive ones (mere exposure effect)

behavior is determined by both situations and personality dispositions

interactionism

characterized by negative emotion (especially distress and fear) focused inward

internalizing disorder

what is the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (dsm-5)? how does it group different disorders together?

it describes observable symptoms for different disorders and groups similar disorders into categories.

people feel unable to control events in their own lives

learned helplessness

highly elevated mood, accompanied by major increases in energy level and activity

mania

the more one is exposed to something, the greater the liking for it

mere exposure effect

how might parents indirectly influence a child's personality development?

neglect can have substantial effects on personality but specific parenting style is less important. also parents construct the environment in which children develop.

A 26 year old man is very concerned about cleanliness and hygiene. He spends a significant amount of time each day washing his hands or showering, especially after touch a toilet seat, doorknob, or any other item he thinks may be dirty or contaminated. The patient explains that he is concerned about becoming infected or sick from touching these objects. He periodically acknowledges that the washing is excessive but explains that he becomes very anxious when he tries to avoid washing and eventually feels compelled to wash even more to make up for the omission.

obsessive-compulsive disorder

Bert is 40 years old and works on an assembly line in a brush factory. He is terribly afraid of being contaminated by germs. He avoids shaking hands with others. He won't eat in the cafeteria. He has trouble leaving the bathroom because he isn't sure he has washed his hands well enough.

obsessive-compulsive disorder

characterized by unwanted thoughts that lead to emotional distress and anxiety or desire to engage in maladaptive behaviors. the compulsive act reduces anxiety, and that is therefore more likely to happen in the future. common compulsions: cleaning, checking, counting.

obsessive-compulsive disorder

A 35-year-old clothing salesman was showing a particularly fussy customer a suit 2 months ago and suddenly began to sweat profusely. His heart started to pound, he felt dizzy, and became fearful that he was about to die. The customer didn't notice his condition and continued to question him about the suit in minute detail. The patient, feeling faint, abruptly left the customer and went to lie down in the back of the store. The customer became insulted, complained to the manager, and left. When the manager found the patient he was slumped in a chair in the back room trembling. Approximately 10 minutes later the patient's symptoms began to subside. He saw his physician the next day who found no evidence of any medical problems. Two weeks later, he had another similar unexpected attack. Since that time he has worried continuously about having another attack. His friends and colleagues have noticed that he is no longer as spontaneous and outgoing as he had been in the past.

panic disorder

sudden attacks of extreme fear, accompanied by worry about having additional panic attacks. seem to come out of nowhere. associated symptoms: sweating, trembling, increased heart rate, shortness of breath, chest pain, dizziness, numbness in hands/feet

panic disorder

the person is acting that way because of something within them (abilities, traits, mood)

personal attribution

a person's characteristic thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviors

personality

pattern of thought, emotion, or behavior that is relatively consistent across time and situations

personality trait

active and conscious effort to change an attitude through the transmission of a message

persuasion

A 27-year-old, athletic young man has an intense fear of needles. He tries to rationalize his fear by explaining that he is just being cautious and protecting himself from acquired immunodeficiency disease syndrome (AIDS). He realizes that his fear is irrational but is unable to control it. The patient has fainted twice in the past when his blood was drawn during a physical examination. He becomes extremely anxious at the sight of a needle and worries for days before an appointment with his physician or dentist.

phobia

Hannah, age 55, was in a major car accident 20 years ago during a cross country trip. Ever since, she has been unable to drive on major highways. Although she does drive, she goes to great lengths to travel only on back roads and scenic routes. She is able to go where she wants but it often takes her much longer to get there than it should.

phobia

fear of a specific object or situation; fear is exaggerated

phobia

drives a person to seek pleasure and avoid pain

pleasure principle

negative feeling, opinions, or beliefs that are associated with a stereotype

prejudice

in the festinger and carlsmith study, participants performed a boring task and were then paid to lie to the next participant about how much they enjoyed the task. what was the key result of this study?

produced dissonance - the money changed the attitude to reduce the dissonance

behaviors are determined by unconscious wishes, desires, and memories

psychodynamic theory

involved psychoanalysis to identify unconscious conflicts responsible for disorder (freud).

psychodynamic therapy

illness or disorder of the mind

psychopathology

difficulty distinguishing what is real from what is imagined

psychosis

several types, but all involve interactions between practitioner and client. goal is not help client understand problems and provide solutions for them

psychotherapy

frequently used to treat psychological disorders, usually by altering neurotransmitter levels

psychotropic medications

how can one reduce cognitive dissonance?

rationalize or trivialize amount of disagreement, change behavior, change attitude

Raul believes that the mayor of Chicago, Rahm Emanuel, is trying to kill him. Every time Raul sees a Chicago police officer, he runs away in the opposite direction even though he is not breaking any laws and has no warrants out for his arrest. He also believes that Barack Obama wants him dead, and he carefully examines every airplane that he sees in the sky to make sure it isn't Air Force One. When President Obama does come to Chicago, Raul stays in hiding. Black limousines and men in black suits also scare Raul because he associates them with Rahm Emanuel and President Obama. Raul comes across as "crazy" when he is out in public. He is constantly muttering to himself about random topics that don't make any sense whatsoever. He might be talking about sex one second and then pizza or the Vietnam War the next second. His grammar is fine, but the words just don't add up to anything coherent or meaningful; it's pure gibberish. Those who know Raul say that he is pleasant to be around, despite his unusual behavior. They do say, however, that he isn't very "emotional." In fact, he comes across as very deadpan, despite the outlandishness and intensity of his symptoms. He rarely smiles or frowns; his facial expression appears frozen in a neutral position, and his eyes are expressionless. When he looks people in the eye, he does not show the changes in facial musculature that are typically associated with interpersonal communication. This makes him very difficult to read. Despite his lack of expression, on very rare occasions he has told people that he is actually quite miserable and in a lot of emotional pain—he just doesn't show it. Moreover, there have been times when he has felt quite happy, such as when he had a brief romantic relationship in the shelter one winter. But again, he never expressed this happiness verbally or through facial expressions.

schizophrenia

thought disturbance disorder; involves alterations in thoughts, perceptions, or consciousness. devastating disorder for the person afflicted and the family/friends. must exhibit 2 or more symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized behavior, disorganized speech, or negative symptoms

schizophrenia

in the case of a negative outcome (e.g., being late), how do we tend to make attributions. about ourselves and others?

self-attributions tend to focus on situational factors ("i'm late because there was a lot of traffic") -- attributions about others tend to focus on personal factors ("he's late because he didn't plan accordingly and is inconsiderate.")

the person is acting the way because of something external that is influencing them (luck, accidents)

situational attribution

behaviors are determined more by situations than by personality

situationism

A 28-year-old woman is a rising junior executive in her investment company. Her increasing duties require her to make periodic formal presentations to the senior management of the company. However, she becomes intensely anxious at the thought of speaking in public. When she is forced to give a presentation she begins to feel anxious days in advance of the talk and the anxiety increases as the time for the talk approaches. She is concerned that her anxiety will become noticeable during the talk or that she will do something to embarrass herself.

social anxiety disorder

fear of being negatively evaluated by others; manifests as fear of public speaking, speaking up in class, meeting new people, etc. often associated with other disorders

social anxiety disorder

fast, easy processing of social information - a shortcut that bypasses deeper analysis

stereotype

constrain what behavior people will engage in

strong situations

how do strong situations and weak situations determine how personality is expressed?

strong situations minimizes expression of personality differences (ex. funeral) and weak situations personality differences are more likely to be expressed (ex. party)

mostly conscious; acts as a check on the id. internalized standards of conduct. develops in childhood based on parental and societal influences

superego

what is the key criterion for classifying something as a psychological disorder?

the behavior interferes with at least one aspect of the person's life (work, relationships, self-care)

what did freud think was the purpose of defense mechanisms? how do psychologists think about defense mechanisms now?

the defense mechanisms exist because of conflict between the id, ego, and superego and they are. there to protect us from those anxieties. they are now viewed as protecting self-esteem rather than addressing unconscious conflict.

what evidence suggests a genetic or biological component in the development of schizophrenia?

the etiology: more likely to have rare dna mutations with a clear genetic influence. if you are somehow related to someone who has schizophrenia then you are at a heightened risk of having it yourself

what do anxiety disorders have in common? what do depressive disorders have in common?

they are both internalizing disorders

what does science suggest about whether or not vaccines cause autism?

they do not. well studied - no casual link found. claim of a link comes from a single study that was later shown to be fraudulent. and from inability to recognize third variable problems in interpreting correlations. this misinformation has done extraordinary harm.

why do people often rely on stereotypes? why do stereotypes persist?

they persist because bias to pay attention to information that confirms the stereotype; when we meet people who don't fit the stereotype, we make exception for them rather than getting rid of the stereotype

what role do biased thoughts play in depressive disorder? what are examples of types of biased thoughts in depressive disorder?

they see failure as due to personal defects, while success is due to luck. overgeneralize based on single events. ("i am worthless," "the world is unfair," "things won't get better.")

why do people with obsessive- compulsive disorder continuously enact certain behaviors?

to reduce anxiety through performing the compulsive act

how can prejudice be reduced?

training can be effective in reducing the. effect of racial bias as seen in greenwald et al study. we can inhibit stereotypes: when people are aware of stereotypes and motivated to act in non-discriminatory ways, they can do so.

what evidence suggest that personality development is influenced by genetics?

twin studies: compare personality traits of twins; identical shared nearly all of their genes, fraternal twins share only 50% of genes. genetic factors account for 40-60% of variance in personality traits across individuals. adoption studies: compare personality traits of children who are raised together but results showed no more similarities than two strangers.

what are hallucinations like in schizophrenia?

vivid and clear- seem real to the person. typically auditory, but can be visual, olfactory or somatosensory.

fewer constraints on behavior

weak situations