Public Speaking (Chpt 1-8) Study Guide

Use verbal and nonverbal signposts to organize a speech for the ears of others

Various types of signposts can help you communicate your organization to your audience. Signposts include verbal and nonverbal transitions, previews, and summaries.

Feedback

Verbal and nonverbal responses provided by an audience to a speaker

Identify methods of assessing and adapting to your audience's reactions while your speech is in progress.

While speaking, you should look for feedback from your listeners. Audience eye contact, facial expression, movement, and general verbal and nonverbal responsiveness provide clues to how well you are doing. Listeners' nonverbal reactions may indicate that you need to change or adjust your message to maintain interest and achieve your speaking objective.

value

enduring concept of good and bad, right and wrong

situational audience analysis

examination of the time and place of a speech, the audience size, and the speaking occasion in order to develop a clear and effective message

hard evidence

factual examples and statistics

open-ended questions

questions that allow for unrestricted answers by not limiting answers to choices or alternatives

closed-ended questions

questions that offer alternatives from which to choose, such as true/false, agree/disagree, or multiple-choice questions

common ground

similarities between a speaker and audience members in attitudes, values, beliefs, or behaviors

demographics

statistical information about the age, race, gender, sexual orientation, educational level, and religious views of an audience

general purpose

the broad reason of the speech: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain an audience

Definition by classification

A "dictionary definition," constructed by both placing a term in a general class to which it belongs and differentiating it from all other members of that class

Speech act

A behavior, such as flag burning, that is viewed by law as nonverbal communication and is subject to the same protections and limitations as verbal speech

Analogy

A comparison

Figurative analogy

A comparison between two essentially dissimilar things that share some common feature on which the comparison depends

Literal analogy

A comparison between two similar things

Inference

A conclusion based on partial information, or an evaluation that has not been directly observed

Extended illustration

A detailed example

Logic

A formal system of rules used to reach a conclusion

Preliminary bibliography

A list of potential resources to be used in a preparation of a speech

Reciever

A listener or an audience member

Explain five strategies for a methodological research process

A methodological research process includes the following strategies: Develop a preliminary bibliography, locate resources, assess the usefulness of resources, take notes, and identify possible presentation aids.

Develop methods of analyzing your audience before you speak by seeking demographic, psychological, and situational information about your audience and the speaking occasion.

Before your speech, you can perform three kinds of analysis: demographic, psychological, and situational. Demographic analysis assesses audience diversity. Psychological audience analysis helps you gauge the interests, attitudes, beliefs, and values of listeners. Situational audience analysis includes examining the time and place of your speech, the size of your audience, and the speaking occasion.

domain

Category in which a Web site is located on the Internet, indicated by the last three letters of the site's URL

Public speaking - presenting a message to an audience - builds upon other communication skills. Public speaking is similar to conversation in that it requires focus, expression, and adapting to an audience. However, public is more planned, more formal, and has more defined roles for speakers than conversation.

Compare and contrast public speaking and conversation

Supporting material consists of the facts, examples, definitions, statistics, analogies, quotations, and stories that illustrate, amplify, and clarify your speech. (Q-FADESS)

Describe several types of supporting material that could be used to support speech ideas.

The essential aspects of effective delivery include good eye contact with your listeners, varied vocal expression, a volume that can be heard by all, and appropriate gestures and posture that seem natural for the speaker.

Describe the essential elements of effective speech delivery. (Think of elocution)

A central idea states the essence of your speech in a single sentence; think of it as a speech you could give if you were in an elevator going between the first and third floors.

Develop a sentence that captures the central idea of a speech.

Think of your speech as having an introduction that provides an overview of your main points, the body of your speech that presents the key points, and a conclusion that summarizes what you have said.

Develop a speech with three main organizational parts - an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

There are two categories of speech purposes: Your general purpose is the overarching goal of your speech (To inform, persuade, or entertain or some combination of two or all three of these purposes). Your specific purpose is a concise statement indication what you want your listeners to be able to do when you finish your speech.

Differentiate between a general speech purpose and a specific speech purpose.

The study of public speaking goes back more that 2000 years. as you develop your own public-speaking skills, your study will be guided by experience and knowledge gained over centuries of making and studying speeches. Today you are likely to hear speeches presented on TV, YouTube, Skype, or by other video means.

Discuss in brief the history of public speaking

Identify and use strategies for adapting to your audience

Ethical speakers use their audience analysis to adapt their message so that audience members will listen. They first consider their audience; then they adapt their speech goal, speech content, and speech delivery to connect to the audience.

Identify methods of assessing reactions after you have concluded your speech

Evaluate audience reaction after your speech. Again, nonverbal cues as well as verbal ones will help you judge your speaking skill. The best indicator of your speaking success is whether your audience is able or willing to follow your adivce or remembers what you have told them.

Critical listening

Evaluating the quality of information, ideas, and arguments presented by a speaker

Although the US Congress and courts have occasionally limited the constitutional right to free speech, more often they have protected and broad and its application. Freedom of speech has also been upheld by such organizations as the American Civil Liberties Union and by colleges and universities. Social media are a new context for 21st-century challenges to free speech

Explain how free-speech has been both challenged and defended throughout US history

Speaking ethically allows your audience to trust you. Being trustworthy is an important part of being credible, or believable.

Explain the relationship between ethics and credibility.

Your audience influences your topic selection and every aspect of presenting a speech. The audience-centered model of public speaking introduced on page 22 suggests that you should consider the audience each step of the way when preparing and presenting a speech. Gather and analyze as much information as you can about your audience. Be sensitive to the cultural diversity of your audience. The reason you are speaking is to communicate with your audience

Explain why it is important to be audience-centered during each step of the speechmaking process.

Since you are likely to be called on to speak in public at various times throughout your life, skill in public speaking can empower you. It can also help you secure employment or advance your career.

Explain why it is important to study public speaking

Patchwriting

Failing to give credit for compelling phrases taken from another source

Communication Apprehension

Fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication encounters.

List five potential sourced of supporting material for a speech

Five sources of supporting material are personal knowledge and experience, the Internet, online databases, traditional library holdings, and interviews. You may be able to draw on your own knowledge and experience for some supporting material for your speech. Internet resources are accessible through Web searches, bu you must evaluate who is accountable for the sources you find and whether the sources are accurate, objective, current, usable, and sensitive to diversity. Online databases, accessed by library subscription via a networked computer, provide access to bibliographic information, abstracts, and full texts for a variety of resources, including periodicals, newspapers, government documents, and even books. Traditional library holdings include books and other types of reference resources. When conducting an interview, take written notes or audio- or video-record the interview.

Empowerment

Having resources, information, and attitudes that lead to action to achieve a desired goal

>Practicing listening >Work to become an active listener. >"Listen" with your eyes as well as your ears to accurately interpret nonverbal messages and adapt to the speaker's delivery. >Understand your listening style. >Listen mindfully, monitoring your emotional reactions to messages >Avoid jumping to conclusions. >Identify your listening goal >Listen for major ideas. >Re-sort, restate, or repeat key messages. >Be an ethical listener who communicates expectations and feedback. >Remain sensitive to and tolerant of difference between you and the speaker.

Identify and implement strategies for becoming a better listener

>Evaluate the speaker's use of facts, examples, opinions, and statistics as evidence. >Listen critically to separate facts, which can be proven, from inferences >Examine the logic and reasoning leading to the speaker's conclusions. >Use credible arguments and evidence rather than rely on emotional appeals. (FEOS, FvI, L, Emo)

Identify and implement strategies for improving your critical listening and critical thinking skills

Rehearsing your speech several times, in a way that recreates the actual speech presentation experience, will help improve your confidence and enhance your ability to deliver an effective presentation.

Identify successful strategies for rehearsing a speech

Virtually any speech can be organized by answering the following three questions: Does the central idea have logical divisions? What are the reasons the central idea is true? Can you support the central idea with a series of steps?

Identify three strategies for generating the main ideas for a speech.

Facts

Information that has been proven to be true by direct observation

Free speech

Legally protected speech or speech acts

Some of the barriers that keep people from listening at peak efficiency include: (1)information overload (2)personal concerns (3)outside distractions (4)prejudice (5)difference between speech rate and thought rate. (125wpm) (IDPOP)

List and describe five barriers to effective listening.

Speakers who exercise their right to free speech are responsible for tempering what they say by applying ethics. Most people agree that an ethical public speaker should have a clear, responsible goal, use sound evidence and reasoning, be sensitive to and tolerant of differences, be honest, and take appropriate steps to avoid plagiarism in order to be ethical. Accommodation, or sensitivity to differences, leads speakers to demonstrate a willingness to listen to opposing viewpoints and learn about different beliefs and values. The speaker who is sensitive to differences avoids language that might be interpreted as being in any way biased or offensive. Plagiarism is one of the most common violations of speech ethics. You can usually avoid plagiarizing by understanding what it is, doing your own work, and acknowledge -orally, in writing, or both- the sources for any quotations, ideas, statistics, or visual materials you use in a speech. (PHAGE)

List and explain five criteria for ethical public speaking

Critical thinking

Making judgments about the conclusions presented in what you see, hear, and read

Rhetorical strategies

Methods and techniques that speakers use to achieve their speaking goals

Statistics

Numerical data that summarizes facts or samples

List and explain six criteria for determining the best supporting material to use in a speech

Once you have gathered a variety of supporting material, look at your speech from your audience's perspective and decide where an explanation might help listeners understand a point, where statistics might convince them of the significance of a problem, and where an illustration might stir their emotions. Six criteria - magnitude, proximity, concreteness, variety, humor, and suitability - can help you choose the most effective support for your speech.

List and describe five patterns for organizing the main ideas of a speech

Organizing the main ideas of your speech in a logical way will help audience members follow, understand, and remember these ideas. For Noth American audiences, the five most common patterns of organization include topical, chronological, spatial, cause and effect, and problem-solution, These patterns are sometimes combined. Other organizational patterns may be favored in different cultures. The principles of primacy, and recency, and complexity can also help you decide which main idea to discuss first, next, and last.

External Noise

Physical sounds that interfere with communication

Internal Noise

Physiological or phycological interference with communication

Prejudice

Preconceived opinions, attitudes, and beliefs about a person, place, thing, or message

Listening styles

Preferred ways of making sense out of spoken messages

Plagiarizing

Presenting someone else's words or ideas as though they were one's own

Three questions can help you select and narrow your topic: Who is the audience? What are my interests, talents, and experiences? What is the occasion? Answers to the questions can help you select and narrow your speech topic. (Ay! Teo)

Select and narrow an appropriate topic for a speech.

Accommodation

Sensitivity to the feelings, needs, interests, and backgrounds of other people

Like other forms of communication, public speaking is a process. Different theorists have explained the communication process as (1) an action, by which a source transmits a message through a channel to a receiver; (2) an interaction, in which the receiver's feedback and the context of the communication add to the action; (3) a transaction, in which source and receiver simultaneously send messaged to build a shared meaning.

Sketch and explain a model that illustrate the components and the process of communication.

Relational-oriented listener

Someone who is comfortable listening to others express feelings and emotions

Task-oriented listener

Someone who prefers information that is well organized, brief, and precise

Analytical listener

Someone who prefers messages that are supported with facts and details

Critical listener

Someone who prefers to evaluate messages

State a single audience-centered central idea with direct, specific language in a complete declarative sentence.

Specific-purpose statements indicate what speakers hope to accomplish; they tell what the speaker wants the audience to be able to do. Your central idea, in contrast, summarized what you, the speaker, will say. The central idea should be a single idea, states in a complete declarative sentence. Be direct and specific without using qualifiers.

Ethical speech

Speech that is responsible, honest, and tolerant

Opinions

Statements expressing an individual's attitudes, beliefs, or values

Online databases

Subscription-based electronic resources that may offer access to abstracts and/or the full texts of entries, as well as bibliographic data

invention

The ability to develop or discover ideas that result in new insights or new approaches to old problems. The Roman orator, Cicero called this aspect of speaking the process of "finding out what [a speaker] should say."

First Amendment

The amendment to the U.S. Constitution that guarantees free speech; the first of the ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution known collectively as the Bill of Rights

Ethics

The beliefs, values, and moral principles by which people determine what is right or wrong.

Stacks

The collection of books in a library

Message

The content of a speech and the mode of its delivery

Declamation

The delivery of an already famous speech

Context

The environment or situation in which a speech occurs

Elocution

The expression of emotion through posture, movement, gesture, facial expression, and voice.

Evidence

The facts, examples, opinions, and statistics that a speaker used to support a conclusion

disposition

The organization and arrangement of ideas and illustrations.

Primary source

The original collector and interpreter of information or data

Written citation

The presentation in print of such information about a source as the author, title, and year of publication, usually formatted according to the conventional style guide

World Wide Web

The primary information-delivery system of the Internet

Listening

The process by which receivers select, attend to, understand, remember, and respond to senders' messages

Reasoning

The process of drawing a conclusion from evidence

Public Speaking

The process of presenting a message to an audience

Rhetorical criticism

The process of using a method or standards to evaluate the effectiveness and appropriateness of messages

Source

The public speaker

Oral citation

The spoken presentation of such information about a source as the author, title, and year of publication

Rhetoric

The use of symbols to create meaning to achieve a goal

Rhetoric

The use of words and symbols to achieve a goal

Channels

The visual and auditory means by which a message is transmitted from sender to receiver

Understand

To assign meaning to the information to which you attend

Attend

To focus on incoming information for further processing

Respond

To react with a change in behavior to a speaker's message

Remember

To recall ideas and information

Select

To single out a message from several competing messages

Encode

To translate ideas and images into verbal or nonverbal symbols

>An effective speech should be understood by the audience and should achieve the intended goals. >A good speech is also ethical. >When offering feedback, be descriptive, specific, positive, constructive, sensitive, and realistic. >The feedback you give to a speaker should provide information and suggestions the speaker can use. >Use the effectiveness of specific speeches, and identify areas for improvement. (FUGIE) (DiSCeRPS)

Use criteria to effectively and appropriately evaluate speeches

Some beginning public speakers feel nervous at even the thought of giving a speech. Don't be surprised if you feel more nervous than you look to others. Remember that almost every speaker experiences some nervousness and that some anxiety can be useful. Specific suggestions to help you manage your apprehension include being prepared and knowing your audience, imagining the speech environment when you rehearse, and using relaxation techniques such as visualization, deep breathing, and focusing thoughts away from your fears.

Use several techniques to become a more confident speaker.

Explain how to integrate supporting material into a speech.

With your main ideas organized, your next task is to integrate your supporting material into a speech. You can organize the supporting material for each main idea according to one of the five common patterns, or according to such strategies as primacy, recency, specificity, complexity, or soft-to-hard evidence.

Symbols

Words, images, and behaviors that create meaning

List and describe six types of supporting material

You can choose from various types of supporting material, including illustrations, descriptions, explanations, definitions, analogies, statistics, and opinions. A mix of supporting material is more interesting and convincing than the exclusive use of any one type.

Describe informal and formal methods of gathering information about your audience

You can gather information about your audience by informally observing their demographics. Formal surveys, with either open-ended or closed-ended questions, can add more specific information about their opinions.

Explain how to analyze information about your audience

Your audience analysis involves looking at the information you've gathered to find (1) similarities among audience members, (2) differences among audience members, and (3) ways to establish a relationship, or common ground, with listeners.

speaking notes

a brief outline used when a speech is delivered

specific purpose

a concise statement of a desired audience response, indicating what you want your listeners to remember, feel, or do when you finish speaking

brainstorming

a creative problem-solving technique used to generate ideas

preparation outline

a detailed outline of a speech that includes the central idea, main ideas, and supporting material; and that may also include the specific purpose, introduction, conclusion, and references

nonverbal transition

a facial expression, vocal cue, or physical movement that indicates that a speaker is moving from one idea to the next

declarative sentence

a grammatically complete sentence, rather than a clause, phrase, or question

culture

a learned system of knowledge, behavior, attitudes, belief, values, and norms that is shared by a group of people

central idea

a one-sentence statement of what a speech is about

central idea

a one-sentence summary of the speech content

race

a person's biological heritage

sex

a person's biological status as male or female, as reflected in his or her anatomy and reproductive system

summary

a recap of what has been said

internal summary

a restatement in the body of a speech of the ideas that have been developed so far

final summary

a restatement of the main ideas of a speech, occurring near the end of the speech

internal preview

a statement in the body of a speech that introduces and outlines ideas that will be developed as the speech progresses

initial preview

a statement in the introduction of a speech of what the main ideas of the speech will be

preview

a statement of what is to come

specific purpose

a statement of what listeners should be able to do by the end of the speech

transition

a verbal or nonverbal signal that a speaker has finished discussing one idea and is moving to another

verbal transition

a word or phrase that indicates the relationship between two ideas

attitude

an individual's likes or dislikes

belief

an individual's perception of what is true or false

relationship

an ongoing connection you have with another person

recency

arrangement of ideas from the least to the most important

primacy

arrangement of ideas from the most to the least important

complexity

arrangement of ideas from the simple to the more complex

topical organization

arrangement of the natural divisions in a central idea according to recency, primary, complexity, or the speaker's discretion

signposts

cues about the relationships between a speaker's idea

main ideas

detailed points of focus for developing your central idea

demographic audience analysis

examining demographic information about an audience so as to develop a clear and effective message

psychological audience analysis

examining the attitudes, beliefs, values, and other psychological information about an audience in order to develop a clear and effective message

standard outline form

numbered and lettered heading and subheadings arranged hierarchically to indicate the relationships among parts of a speech

spatial organization

organization based on location or direction

chronological organization

organization by time or sequence

problem-solution organization

organization focused on a problem and its various solutions or on a solution and the problems it would solve

cause-and-effect organization

organization that focuses on a situation and its causes or a situation and its effects

soft evidence

supporting material based mainly on opinion or inference; includes hypothetical illustrations, descriptions, explanations, definitions, and analogies

ethnocentrism

the assumption that one's own cultural perspectives and methods are superior to those of other cultures

blueprint

the central idea of a speech plus a preview of the main ideas

gender

the culturally constructed and psychologically based perception of one's self as feminine or masculine

speech topic

the key focus of the content of a speech

main ideas

the key points of a speech

disposition

the organization and arrangement of ideas and illustrations. The process of developing an orderly speech.

general purpose

the overarching goal - to inform, persuade, or entertain

ethnicity

the portion of a person's cultural background that includes such factors as nationality, religion, language, and ancestral heritage, which are shared by a group of people who also share a common geographic origin

audience adaption

the process of ethically using information about an audience in order to adapt one's message so that it is clear and achieves the speaking objective

audience analysis

the process of examining information about those who are expected to listen to a speech

Decode

to translate verbal or nonverbal symbols into ideas and images

mapping

using geometric shapes to sketch how all the main ideas, subpoints, and supporting material of a speech relate to the central idea and to one another

behavioral objective

wording of a specific purpose in terms of desired audience behaviors

Develop a preparation outline and speaking notes for a speech

A preparation outline includes your carefully organized main ideas, subpoints, and supporting material; it may also include your specific purpose, introduction, blueprint, internal previews and summaries, transition and conclusion. Write each of these elements in complete sentences and standard outline form. Use the preparation outline to begin rehearsing your speech and to help you revise it, if necessary. After you have rehearsed several times from your preparation outline, you are ready to prepare speaking notes. Although less detailed than a preparation outline, speaking notes usually include supporting material, signposts, and delivery cues.

Definition

A statement about what a term means or how it is applied in a specific instance

Explanation

A statement that makes clear how something is done or why it exists in its present form or existed in its past form

Operational definition

A statement that shows how something works or what it does

Illustration

A story or anecdote that provides an example of an idea, issue, or problem a speaker is discussing

Working Memory Theory of Listening

A theory that suggests that listeners find it difficult to concentrate and remember when their short-term working memories are full

Code

A verbal or nonverbal symbol for an idea or image

Vertical search engine

A website that indexes World Wide Web information in a specific field

Description

A word picture of something

Write an audience-centered specific-purpose statement for a speech

After choosing a topic, decide on, first, your general purpose and the your specific purpose. Your general purpose for speaking will be to inform, to persuade, or to entertain your listeners. Your specific purpose should state what your audience will do at the end of the speech. Specifying target behaviors n your specific-purpose statement provides a yardstick for you to measure the relevance of your ideas and supporting materials as you develop your speech.

Apply three ways of generating main ideas from a central idea.

After formulating your central idea, use it to generate main ideas. Determine whether the central idea (1) has logical divisions, (2) can be supported by several reasons, or (3) can be traces through a series of steps. These divisions, reasons, or steps become the blueprint, or plan, of your speech. You will preview them in your introduction and summarize them in your conclusion.

Boolean search

An advanced Web-searching technique that allows a user to narrow a subject or key word search by adding various requirements

Credibility

An audience's perception of a speaker as competent, knowledgeable, dynamic, and trustworthy

Hypothetical illustration

An example that might happen but that has not actually occurred

Secondary source

An individual, organization, or publication that reports information or data gathered by another entity

Expert testimony

An opinion offered by someone who is an authority on a subject

Literary quotation

An opinion or description by a writer who speaks in a memorable and often poetic way

Lay testimony

An opinion or description offered by a nonexpert who has firsthand experience

Brief illustration

An unelaborated example, often only a sentence or two long

Critical Thinking

Analyzing information to judge its accuracy and relevance

Select and narrow a topic for a speech that is appropriate to the audience, the occasion, the time limits, and yourself.

As a speaker, you may be asked to address a specific topics or given only broad guidelines, such as a time limit and an idea of the occasion. Being aware of several boundaries can help you select an appropriate speech topic. Keep in mind the interests, expectations, and knowledge levels of the audience. Choose an important topic. Consider the special demands of the occasion. Be sure to take into account your own interests, abilities, and experiences. If you are still undecided, brainstorming strategies, such as consulting the media or scanning the web directories for potential topics, may give you topic ideas. After choosing a broad topic area, narrow the topic so that it fits within the time limits that have been set.